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What is data commununications?

• The word data refers to information presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
Introduction to Data data. It could be text, audio, video etc
• Data communications are the exchange of data between two
Communications devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable or wirelessly.
• For data communications to occur, the communicating
devices must be part of a communication system made up of
a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software
(programs).

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Data Communications Model Communications Model Elements

The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the
exchange of data between two parties. The key elements of this
model are:
a) Source/Sender - generates data to be transmitted
b) Transmitter - converts data into transmittable signals
c) Transmission system - carries data from source to destination.
d) Receiver - converts received signal into data. For
example, a modem will accept an analog signal coming from
a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit
stream.
e) Destination - takes incoming data

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Data Communications Model Data Communications Model

• The process is modeled as follows:
1. User keys in message m comprising bits g buffered in source
PC memory
2. Input data is transferred to I/O device (transmitter) as
sequence of bits g(t) using voltage shifts
3. Transmitter converts these into a signal s(t) suitable for
transmission media being used
4. Whilst transmiting media signal may be impaired so received
signal r(t) may differ from s(t)
5. Receiver decodes signal recovering g’(t) as estimate of
original g(t) which is buffered in destination PC memory as
bits g’ being the received message m’
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Transmission Medium Network

• The transmission medium could be any of the
• Data communications occur over a network.
following:
– Fiber optic
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to
as nodes) connected by communication
– Wireless
links.
– Coaxial cable
– Twisted pair • A node can be a computer, printer, phone or
– Etc
any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on
• Choice depends on distance, capacity or cost the network.
• More on this later
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Types of Networks Personal Area Network

• Personal Area Networks (PAN)
• Local Area Networks (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
• Used for communication among devices (including
telephones and PDAs) close to one person
• Reach is typically a few meters
• Can be used for communication among the personal
devices themselves (intrapersonal communication),
or for connecting to a higher level network and the
Internet (via uplink)
• Example: Bluetooth network

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Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Network

• Covers a local area, like a home, office, or group of
buildings
• Much higher data rates than WANs
• Have smaller geographic range than WANs
• Could be wired or wireless
• Example: network in a university campus eg
university or in a workplace.
• Large, usually spanning a city
• Typically use wireless infrastructure or optical fiber
connections to link their sites
• Might be owned and operated by a single
organization;
• Will often provide means for internetworking of local
networks
• Example: Wimax

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Wide Area Networks Wireless Local Area Networks

• Covers a broad geographical area • The linking of two or more computers using wirless
connection.
• Used to connect LANs together, so that users and • Uses radio communication to accomplish the same
computers in one location can communicate with functionality that a wired LAN has.
users and computers in other distant locations • IEEE 802.11 (WiFi)
• E.g linking different sites of a company or university. • 10-100 Mbps, 1.5km
– 802.11 (1997): upto 2 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
• Largest and most well-known example is the Internet
– 802.11a (1999): upto 54 Mbps, 5 GHz, ~75 feet outdoor
• WANs are most often built using leased lines – 802.11b (1999): upto 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz, ~150 feet indoor, 300
ft outdoor [most popular]
– 802.11g (2003): upto 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz, ~150 feet [backward
compatible with 802.11b]
– 802.11n – 2.4GHz and 5GHz, up to 600Mbps

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Wireless metropolitan area networks

(WMAN) Wireless wide area networks (WWAN)
• Worldwide
• WiMax - IEEE 802.16 • 2G/GSM (Global System for Mobile
• 1.5-20 Mbps, 5-50km communications): 9.6 – 33 kbps
• 3G (“third generation”): 128-384 kbps to 2Mbps
• 4G – Up to 100 Mbps – LTE (Long term evlotion)
– Up to 1Gbps – LTE Advanced

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Comparison of Networks The Internet

Example Protocol Range Bandwidth
(Mbps) • The Internet is a vast collection of different networks
Wired:
that use certain common protocols and provide
LAN Ethernet 1-2 km 10-1000
certain common services.
MAN IP 250 km 1-150
WAN IP routing worldwide .01-600 • Nobody owns the internet.
Internetwork Internet worldwide 0.5-600 • The internet is the “network of networks”
Wireless: worldwide.
WPAN Bluetooth (802.15.1) 10 - 30m 0.5-2
WLAN WiFi (IEEE 802.11) 0.15-1.5 km 2-54
WMAN WiMAX (802.16) 55 km 1.5-20
WWAN GSM, 3G, 4G worldwide 0.01-1000

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Internet Elements Example Configuration

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Internet Architecture Architecture of the Internet

Overview of the Internet architecture

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ISPs The Internet

• An ISP (Internet service provider) is a company that provides individuals • FTTH – Fiber to the home
and other companies access to the Internet • IXP – Internet exchange point - ISPs connect their
• Tier 1 ISPs are large national or international ISPs. networks to exchange traffic at IXPs (Internet exchange
– They are directly connected to the Internet backbone and can be considered part of the Points).
backbone itself.
– They have the highest speed connections and very reliable networks. • DSL – Digital Subscriber Line – Uses telephone line.
– Their customers are either lower-tiered ISPs or large companies that are looking for a
very reliable and fast access to the Internet. • DSLAM – Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer -
• Tier 2 ISPs purchase their Internet service from a tier 1 ISP. converts between signals and packets.
– Tier 2 ISPs tend to cover a specific region. • POP – Point of presence - the location at which customer
– They focus on business customers and have lower quality networks and slower access
than tier 1 ISPs.
packets enter the ISP network
• Tier 3 ISPs also purchase their Internet service from tier 1 ISPs.
– Tier 3 ISPs tend to focus on the retail market, and they also tend to cover a specific
region.
– Network quality and access speed are relatively low

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Internet Exchange Point Peering points

• ISPs connect their networks to exchange traffic at IXPs
(Internet eXchange Points). • Some backbone ISP networks are also connected to one
• Also known as network access point (NAP) another by private switching stations called peering
• The connected ISPs are said to peer with each other. points.
• There are many IXPs in cities around the world. They are
drawn vertically in the figure because ISP networks
overlap geographically.
• A LAN in the room connects all the routers, so packets
can be forwarded from any ISP backbone to any other
ISP backbone.

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Network reference models

• Breaks down network functionality/architecture
into layers
• Defines which functions should be performed at
NETWORK REFERENCE MODELS each layer
• Allows vendors and other organizations to
develop products or standards for the different
layers with no risk of lack of interoperability.
• There are two:
– OSI MODEL – 7 layers
– TCP/IP MODEL – 4 layers

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The OSI Model OSI Layers

• OSI - “ Open Systems Interconnection".
• Contain in 7 different layers that interact with each other.

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Presentation Layer
Application Layer
 This layer provides independence from differences in
• User interacts with the OSI model at this layer through data representation/syntax (e.g., encryption)
applications.  Examples:
• Application layer provides network services to  conversion from ASCII to EBCDIC
applications through different protocols.  Encryption and decryption of data
• The application layer contains a variety of protocols that  Compression and decompression of data
are commonly needed by users.
• Examples: HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, POP3.
• These protocols give end-user applications access to
network resources.
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Session Layer Transport Layer

• Allows applications/processes to establish maintain an
ongoing session.
• The transport layer defines how a given packet gets
• Communication sessions consist of requests and responses
that occur between applications - >Dialogue. delivered to the appropriate process.
• Session layer allows two systems to enter into dialog • Transport layer therefore provides end to end connection
(communication) between processes.
• Also provides dialog control i.e decides whose turn it is to • A process is any instance of a program running on a given
’talk’ (full duplex, half duplex, simpex) device at a given time.
• Example protocols: session control protocol, remote • Depending on the protocol used, it can also ensure reliable
procedure call, zone information protocol, H.323 (for VOIP), data delivery through error detection and correction.
session initiation protocol
• Session layer also provides synchronization – Does
checkpointing of long transmissions to allow them to pick up
from where they left off in the event of a crash and
subsequent recovery
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Transport Layer: Ports Transport layer: Ports

• To allow information to be delivered to the appropriate • Each host (e.g computer) has 65,536 ports.
process, we must have some way of identifying that • Different applications have different port numbers:
processes. • 20,21: FTP
• 23: Telnet
• There needs to be an addressing system used to • 80: HTTP
distinguish different processes on the same device and/or • Ports are used for multiplexing and demultiplexing at the
attached to the same network interface. transport layer
• Ports are used for this purpose.
Port 0
Port 1

Port
65535

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Figure: Transport layer

Transport layer: Socket

• Socket -> IP address + port number
• Much like one end of a telephone connection is the
combination of a phone number and a particular extension.
• Based on this address, internet sockets deliver incoming data
packets to the appropriate application process at the right
destination device.

The transport layer is responsible for

the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
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Transport
layer:Multiplexing/demultiplexing Transport layer protocols
Demultiplexing at rcv host: Multiplexing at send host:
gathering data from multiple
delivering received segments
sockets, enveloping data with
• There are two protocols
to correct socket
header (later used for – Transport Control Protocol(TCP)
demultiplexing)
= socket = process – User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

application P3 P1
P1
application P2 P4 application

transport transport transport

network network network

link link link

physical physical physical

host 2 host 3
host 1
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Transport layer: TCP TCP Connection Establishment

• TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
• Connection-oriented and reliable.
• Connection oriented – Connection has to be established
before data can be sent.
• TCP is reliable because it provides flow control and error
control
• Used for transfers that require numerous packets to be
integrated properly and seamlessly (no errors).
Protocols that use TCP are:
– HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
– Telnet
– SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
– FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
This process is also known as TCP handshaking – three way handshake.

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Transport layer: UDP Network Layer

• UDP – User Datagram Protocol
• Connectionless and unreliable • Provides network-wide addressing and a mechanism to
• Connectionless – Connection establishment not necessary move packets between networks (routing)
before data can be sent. • Responsibilities:
• Used primarily for short, simple transmissions e.g DNS, SMNP – Network addressing – IP addressing
(simple network management protocol) – Routing-deciding which path a packet will take from
source to destination.
• Example protocol:
– IP from TCP/IP
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Network layer
Transport vs. network layer
• Network layer: logical
communication
(connection) between hosts
• Transport layer: logical
communication between
processes
– Relies on, enhances, network
layer services
The network layer is responsible for
the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Household analogy:
12 kids sending letters to 12
kids
• Processes = kids
• App messages = letters in
envelopes
• Hosts = houses
• Network-layer protocol =
postal service – delivers
message to host.
• Transport protocol = ann and
bill – delivers message to
correct recipient (kid)

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Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

• Media access control (decides which host will
send data via a shared medium)
• Places data and retrieves it from the physical
layer
• Provides error detection and correction
capabilities.

The data link layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
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Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer Physical Layer

a) MAC (Media Access Control) • Determines the specification for all physical components
– Gives data to the NIC – Transmission medium e.g wireless, fiber, coaxial, twisted pair
– Cable specifications, cable connectors, connectors pin layout
– Controls access to the shared media through:
– Data encoding (bits to waves) - modulation or demodulation
• CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection
– Electrical properties
• Token passing
• Example protocols (layer 1 and 2 ):
b) LLC (Logical Link Layer) – Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
– The Logical Link Control layer controls frame – Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
synchronization, flow control and error checking. – Wireless (IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n)
• Flow control – matching data rate of sender and receiver e.g
slowing down transmitter if too fast for receiver
• Synchronization – order of frames according to seq. number.
• Error detection and correction - Can detect some transmission
errors. If the packet is ‘bad’ the LLC will request the sender to
resend that particular packet.
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Physical Layer Physical Layer (cont’d)

• What are the Physical Layer components on my computer?
a) NIC
• Network Interface Card
• Has a unique 12 character Hexadecimal number permanently
burned into it at the manufacturer.
• The number is the MAC Address/Physical address of a
computer
b) Cabling
The physical layer is responsible • Twister Pair
• Fiber Optic
for the movement of individual bits • Coax Cable
from one hop (node) to the next.
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How Does It All Work Together

Data Encapsulation In TCP/IP
• Each layer contains a Protocol
Data Unit (PDU) • At each layer in the TCP/IP protocol stack outgoing data is
– PDU’s are used for peer-to-peer packaged and identified for delivery to the layer
contact between corresponding
layers. underneath
– Data is handled by the top three • PDU – Packet Data Unit – the “envelop” information
layers, then Segmented by the attached to a packet at a particular TCP/IP protocol by
Transport layer. adding a header and/or trailer
– The Network layer places it into
packets and the Data Link frames the
packets for transmission.
– Physical layer converts it to bits and
sends it out over the media.
– The receiving computer reverses the
process using the information
contained in the PDU.
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Encapsulation example: E-mail Encapsulation

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Figure 2.3 An exchange using the OSI model Figure 2.14 Summary of layers

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TCP/IP Model
Remembering the 7 Layers
7 - Application All • Developed in the the late-60s
6 - Presentation People • The Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
5 - Session Seem
originally developed Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to interconnect
4 - Transport To
various defense department computer networks.
3 - Network Need
• DARPA an agency of the U.S. Department of Defense
2 - Data Link Data
• Has four layers.
1 - Physical Processing

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4 layers of the TCP/IP model The network access layer

• Concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet
• Layer 4: Application requires to actually make the physical link.
• Layer 3: Transport • All the details in the OSI physical and data link
• Layer 2: Internet layers:
• Layer 1: Network access – Electrical and mechanical specifications.
– Physical connectors
– Framing of data and physical (MAC) addressing.
It is important to note that some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the
same name as layers in the OSI model. – Synchronization, flow control, error control.
Do not confuse the layers of the two models.

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The internet layer Transport layer

• Send source packets from any network on the
• Allows end-to-end communication
internetwork and have them arrive at the
• Connection establishment, error control, flow control
destination independent of the path and networks
• Two main protocols at this level
they took to get there.
– Transmission control protocol (TCP),
– Packets, logical addressing. • Connection oriented
– Internet protocol (IP). – Connection established before sending data
– Reliable
– Routing: routing table, routing protocol. – user datagram protocol (UDP)
• Connectionless
– Sending data without establishing connection
– Fast but unreliable

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The application layer TCP/IP Reference Model

• Handles high-level protocols, issues of representation,
Layer Protocols
encoding, and dialog control.
Application HTTP TELNET FTP SMTP SNMP
• The TCP/IP combines all application-related issues into one
layer, and assures this data is properly packaged for the next Transport TCP UDP
layer.
– Example protocols: FTP, HTTP, SMNP, DNS Internet IP ICMP
– Format of data, data structure/syntax, encode
Network Access
– Dialog control, session management ETHERNET WiFi
(Host-to-network)

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Protocols at the application layer Protocols at the transport layer

• HTTP: • Transmission control protocol (TCP),
– browser and web server communication
• FTP : – Connection oriented
– file transfer protocol » Connection established before sending data
• TELNET:
– remote login protocol
» Reliable
• POP3: Retrieve email • user datagram protocol (UDP)
– POP3 is designed to delete mail on the server as soon as the user has
downloaded it – Connectionless
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol ) » Sending data without establishing
– Retrieve emails, connection
– retaining e-mail on the server and for organizing it in folders on the
serve » Fast but unreliable

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Protocol at the network layer Protocols at the link layer

• IP • Ethernet
– Path selection – Uses CSMA/CD
– routing and addressing • Token Ring
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol )
– sends error messages relying on IP
• a requested service is not available
• a host or router could not be reached

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Comparing TCP/IP with OSI

Data Formats OSI Model TCP/IP Hierarchy Protocols

7th
Application Layer
6th
application Presentation Layer Application
layer Application data message Layer
5th
Session Layer
4th
Transport Layer
transport TCP TCP TCP
segment
Transport Layer
layer header data header data header data 3rd
Internet Layer
Network Layer
2nd
Internet IP TCP
packet
Link Layer
layer header header data 1st
Network Access
Layer
Physical Layer

Network Ethernet IP TCP Ethernet

frame
Access header header header data trailer Network Access : includes device driver and network interface card
Internet: : handles the movement of packets, i.e. Routing
Transport : provides a reliable flow of data between two hosts
Application : handles the details of the particular application

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Transmission Medium and Physical

Layer

Transmission Media

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Analog vs Digital Signals Data Modulation

• Information transmitted via analog or digital signals
• In analog signals, voltage varies continuously and
appears as a wavy line when graphed over time
• Digital signals composed of pulses of precise
(discrete), positive voltages and zero voltages

An information signal/wave modified through modulation.

It is mixed with a carrier at a specific frequency.
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Transmission Direction Transmission Direction

• Simplex transmission: signals may travel in only one
direction
• Half-duplex transmission: signals may travel in both
directions over a medium
– Only one direction at a time
• Full-duplex or duplex: signals free to travel in both
directions over a medium simultaneously

Simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex communication

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Multiplexing Relationships Between Nodes

• Multiplexing: Allowing multiple signals to travel
simultaneously over one medium
– Channel logically separated into sub-channels either by time,
frequency or code
• Multiplexer (mux): combines multiple signals
– Sending end of channel
• Demultiplexer (demux): separates combined signals and
regenerates them in original form
– Receiving end of channel

Point-to-point versus broadcast (point to multipoint) transmission

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Throughput vs Bandwidth Baseband vs Bandpass

• Throughput: measure of amount of data transmitted during
given time period – bits/s e.g kbps, mbps
• Bandwidth: difference between highest and lowest
frequencies that a medium can transmit. Measured in Hz e.g
KHz, MHz
• Baseband: digital signals sent through direct current (DC)
pulses applied to a wire
– Requires exclusive use of wire’s capacity
– Baseband systems transmit one signal at a time
– E.g ethernet cables, coaxial
• Broadband/Bandpass/Passband: signals modulated as
radiofrequency (RF) analog waves that use different frequency
ranges e.g wireless signals

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Transmission Flaws: Noise Signal distortion and use repeater

• Noise – unwanted signal. Examples:
– Electromagnetic interference (EMI): waves emanating
from electrical devices or cables
– Radiofrequency interference (RFI): electromagnetic
interference caused by other radiowaves
An analog signal and distorted by noise and then amplified.
– Crosstalk: signal traveling on a wire or cable infringes on Amplifier will amplify both noise and signal
signal traveling over adjacent wire or cable
– Certain amount of signal noise is unavoidable
– All forms of noise measured in decibels (dB) -
10log10(P1 / P0), 10log10(S / N), S – signal, N - noise

A digital signal distorted by noise and then boosted by repeater

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Latency, Round Trip time,

Common Media Characteristics:
Attenuation
• Latency: Delay between transmission and receipt of a signal • Throughput
– Many possible causes:
• Cable length • Cost
• Intervening connectivity device (e.g., modems and routers)
• Noise immunity
• Round trip time (RTT): Time for packets to go from sender to
receiver and back
• Attenuation – reduction in signal strength as a signal travels
across a transmission medium

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Common Media Characteristics:

Throughput
Cost
• Depends on transmission medium. • Different transmission medium will have different cost of
• Transmission methods using fiber-optic cables achieve faster installation
throughput than those using copper or wireless connections • Fiber optic cable infrastructure rollout more expensive that
because fiber optic cables have bigger bandwidth twisted pair cable
• Noise and number of devices connected to transmission
medium also affect throughput.
• The more the devices sharing a medium, the less the
throughput.
• Noise reduces throughput.

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Noise Immunity Classes of transmission media

• Some types of media are more susceptible to noise than
others:
– Fiber-optic cable least susceptible
• It is therefore important to install cables away from powerful
electromagnetic forces
– May need to use metal conduit to contain and protect signal from
interfering signals

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Coaxial Cable (or Coax) Coaxial Cable

• Used for cable television, LANs, telephony
• Has an inner conductor surrounded by a braided mesh

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Coax Layers Coax Advantages

outer jacket • High bandwidth
(polyethylene) – 400 to 600Mhz
shield – up to 10,800 voice conversations
(braided wire) • Can be tapped easily (pros and cons)
• Much less susceptible to interference than twisted pair cable
insulating material

copper or aluminum
conductor

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Coax Disadvantages Twisted Pair Cable

• High attenuation rate makes it unsuitable for long

distance data transmission
– Attenuation is reduction in signal strength
• Bulky

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Twisted-Pair Cable STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair)

• Color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together
• Most common form of cabling found on LANs today
• Twist ratio: twists per meter or foot
– Higher twist ratio reduces crosstalk but increases attenuation
• TIA/EIA 568 standard divides twisted-pair wiring into several
categories
– Level 1 or CAT 3, 4, 5, 5e, 6, 6e, 7
– TIA – Telecommunication industry association, EIA – Electronics
industry association

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UTP (Unshielded Twisted-Pair)

• Less expensive, less resistant to noise than STP
• Categories:
– CAT 3 (Category 3): up to 10 Mbps of data
– CAT 4 (Category 4): 16 Mbps throughput
– CAT 5 (Category 5): up to 1000 Mbps throughput
– CAT 5e (Enhanced Category 5): higher twist ratio
– CAT 6 (Category 6): six times the throughput of
CAT 5
– CAT 6e (Enhanced Category 6): reduced attenuation and crosstalk

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Twisted Pair Advantages Twisted Pair Disadvantages

• Inexpensive and readily available • Susceptibility to interference and noise for UTP
• Flexible and light weight • Attenuation problem – repeater required every 100m.
• Easy to work with and install

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Comparing STP and UTP Fiber-Optic Cable

• Transmit data as a light signal
• STP – Shielded twisted pair, UTP – unshielded twisted pair
• Contains glass or plastic fibers at core surrounded by layer of
• Throughput: STP and UTP can both transmit data at 10, 100, glass or plastic cladding
and 1000 Mbps – Reflects light back to core
– Depending on grade of cabling and transmission method used
• Cost: STP usually more expensive than UTP
• Connector: Both use RJ-45 and RJ-11
• Noise Immunity: STP more noise-resistant
• Size and scalability: Max segment length for both is 100 m on
10BASE-T and 100BASE-T networks

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Fiber-Optic Cable Fiber-Optic Cable

Electrical to optical conversion at sender using LED

Optical to electrical conversion at receiver using a photodetector

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Fiber Optic Types

• Multimode step-index Optical Fiber characteristics
fiber
– the reflective walls of
the fiber move the • Benefits over copper cabling:
light pulses to the – Nearly unlimited throughput
receiver
– Very high resistance to noise
• Multimode graded-
– Excellent security
index fiber
– acts to refract the – Ability to carry signals for much longer distances before requiring
light toward the repeaters than copper cable
center of the fiber by – Industry standard for high-speed networking
variations in the
density
• Single mode fiber
– the light is guided
down the center of
an extremely narrow
core

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Optical Fiber Characteristics Wireless Transmission

• Throughput: transmission rates exceed 10 Gigabits per second • Networks that transmit signals through the atmosphere via
• Cost: most expensive transmission medium infrared or RF waves are known as wireless networks.
• Noise immunity: unaffected by EMI
• Size and scalability: segment lengths vary from
150 to 40,000 meters
– Optical loss: degradation of light signal after it travels a certain
distance away from its source
– Very minimal loss

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Sky wave vs ground wave, Line of Table: Frequency Bands

Band Range Propagation Application
sight VLF 3–30 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation
Radio beacons and
LF 30–300 KHz Ground
navigational locators
MF 300 KHz–3 MHz Sky AM radio
Citizens band (CB),
HF 3–30 MHz Sky
ship/aircraft communication
Sky and VHF TV,
VHF 30–300 MHz
line-of-sight FM radio
UHF TV, cellular phones,
UHF 300 MHz–3 GHz Line-of-sight
paging, satellite

SHF 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite communication

EHF 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Long-range radio navigation

L – low, H – High, E – Extremely, S – Super, V- Very, U- Ultra, F- Frequency

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Characteristics of Wireless Transmission Antennas

• Antenna converts electrical energy into electromagnetic
energy and vice versa.
• Antennas can be classified into two according to the radiation
pattern:
• Directional antenna issues wireless signals along a single direction
• Omnidirectional antenna issues and receives wireless signals with
equal strength and clarity in all directions

Figure: Wireless transmission and reception

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Antennas Antennas

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Wireless Examples Terrestrial Microwave

• Terrestrial microwave • Used for long-distance transmission
• Uses radio frequency spectrum, from 2 to 40 Ghz
• Satellite microwave
• Parabolic dish transmitter, mounted high
• Broadcast radio • Requires unobstructed line of sight between source and
• Infrared receiver
• Curvature of the earth requires stations (repeaters) ~30 miles
apart

45 46

Microwave Transmission Satellite

Disadvantages Microwave Transmission
• Line of sight requirement • A microwave relay station in space
• Expensive towers and repeaters • Can relay signals over long distances, across continents
• Subject to interference such as passing airplanes and rain • Geostationary satellites
– Remain above the equator at a height of 22,300 miles
(geosynchronous orbit)
– Travel around the earth in exactly the time the earth takes to rotate

47 48

8
ECCI 2105 / ECSI 2208 19/04/2021

Satellite Transmission Links Satellite Transmission Applications

• Earth stations communicate by sending signals to the satellite • Television distribution
on an uplink – A network provides programming from a central location
• The satellite then repeats those signals on a downlink – Direct broadcast satellite (DBS)
• The broadcast nature of the downlink makes it attractive for • Long-distance telephone transmission
services such as the distribution of television programming – High-usage international trunks
• Private business networks

49 50

Fiber vs Satellite Radio

• Radio is a general term often used to encompass frequencies
in the range 3 khz to 300 Ghz.
• Microwave: 300 MHz – 300GHz
• Mobile telephony occupies several frequency bands just
under 1 Ghz.

51 52

Infrared
• Uses transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that modulate
noncoherent infrared light.
• Transceivers must be within line of sight of each other
(directly or via reflection ).
• Unlike radio waves, infrared does not penetrate walls.
• Example use: TV remote control

53

9
 19/04/2021

Transmission Types and

Transmission Types
Multiplexing

6.1 2

TRANSMISSION MODES
Data transmission modes
• The transmission of binary data across a
link can be accomplished in either parallel
or serial mode
mode..
• In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with
each clock tick
tick..
• In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock
tick..
tick
• While there is only one way to send parallel
data, there are two subclasses of serial
transmission: asynchronous and
synchronous..
synchronous
3 4

Parallel transmission Serial transmission

• While there is only one way to send parallel data,

there are two subclasses of serial transmission
transmission::
asynchronous and synchronous
synchronous..

5 6

1
 19/04/2021

Asynchronous Transmission
Figure 4 Asynchronous transmission
• In asynchronous transmission, we
send 1 start bit(s) (0) at the beginning
and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the end
of each byte.
• In addition to the control data small
gaps are inserted between each
chunk to distinguish each group.
• Slower data rate

7 8

Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission
• In synchronous transmission, we send bits one
after another without start or stop bits or gaps.
• Synchronous transmission sends data as one long
bit stream or block of data.
• Each bit is sent one after the other.
• It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the
bits.
• The receiver counts the bits and reconstructs
bytes.
• Needs clock signal between the sender and the
receiver

9 10

Synchronous Transmission
Synchronous transmission
• It is essential that timing is maintained between
sender and receiver as there are no start and stop
bits and no gaps.
• Needs clock signal between the sender and the
receiver
• Requires master/slave configuration. The master
provides the timing signal.
• Faster data rate compared to asynchronous
transmission as there are no start and stop bits

11 12

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 19/04/2021

Example - Synchronous Examples - Asynchronous

• Router synchronous serial interface
• RS-422 interfaces
• RS232
– One of the most popular protocols for
communication between computers and
peripheral devices, such as modems, keyboard,
and printers, is the asynchronous RS-232 protocol.
– Commonly known as UART

6.13 6.14

MULTIPLEXING

• Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two

devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared
shared..
Multiplexing • Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
(simultaneous) transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link
link..

6.15 16

Categories of multiplexing Figure 3 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

• FDM is possible when the useful bandwidth of the

transmission medium exceeds the required bandwidth of
signals to be transmitted.
• A number of signals can be carried simultaneously if each
signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency and the
carrier frequencies are sufficiently separated that the
bandwidths of the signals do not significantly overlap

17 18

3
 19/04/2021

FDM Figure 4 FDM process

FM

6.19 20

Figure 5 FDM demultiplexing example Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• The true potential of optical fiber is fully
exploited when multiple beams of light at
different frequencies are transmitted on the
same fiber.
• This is a form of frequency division multiplexing
(FDM) but is commonly called wavelength
division multiplexing (WDM).
• With WDM, the light streaming through the fiber
consists of many colors, or wavelengths, each
carrying a separate channel of data.

21 6.22

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.

23 24

4
 19/04/2021

Wavelength Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• A number of sources generate a laser beam at different

wavelengths.
• These are sent to a multiplexer, which consolidates the
sources for transmission over a single fiber line.
• Optical amplifiers, typically spaced tens of kilometers
apart, amplify all of the wavelengths simultaneously.
• Finally, the composite signal arrives at a demultiplexer,
where the component channels are separated and sent
to receivers at the destination point.

6.25 26

Synchronous time-division multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing

• Time division multiplexing is possible when the
achievable data rate of the medium exceeds the
data rate of digital signals to be transmitted.
• Combines several low-rate digital channels into one
high-rate one.
• Multiple digital signals (or analog signals carrying
digital data) can be carried on a single transmission
path by interleaving portions of each signal in time.
• The data are organized into frames. Each frame
In synchronous TDM, the data rate contains a cycle of time slots. In each frame,
of the link is n times faster than then one or more slots are dedicated to each data
source.
data sources.
27 6.28

Time Division Multiplexing

• The data are organized into frames.
• Each frame contains a cycle of time slots.
• In each frame, one or more slots are dedicated to
each data source.

6.29

5
 25/04/2021

Review of Link Layer

Terminology:
 Hosts and routers: nodes
global ISP
 Communication channels that
MAC Protocols and LAN connect adjacent nodes along
communication path: links
Technologies  wired links
 wireless links
 Layer-2 packet: frame,
encapsulates datagram

data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node
to physically adjacent node over a link
1 5-2

Link Layer Services

• Framing (Frame structure)
– encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer
• Link Access (The protocol):
– Addressing: MAC Protocols
Introduces “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to
identify hosts (actually NICs) who are part of the network.
– Channel Access:
Defines the set of rules which allows the hosts to use the
(possibly shared) medium.
• Others: Flow control, error control

3 4

Multiple Access Protocols MAC Protocol Types

Three broad classes:
• Single shared broadcast channel
• Channel Partitioning
• Two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: – Divide channel into smaller “pieces” (Time-Slots, Frequency-Bands or
interference by code).
– Allocate piece to a node for exclusive its use.
– Collision if node or channel receives two or more signals at
– Examples: TDMA, FDMA, CDMA
the same time
• Random Access
Multiple/Media Access Control (MAC) Protocol – Channel not divided, any node can transmit at any time.
• Distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share – Allow collisions , then “recover” from collisions.
channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit – Examples: CSMA, ALOHA
• “Taking turns”
– Nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take longer turns.
– Might use a master/leader to coordinate the turns.
– Example: Token passing, polling

5 6

1
 25/04/2021

Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: Channel Partitioning MAC protocols:

TDMA FDMA
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) FDMA (Frequency
• Access the channel in "rounds“. Division Multiple
• Each station gets fixed length slot (length = packets transmission time) Access)
in each round. • Channel spectrum
• Each slot called a Time-Slot. divided into
frequency bands.
• Unused slots go idle.
• Each station assigned
• Example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packtes, slots 2,5,6 idle
fixed frequency band.

frequency bands
• Unused transmission
time in frequency
bands go idle.
• Example: 6-station
LAN, 1,3,4 have
packets, frequency
bands 2,5,6 idle

7 8

Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: CDMA

• Code division multiple access (CDMA)

• Used in several wireless broadcast channels (cellular,
satellite, etc) standards
• Unique “code” assigned to each user; i.e., Code set
partitioning
• All users share same frequency, but each user has own
“chipping” sequence (i.e., Code) to encode data
• Encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping sequence)
• Decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and
chipping sequence
• Allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit
simultaneously with minimal interference (if codes are
“orthogonal”)
9 6.10

Random Access MAC Protocols CSMA/CD

• When node has packet to send
– Transmit at full channel data rate R. • No slots • Before attempting a
– No a priori coordination among nodes • Adapter doesn’t transmit if it retransmission, adapter
• Two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision”. senses that some other waits a random time, that
• Random access MAC protocol specifies: adapter is transmitting, that is, random access
– How to detect collisions is, carrier sense
– How to recover from collisions. • Transmitting adapter aborts
• Examples of random access MAC protocols: when it senses that another
– Pure ALOHA. adapter is transmitting, that
– Slotted ALOHA. is, collision detection
– CSMA/CD (Ethernet).
– CSMA/CA (Wireless e.g WiFi).

11 12

2
 25/04/2021

“Taking turns” MAC protocols “Taking turns” MAC protocols

Channel partitioning MAC protocols: polling:
– Share channel efficiently and fairly at high load • master node “invites”
– Inefficient at low load: 1/N bandwidth allocated even slave nodes to transmit data
poll
if only 1 active node! in turn
Random access MAC protocols • concerns: master
data
– Efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize – polling overhead
channel – single point of
– High load: collision overhead failure (master) slaves
“Taking turns” protocols • Example usage:
Look for best of both worlds!
Bluetooth
6.13 6.14

“Taking turns” MAC protocols Summary of MAC protocols

• What do you do with a shared media?
token passing:
T – Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or code
 control token passed
from one node to next • Time Division, Frequency Division, Code Division
sequentially. – Random access/partitioning (dynamic),
 token message • ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
(nothing
 concern: to send) • carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard
 single point of failure T in others (wireless)
(token) • CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
• CSMA/CA used in 802.11 (Wireless).
– Taking turns:
• Polling
• Token passing
data
5-15 16

Ethernet
• Widely used LAN technology
• First network to provide CSMA/CD
• Developed in 1976 by Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research
Center) in cooperation with DEC and Intel
LAN Technologies • Can support data rates in the range of 10Mbps- 10 Gbps
• Used with a bus or star topology
•Ethernet
•FDDI
•Token Ring

17 18

3
 25/04/2021

Ethernet: physical topology Ethernet: MAC Protocol

• Bus: popular through mid 90s
– All nodes in same collision domain (can collide with each
other) • Media Access Control (MAC) protocol required.
• Star: prevails today
– Active switch in center • MAC protocol: Rules on how to share medium
– Nodes do not collide with each other – nodes are in • Ethernet’s MAC protocol: CSMA/CD
different collision domains
• Hub: physically star connection but logically bus connection • Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD).
o CS = carrier sense
o MA = multiple access
o CD = collision detection

switch
star
19 20

LAN Technologies LAN Technologies

Ethernet Technology Options

Ethernet
• Ethernet • 10 mbps
• Fast Ethernet • Physical Media :-
• Gigabit Ethernet • 10 Base5 - Thick Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
• 10 Base2 - Thin Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
• 10 Gig Ethernet
• 10 BaseT - UTP Cat 3/5
• Base Ethernet standard is 10 Mbps. • 10 BaseFL - Multimode/Singlemode Fiber
• 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps standards came later • Maximum Segment Length
• 10 Base5 - 500 m with at most 4 repeaters
• 10 Base2 - 185 m with at most 4 repeaters
• 10 BaseT - 100 m with at most 4 hubs

21 22

LAN Technologies LAN Technologies

Fast Ethernet Fast Ethernet

• 100 Mbps bandwidth • Provision for Auto-Negotiation of media speed:
10 Mbps or 100Mbps (popularly available for copper media
• Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol and packet only).
format as in Ethernet.
• Maximum Segment Length
• 100BaseTX (UTP) and 100BaseFX (Fiber) standards • 100 Base TX - 100 m
• Physical media :- • 100 Base FX - 2 Km (Multimode Fiber)
• 100 BaseTX - UTP Cat 5e • 100 Base FX - 20 km (Singlemode Fiber)
• 100 BaseFX - Multimode / Singlemode Fiber
• Full Duplex/Half Duplex operations.

23 24

4
 25/04/2021

LAN Technologies LAN Technologies

Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gig Ethernet

• 1 Gbps bandwidth. • 10 Gbps bandwidth.
• Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in Ethernet • Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in Ethernet.
and is backward compatible (10/100/100 modules are
available). • Maximum Segment Length
• 1000BaseT (UTP), 1000BaseSX (Multimode Fiber) and • 1000 Base-T - Not available
1000BaseLX (Multimode/Singlemode Fiber) standards.
• 10GBase-LR - 10 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
• Maximum Segment Length
• 10GBase-ER - 40 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
• 1000 Base T - 100m (Cat 5e/6)
• 1000 Base SX - 275 m (Multimode Fiber)
• 1000 Base LX - 512 m (Multimode Fiber)
• 1000 Base LX - 20 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
• 1000 Base LH - 80 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
25 26

Token Ring (IEEE 802.5 )

• Token ring : a number of stations connected by
transmission links in a ring topology.
Token Ring • Medium access control is provided by a small
frame, the token, that circulates around the ring
when all stations are idle.
• Only the station possessing the token is allowed
to transmit at any given time.

27 28

Token Ring Network

with star topology Token Ring Operation
• Each station interrogates passing frame, if destined
for station, it copies the frame into local buffer.
A
• Token released after the transmission ends.
• Token can then be picked by another station that
Wiring center
wants to transmit.
• Token ring is obsolete
E

D
C

29 30

5
 25/04/2021

FDDI

FDDI
E
B

C D
31 32
Copyri ght ©2000 The McGra w Hi l l Companies Leon-Garcia & Wi djaja: Communication Networks Fi gure 6.62

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

• FDDI is a standard developed by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) for transmitting data on optical
fibers
• FDDI uses a ring topology of multimode or single mode
optical fiber transmission links
• Uses a dual ring:
– First ring used to carry data
– Second ring used for primary backup in case first ring fails
– If no backup is needed, second ring can also carry data
• In FDDI, token is absorbed by station and released as soon as
it completes the frame transmission {release after
transmission}.
• FDDI is obsolote

6.33

6
ECCI 2105 4/26/2021

IPv4 Addressing: Introduction

223.1.1.1

• IP address: 32-bit 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2
identifier for host, 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

IPv4 Addressing router interface

• Interface: connection
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2

between host/router
and physical link 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
– router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
– IP addresses associated with
each interface 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223 1 1 1

1 2

Octets IP Address Classes

• An IP address is made up of 4 bytes
• The 32-bit IP address is broken up into 4
octets, which are arranged into a dotted-
decimal notation scheme.
• An octet is a set of 8 bits
• Example of an IP version 4:
172.64.126.52
• IP addresses are divided into 5 classes, each of
which is designated with the alphabetic letters
A to E.
• Class D addresses are used for multicasting.
• Class E addresses are reserved for testing

3 4

IP Address Classes (Cont.) IP Address Classes (Cont.)

• Using the ranges, you can determine the class of an
• The 5 IP classes are split up based on the address from its 1st octet value.
value in the 1st octet: • An address beginning with 120 is a Class A address,
155 is a Class B address & 220 is a Class C address.

5 6

1
ECCI 2105 4/26/2021

Are You the Host or the Network?

Are You the Host or the Network?
(Cont.)
• Each network is assigned a network address &
• The 32 bits of the IP address are divided into every device or interface (such as a router port)
Network & Host portions, with the octets on the network is assigned a host address.
assigned as a part of one or the other.
• There are only 2 specific rules that govern the
Network & Host Representation value of the address.
By IP Address Class
Class Octet1 Octet2 Octet3 Octet4 – A host address cannot be designated by all zeros or all
Class A Network Host Host Host
ones.
– These are special addresses that are reserved for
Class B Network Network Host Host
special purposes.
Class C Network Network Network Host

7 8

Class A Addresses Class A Addresses (Cont.)

• Class A IP addresses use the 1st 8 bits (1st Octet) to • There are 128 Class A Network Addresses, but
designate the Network address. because addresses with all zeros aren’t used &
• The 1st bit of the first octet which is always a 0, is address 127 is a special purpose address, 126
used to indicate the address as a Class A address & Class A Networks are available.
the remaining 7 bits are used to designate the
Network.
• The other 3 octets contain the Host address.

9 10

Class A Addresses (Cont.) Class A Addresses (Cont.)

• There are 16,777,214 Host addresses available in a
Class A address.
• Rather than remembering this number exactly, you
can use the following formula to compute the
number of hosts available in any of the class
addresses, where “n” represents the number of bits
in the host portion:
(2n – 2) = Number of available hosts
• For a Class A network, there are:
224 – 2 or 16,777,214 hosts.
• You can use the same formula to determine the
number of Networks in an address class.
• Eg., a Class A address uses 7 bits to designate the
network, so (27 – 2) = 126 or there can be 126 Class
A Networks.

11 12

2
ECCI 2105 4/26/2021

Class B IP Addresses Class B IP Addresses (Cont.)

• Class B addresses use the 1st 16 bits (two octets) for • So how many Class B Networks can there be?
the Network address.
• Using our formula, (214 – 2), there can be
• The last 2 octets are used for the Host address.
16,382 Class B Networks & each Network can
• The 1st 2 bit, which are always 10, designate the have (216 – 2) Hosts, or 65,534 Hosts.
address as a Class B address & 14 bits are used to
designate the Network.
• This leaves 16 bits (two octets) to designate the
Hosts.

13 14

Class C IP Addresses Class C IP Addresses (Cont.)

• Class C addresses use the 1st 24 bits (three
octets) for the Network address & only the
last octet for Host addresses.
• The 1st 3 bits of all class C addresses are set to
110, leaving 21 bits for the Network address,
which means:
– there can be 2,097,150 (221 – 2) Class C Networks,
– but only 254 (28 – 2) Hosts per Network.

15 16

Special Addresses Special Addresses (Cont.)

• A few addresses are set aside for specific
purposes.
• Network addresses that are all binary zeros, all
binary ones & Network addresses beginning
with 127 are special Network addresses.

Default route:
•In computer networking, the default route is a setting on a computer that
defines the packet forwarding rule to use when no specific route can be
determined for a given Internet Protocol (IP) destination address.
•All packets for destinations not established in the routing table are sent via
17
the default route. 18

3
ECCI 2105 4/26/2021

Special Addresses (Cont.) – Private

Special Addresses (Cont.)
address space
• Within each address class is a set of addresses
that are set aside for use in local networks • A list of these addresses for each IP address
sitting behind a firewall or NAT (Network class that are available for use in a LAN.
Address Translation) device or Networks not • This is the private address space
connected to the Internet.

19 20

Default Standard Subnet Masks Subnet Mask

• There are default standard subnet masks • An IP address has 2 parts:
for Class A, B and C addresses: – The Network identification.
– The Host identification.
• Frequently, the network & host portions of the
address need to be separately extracted.
• In most cases, if you know the address class, it’s easy
to separate the 2 portions.
• The subnet masking process was developed to
identify & extract the network and host part of the
address.

21 22

Subnets Subnets 223.1.1.2

223.1.1.1 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

• IP address consist of: 223.1.2.1 • How many?
223.1.1.2 223.1.1.3
– Subnet/network part 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
(high order bits)
223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0
– host part (low order bits) 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2

• What’s a subnet ? LAN

– device interfaces with
223.1.9.1
same subnet/network 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0
223.1.7.1

part of IP address
– can physically reach each 223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27
other without network consisting of 3 subnets
223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
intervening router

23 24

4
ECCI 2105 4/26/2021

Features of CIDR
• Elimination of classful addressing

Classless Interdomain • Classless Addressing

Routing (CIDR)

25 26

IP addressing: CIDR IP addresses: how to get one?

• CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
– subnet portion of address can of be arbitrary
length
– address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address
subnet
part
• Q: How does a host get IP address?
• Two options:
– Given/hard-coded by system admin
– DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
• “plug-and-play”
host
part

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

200.23.16.0/23
27 28

IP addresses: how to get one? IP addressing: the last word...

• Q: How does network get subnet part of IP • Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses?
addr? • A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
• A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s Names and Numbers:
address space
ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20 – allocates addresses
Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23 – manages DNS (Domain Name System). DNS –
Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23 Converts web address to IP address.
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. …. – assigns domain names, resolves disputes
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

29 30

5
ECCI 2105 4/26/2021

NAT: Network Address Translation NAT: Network Address Translation

NAT translation table
2: NAT router 1: host 10.0.0.1
rest of local network WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
Internet (e.g., home network) 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345
10.0.0.1 source addr from 128.119.40, 80
10.0.0/24 …… ……
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
10.0.0.4 138.76.29.7, 5001, S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
10.0.0.2 updates table D: 128.119.40.186, 80
138.76.29.7 10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
10.0.0.3 2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2

All datagrams leaving local Datagrams with source or 138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80

D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
network have same single source NAT IP destination in this network S: 128.119.40.186, 80
3
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.3
address: 138.76.29.7, have 10.0.0/24 address for 4: NAT router
3: Reply arrives changes datagram
different source port numbers source, destination (as usual) dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

31 32

NAT: Network Address Translation NAT: Network Address Translation

• Motivation: local network uses just one IP
address as far as outside word is concerned:
– no need to be allocated range of addresses from
ISP: - just one IP address is used for all devices
– can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
– can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
– devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus).
• Implementation: NAT router must:
– outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of every
outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
• . . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP address, new
port #) as destination addr.
– remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address,
port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair
– incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in
dest fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding
(source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table

33 34

ICMP: Internet Control Message

Traceroute
Protocol
• used by hosts & routers to communicate network- • The Traceroute or Trace command is used to show the complete route
from a source to a destination.
level information • Trace sends out probe packets one at a time to each router or switch in
– error reporting: unreachable host or network the path between the source & the destination IP address entered.
– used by ping
• network-layer “above” IP:
– ICMP msgs carried in IP datagrams

35 36

6

IPv6
1 2
Why IPv6
• So far, IPv4 has proven itself as a robust routable addressing
protocol and has served human being for decades on its best-
effort-delivery mechanism.
• It was designed in early 80’s and did not get any major change
afterward.
• At the time of its birth, Internet was limited only to a few
Universities for their research and to Department of Defense.
• IPv4 is 32 bits long which offers around 4,294,967,296 (232)
addresses.
• This address space was considered more than enough that
time.
3 4
IPv6 Features
• Larger Address Space:
– In contrast to IPv4, IPv6 uses 4 times more bits to address a device on the
Internet.
– This much of extra bits can provide approximately 3.438 different combinations
of addresses.
– This address can accumulate the aggressive requirement of address allotment
for almost everything in this world.
• Simplified Header:
– IPv6’s header has been simplified by moving all unnecessary information and
options (which are present in IPv4 header) to the end of the IPv6 header.
– IPv6 header is only twice as bigger than IPv4 (32 bits) providing the fact the
IPv6 (128 bits) address is four times longer.
5 6
4/28/2021
Introduction
• Internet Protocol version 6, is a new addressing protocol
• It is 128 bits unlike IPv4 which is 32 bits hence it has very
many IP addresses
• Along with its offering of enormous amount of logical address
space, this protocol has ample of features which addresses
today’s shortcoming of IPv4.
Why IPv6
• Given below are major points which played key role in birth of IPv6:
a) Internet has grown exponentially and the address space allowed by
IPv4 is saturating. There is a requirement of protocol which can
satisfy the need of future Internet addresses which are expected to
grow in an unexpected manner.
b) Using features such as NAT due to the inadequate number of IPv4
addresses , has made the Internet discontiguous i.e. one part which
belongs to intranet, primarily uses private IP addresses; which has to
go through number of mechanism to reach the other part, the
Internet, which is on public IP addresses.
c) IPv4 on its own does not provide any security feature which is
vulnerable as data on Internet, which is a public domain, is never
safe. Data has to be encrypted with some other security application
before being sent on Internet.
d) IPv4 enabled clients have be configured manually or they need some
address configuration mechanism. There exists no technique which
can configure a device to have globally unique IP address.
IPv6 Features
• End-to-end Connectivity:
– Every host/device/system now has unique IP address and can traverse through
the internet without using NAT or other translating components.
– After IPv6 is fully implemented, every host can directly reach other host on
the Internet, with some limitations involved like Firewall, Organization’s
policies, etc.
• Faster Forwarding/Routing:
– Simplified header puts all unnecessary information at the end of the header.
– All information in first part of the header are adequate for a router to take
routing decision thus making routing decision as quickly as looking at the
mandatory header, unlike IPv4 addresses.
1
 4/28/2021

IPv6 Features IPv6 Address Architecture

2001:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx
• IPSec:
– IPv6 has IPSec security incorporated, making it more secure than IPv4. 0010 0000 0000 0001
– IPsec has authentication and encryption features
• No Broadcast: 128bits
2001:0DB8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0346:8D58
– IPv6 does not have any broadcast support anymore left with it.
– It uses multicast to communicate with multiple hosts. IPv6 Prefix Interface ID

 Addresses are commonly displayed in hexadecimal format.

 IPv6 address consists of a prefix and an interface identifier.

 Prefix – Network portion of IP address, similar to subnet mask

 Interface identifier - Identifies a host

7 Page 8

IPv6 Address Condensing Types of IPv6 Addresses

2001:0DB8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0346:8D58
• No broadcast in IPv6
• Unicast Address:
2001:DB8:0:0:0:0:346:8D58
– Packets addressed to a unicast address is destined for a
single interface.
– This can also referred to as one –to-one Ipv6 address.
2001:DB8::346:8D58
– Different type of unicast addressing are:
 Addresses can be condensed by removing the leading zeroes. • Global Unicast Address: An IPv6 unicast address is globally routable on the public
internet.
 The :: operator will further condense strings of zero values. • Link-local Addresses: These are private address that is not meant to be routed on
the internet. They can be used locally by private or temporary LANs for sharing and
 In order to enable the string size to be determinable however, the "::" can only distribution of file among devices on the LAN.
appear once in an address.

 The double colon "::" can be used to compress leading zeros in an address as
displayed in the given example. Page 9 Page 10

Types of IPv6 Addresses IPv6 Address Reservations

• Multicast Address:
– This can also be refered to as One-to-Many. Address Range Description
– Packets addressed to multicast address are delivered to all interface identified by the
2000::/3 Current Global Unicast Range
multicast address.
– Multicast address types are easily notable because they normally begins with FF.
2001:0DB8::/32 Reserved for Documentation
• Anycast:
– This form of IPv6 address is similar to the multicast address with a slight difference. FE80::/10 Link Local Unicast Address Range
– Anycast address can also be refered to as One to Nearest. FF00::/8 Multicast Address Range
– It can be used to address packets meant for multiple interfaces; but usually it sends
packets to the first interface it finds as defined in the routing distance. ::/128 Unspecified Address
– This means it send packets to the closest interface as determined by routing protocols.
::1/128 Loopback Address
• Loopback Address: The loopback address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1, which is
normally expressed using zero compression as “::1“.
 Address ranges have been allocated in IPv6 for unicast and multicast,
along with special addresses for operational support.
Page 11 Page 12

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IPv6 Address Reservations IPv6 Addressing – Global Unicast

• Multicast addressing is defined within IPv6 as FF00::/8,
• ::/128 - represents an interface for which there is no IP
address currently assigned.
• ::/0 - used as a default address value for any network in the
same way the 0.0.0.0/0 default address is used within IPv4.
• For the loopback address (127.0.0.1), this is defined in IPv6  Global Unicast addresses in IPv6 are globally identifiable and uniquely
as the reserved address ::1/128. addressable.
 Global unicast address prefixes are used for public networks.
 Global Routing Prefix: The most significant 48-bits are designated as Global
Routing Prefix which is assigned to specific autonomous system.
 The three most significant bits of Global Routing Prefix is always set to 001

Page 13 Page 14

IPv6 Addressing – Link Local

IPv6 Addressing – Global Unicast
• The global routing prefix is designed to be structured
hierarchically by the Regional Internet Registries (RIR) and the
Internet Service Providers (ISP) to whom the RIR distribute IP
address prefixes. E.g AFRINIC in Africa, APNIC in Asia
• The subnet field is designed to be structured hierarchically by
site administrators to provide up to 65535 individual subnets.
Unicast
• In terms of the Link Local unicast address, the FE80::/10 means
that the first 10 bits of the link local address is clearly
distinguishable as 1111111010.
• The 64-bit interface address range is more than sufficient for
the addressing of hosts, and therefore the remaining 54bits
within the Link Local address are maintained as 0.

Page 15 Page 16

IPv6 Addressing – Multicast IPv6 Addressing – Anycast

HTTP

8bits 4bits 4bits 112bits Zone X

11111111 Flags Scope Group ID

2001:0DB8::84C2

HTTP

 Multicast addresses are distinguished by an FF00::/8 prefix.

2001:0DB8::84C2

Zone Y

 Anycast allows multiple instances of a service to be associated with a

single address, enabling a variety of service applications.
Page 17 Page 18

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EUI-64 for IP Address Auto- EUI-64 for IP Address Auto-

configuration configuration
• IEEE EUI-64 standards use the interface MAC address to
48-bit MAC address
generate an IPv6 interface ID.
24bits 24bits
• The MAC address however represents a 48-bit address whilst
cccccc0gcccccccc cccccccc eeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee the required interface ID must be composed of a 64-bit value.
• The first 24 bits (expressed by c) of the MAC address represent
EUI-64 generated interface ID the vendor (company) ID, while the remaining 24 bits
(expressed by e) represents the unique extension identifier
24bits 16bits 24bits
assigned by the manufacturer.
cccccccc 11111111 11111110 eeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
cccccc1gcccccccc
• During conversion, the EUI-64 process inserts two octet “0xFF”
and “0xFE” values totaling 16 bits between the vendor
 A host MAC address is injected with 16 bit ‘FF’ ’FE’ values to generate identifier and extension identifier of the MAC address, and the
universal/local bit 0 is changed to 1 to indicate that the
a 64-bit interface identifier for the IPv6 address. interface ID now represents a globally unique address value.

Page 19 Page 20

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Introduction

Routing Protocols

1 2

Introduction Introduction

3 4

Dynamic Vs Static Routing Dynamic Routing: Routing Protocols

• Routing tables can contain directly connected, manually
configured static routes and/or routes learned dynamically
using a routing protocol.
• Static routing is when you manually configure a router to send
traffic for particular destinations in preconfigured directions.
• Dynamic routing is when you use a routing protocol such as
OSPF, IS-IS, EIGRP, and/or BGP to figure out what paths traffic
should take.
• The purpose of any routing protocol is to:
– dynamically communicate information about all network paths used to
reach a destination,
– build routing tables,
– and to select from those paths, the best path to reach a destination
network.
• Some of the most common routing protocols include IGRP,
EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS and BGP.

5 6

1

Classification of Routing Protocols
• There are three main classification of routing
protocols:
– Interior vs exterior routing protocols
– Link state vs distance vector routing protocols
7 8
Distance Vector vs Link State Routing
Protocols
• "Distance Vector" and "Link State" are terms used to describe
routing protocols which are used by routers to forward
packets between networks.
• The terms distance vector and link state are used to group
routing protocols into two broad categories based on
whether:
– the routing protocol selects the best routing path based on a distance
metric (the distance) and an interface (the vector)  distance vector
routing protocol
– or selects the best routing path by calculating the state of each link in
a path and finding the path that has the lowest total metric to reach
the destination  link state routing protocol
9 10
Distance Vector Routing Protocol
• Distance: Distance is the cost of reaching a destination, usually
based on the number of hosts the path passes through, or the total
of all the administrative metrics assigned to the links in the path.
• Vector: From the standpoint of routing protocols, the vector is the
interface traffic will be forwarded out in order to reach a given
destination network along a route or path selected by the routing
protocol as the best path to the destination network.
• Distance vector protocols use a distance calculation plus an
outgoing network interface (a vector) to choose the best path to a
destination network.
• Common distance vector routing protocols include:
– RIP
– IGRP
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06/05/2021
Interior Gateway Routing Protocols
• Interior routing protocol designed for networks that are
controlled by an organization.
• They keep track of paths used to move data from one end
system to another inside a network or set of networks that
you administrate – Autonomous System.
• Autonomous Systems: All of the networks you manage
combined are usually just one.
• IGP's fall into two categories:
– Distance Vector Protocols: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Interior
Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP), Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (EIGRP).
– Link State Protocols: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), Intermediate
System to Intermediate System (IS-IS)
Introduction
Link State Routing Protocol
• Link state protocols know whether a link is up or down and
how fast it is (bandwidth and delay) and calculates a cost to
'get there'.
• Link State protocols will take a path which has more hops, but
that uses a faster medium over a path using a slower medium
with fewer hops.
• Because of their awareness of media types and other factors,
link state protocols require more processing power (more
circuit logic in the case of ASICs) and memory.
• Distance vector algorithms, being simpler, require simpler
hardware.
12
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A Comparison: Link State vs. Distance

A Comparison: Link State vs. Distance Vector
Vector
• See Fig. below. If all routers were running a Distance Vector protocol, the
path or 'route' chosen would be from A B directly over the ISDN serial
link, even though that link is about 10 times slower than the indirect route
from A C D B.
• A Link state protocol would choose the A C D B path because it's using a
faster medium (100 Mb ethernet).
• In this example, it would be better to run a Link State routing protocol, but
if all the links in the network are the same speed, then a Distance Vector
protocol is better.

13 14

Exterior Routing Protocols Exterior Routing Protocols

• Exterior Gateway Protocols handle routing outside an
Autonomous System and get you from your network, through
your Internet provider's network and onto any other network.
• Exterior routing protocols are designed for use between two
different networks that are controlled by two different
organizations.
• Commonly used between ISPs in an ISP or between ISPs with
the company.
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)is used by companies with
more than one internet provider to allow them to have
redundancy and load balancing of their data transported to
and from the internet.
15 16

Exterior Routing Protocols

• Examples of an EGP:
– Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
– Exterior Gateway Protocol (Replaced by BGP)
• For example, a company runs BGP as an exterior routing
protocol between the router of the company with the ISP
router.
• IP exterior gateway protocols require three settings the
following information before the router can be used:
– List of neighboring routers to exchange routing information
– The list of networks to advertise
– Number of autonomous system from the local router

17

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Circuit Switched Networks

• A circuit switching network is one that establishes a fixed
bandwidth circuit (or channel) between nodes and terminals
before the users may communicate.
Circuit Switching and Packet • The resources needed along a path (buffers, link transmission
rate) to provide for communication between the end systems
Switching are reserved for the duration of the communication session
between the end systems.
• Circuit switches are actually designed for real-time audio
communication.
• Traditional telephone networks are examples of circuit-
switched networks.

1 2

Circuit Switching Cırcuıt Swıtch Networks

• Bandwidth allocation is fixed during the
communication session. • Dedicated end-to-end
• Multiplexing techniques (e.g time division connection
• The second circuit used in the
multiplexing or frequency division first link and the fourth circuit
multiplexing) is used in data transfers used in the second link

3 4

Packet Switched Networks

Packet Swıtched Networks
• In packet-based networks the message gets broken
into small data packets that seek out the most
efficient route as circuits become available.
• There are two types of packet switched networks:
– Datagram networks
– Virtual circuit network

5 6

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Datagram Network Datagram Network

• Message gets broken into small data packets
• Each packet may go a different route; its header
address tells it where to go and describes the
sequence for reassembly at the destination
computer.
• When received, packets are reassembled in the
proper sequence to make up the message.
• A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table
that is based on the destination address.
• The destination address in the header of a packet in
a datagram network remains the same during the
Figure: A datagram network with four routers
entire journey of the packet
8.7 8

Figure 8.8 Routing table in a datagram network

Datagram Networks
• Switching in the Internet is done by using the
datagram approach of packet switching at
the network layer.

8.9 10

Virtual Circuit Networks Virtual Circuit Networks

• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a • Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier
circuit-switched network and a datagram as well as data.
network. • Each node on the pre-established route knows
• It has some characteristics of both. where to direct such packets; no routing
• In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned decisions are required.
route is established before any packets are
sent.
• Once the route is established, all the packets
between a pair of communicating parties
follow this same route through the network.
11 12

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Figure Virtual-circuit network Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

Each
packet
contains a
In the virtual circuit approach, a pre- virtual
planned route is established before any circuit
packets are sent. identifier
as well as VCI - Virtual circuit identifier
data.
8.13 14

Virtual Circuit Networks Figure: Delay in a virtual-circuit network

In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the

same source and
destination travel the same path;
but the packets may arrive at the destination with
different delays
if resource allocation is on demand.

15 16

Note

Switching at the data link layer in a WAN is

normally implemented by using
virtual-circuit techniques.

17 18

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MPLS
• The fundamental concept behind MPLS is that of labeling
packets.
• MPLS adds a label in front of each packet.
MPLS • In MPLS forwarding is based on the label rather than on the
destination IP address.
• Making the label an index into an internal table makes finding
the correct output line just a matter of table lookup.
Multiprotocol Label Switching • Using this technique, forwarding can be done very quickly
compared to routing based on IP address.
• MPLS makes use of virtual circuits – MPLS is connection
oriented - connection has to be established before data can
be sent

19 20

Router Example: Forwarding Packets MPLS Example: Forwarding Packets

Based on IP Address Based on IP Address

6.21 6.22

MPLS Example: Forwarding Packets

MPLS Example: Assigning Labels
Based on Labels

6.23 6.24

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MPLS and OSI

MPLS (MPLS is a layer 2.5 protocol)
• MPLS falls between the IP network layer protocol and the PPP
link layer protocol. Applications
• It is not really a layer 3 protocol because it depends on IP or
other network layer addresses to set up label paths. TCP UDP
IP
• It is not really a layer 2 protocol either because it forwards MPLS
packets across multiple hops, not a single link. PPP FR ATM Ethernet
• For this reason, MPLS is sometimes described as a layer 2.5 Physical
protocol. PPP – Point to point
• It is an illustration that real protocols do not always fit neatly protocol
FR – Frame Relay
into our ideal layered protocol model.
ATM – Asynchronous
Transfer Mode

25 26

MPLS
• New MPLS header had to be
added in
front of the IP header.
• On a router-to-router line
using PPP as the framing
protocol, the frame format,
including the PPP, MPLS, IP,
and TCP headers, is as
shown
27
MPLS
• The MPLS headers are not part of the network layer
(IP) packet or the data link layer frame
• MPLS is to a large extent independent of both layers
• Among other things, this property means it is possible
to build MPLS switches that can forward both IP
packets and non-IP packets, depending on what shows
up.
• This feature is where the ‘‘multiprotocol’’ in the name
MPLS came from.
• MPLS can also carry IP packets over non-IP networks
e.g ethernet
28

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 5/10/2021

Virtual LANs

3 Collision domains
3 Broadcast domains

Virtual LANs (VLANs)

If we want to move computers from group 1 to group 3, then

rewiring (physical replacement) has to be done
What is the alternative solution??
VLAN: Virtual (logical) Local Area Network : Local Area
Network configured by software not by physical wiring

1 ECSE 2106 2

Figure 16.15 A switch using VLAN software

Figure 15.17 Two switches in a backbone using VLAN software

VLAN1: Ports 1,2,5,7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VLAN2: Ports 3,4,6
VLAN3: Ports 8,9,10
Separate broadcast domain 
separate network

Using the Virtual LAN technology will allow grouping computers

logically instead of physically.
VLAN divides the physical LAN into several logical LANs called
VLANs
 Switch maintains a look up table to know to which LAN a
machine belongs to.
Switch referred to as layer 3 switch.
ECSE 2106 ECSE 2106
3 4

Advantages Of VLAN
Note: • Reduce cost and installation time:
– Instead of physically moving a station to another segment or another
switch, it can be moved by software.
VLANs create separate broadcast • Increase security:
– A group of users needing a high security can be put into a VLAN so
domains. that NO users outside the VLAN can communicate with them.
– Stations belong to the same group can send broadcast messages that
will NOT be received by users in others VLAN groups
• Creating Virtual Workgroups
– EXAMPLE: people from different departments working on the same
project can be put on the same VLAN
– Different departments can be in different VLANs

ECSE 2106 5 ECSE 2106 6

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Overview of wireless networks

MAN
Wireless Networks PAN
802.15.x
LAN
802.11
802.16
WAN
10m 100m e.g 2G,
e.g Bluetooth e.g WiFi 2-6km
e.G WiMax
3G, 4G

PAN – Personal area network

LAN – Local area network
MAN – Metropolitan area network
7 WAN – Wide area network 8

Elements of a wireless network Elements of a wireless network

Base station
Wireless hosts  Typically connected to
 Laptop, mobile phone, IP wired network
phone  Relay role - responsible
 Run applications for sending packets
 May be stationary (non- between wired network
network mobile) or mobile network and wireless host(s) in its
infrastructure  Wireless does not always infrastructure “area”
mean mobility  E.G., Cell towers,
802.11 access points

6-9 6-10

Elements of a wireless network Elements of Wireless Network

Wireless link
 Typically used to connect
mobile(s) to base station
• Two modes of wireless network:
 Also used as – Infrastructure mode - has base stations
backbone/backhaul link
(line of sight) – Ad hoc mode – no base stations
network  Multiple access (MAC)
infrastructure protocol coordinates link
access
 Various data rates,
transmission distance

6-11 12

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Elements of a wireless network Elements of a wireless network

Infrastructure mode
 Base station connects Ad hoc mode
mobiles into wired  No base stations
network  Nodes can only transmit
 Handoff: mobile node to other nodes within
changes base station link coverage
providing connection  Nodes organize
network into wired network themselves into a
infrastructure network: route among
themselves
 They may select one to
be the master device

6-13 6-14

Introduction
• The linking of two or more computers without using wires
• Uses radio communication to accomplish the same
functionality that a wired LAN
Wireless LAN • IEEE 802.11 (WiFi – Wireless Fidelity)
• Uses unlicensed spectrum – 2.4GHz or 5GHz
• 10-600 Mbps, 1.5km
– 802.11 (1997): upto 2 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
– 802.11a (1999): upto 54 Mbps, 5 GHz, ~75 feet outdoor
– 802.11b (1999): upto 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz, ~150 feet indoor, 300
ft outdoor [most popular]
– 802.11g (2003): upto 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz, ~150 feet [backward
compatible with 802.11b]
– 802.11n – up to 600 Mbps, 2.4GHz or 5GHz

15 16

Basic Service Set Basic Service Set

• IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the
building block of a wireless LAN.
• A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless
stations and an optional central base station, known as the
access point (AP).
• Fig. 3.23 shows two sets in this standard.
• The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot
send data to other BSSs. It is called an ad hoc architecture
• In this architecture, stations can form a network without
the need of an AP; they can locate one another and agree
to be part of a BSS.
• A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an
infrastructure network.

17 18

3

Extended Service Set
19
Extended Service Set
• When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one
another can communicate without the use of an AP.
• However, communication between two stations in two
different BSSs usually occurs via two APs.
• The idea is similar to communication in a cellular network if
we consider each BSS to be a cell and each AP to be a base
station.
• Note that a mobile station can belong to more than one BSS
at the same time.
21
Introduction
• Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to
connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and
laptop), cameras, printers, coffee makers, and
so on.
• A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means
that the network is formed spontaneously; the devices,
sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a
network called a piconet.
• A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large. It cannot
handle many devices
23
5/10/2021
Extended Service Set
• An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more
BSSs with APs.
• In this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution
system, which is usually a wired LAN.
• The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs.
• IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can
be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet.
• Note that the extended service set uses two types of
stations: mobile and stationary.
• The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS.
• The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a
wired LAN. Fig. 3.24 shows an ESS.
20
Bluetooth
22
Introduction
• Bluetooth was originally started as a project by the Ericsson
Company.
• It is named for Harald Blaatand, the king of Denmark (940-
981) who united Denmark and Norway.
• Blaatand translates to Bluetooth in English.
• Today, Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a
protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15 standard.
• The standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN)
operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.
24
4
 5/10/2021

Technical Specs Applications

• Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz range.
– Unlicensed, same band that certain wireless phones,
garage door openers, and baby monitors use.
• Bluetooth devices typically operate at low power -
around 0.1 Watts.
– Much less than the 3 Watts that a typical cell phone
operates at.
• Maximum range is supposed to 10 meters.
• Bluetooth can connect up to 8 devices.
– 1 master, 7 slaves with about a 10 meter radius
– Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or
keyboard can communicate with the computer
through this technology.
– Printing via Bluetooth
– Bluetooth headhones
– Conference attendees can synchronize their
laptop computers at a conference.

25 26

Architecture Piconet
• Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
piconet and scatternet.

27 28

Piconet Scatternet
• A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a
small net.
• A piconet can have up to eight stations, one of
which is called the primary the rest are called
secondary.
• A piconet can have only one primary station. The
primary station is the master and the other are
slaves.
• The communication between the primary and the
secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many.
Fig. 3.25 shows a piconet.
29 30

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Scatternet
• Piconets can be combined to form what is called
a scatternet.
• A secondary station in one piconet can be the Wimax
primary in another piconet.
• This station can receive messages from the
primary in the first piconet (as a secondary) and, Wireless Interoperability for
acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries
Microwave Access
in the second piconet.
• A station can be a member of two piconets. Fig.
3.26 illustrates a scatternet.
31 32

Introduction
• In practical terms, WiMAX operation is similar to WiFi
but at higher speeds, over greater distances and for a
greater number of users.
• Range - 30-mile (50-km) radius from base station
• Speed – Up to 70 Mbps
• Line-of-sight not needed between user and base
station
• Frequency bands - 2 to 11 GHz and 10 to 66 GHz
(licensed and unlicensed bands)
• Defines both the MAC and PHY layers and allows
multiple PHY-layer specifications

33 34

Architecture
• A WiMAX system consists of two parts:
– A WiMAX tower, similar in concept to a cell-phone
tower
• A single WiMAX tower can provide coverage to a very
large area – radius of up to 50km - as big as 8,000
square km.
– A WiMAX receiver - The receiver and antenna
could be a small box, or they could be built into a
laptop the way WiFi access is today.
Architecture
• A WiMAX tower station can connect directly to the
Internet using a high-bandwidth, wired connection
e.g fiber.
• It can also connect to another WiMAX tower using a
line-of-sight, microwave link.
– This connection to a second tower (often referred to as
a backhaul), along with the ability of a single tower to
cover up to 3,000 square miles, is what allows WiMAX to
provide coverage to remote rural areas.

35 36

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Wimax Services
– There is the non-line-of-sight, WiFi sort of service, where a
small antenna on your computer connects to the tower.
• In this mode, WiMAX uses a lower frequency range -- 2 GHz to 11
GHz (similar to WiFi).
• Lower-wavelength transmissions are not as easily disrupted by
Cellular Networks
physical obstructions -- they are better able to diffract, or bend,
around obstacles.
• Up to 8km
– There is line-of-sight service, where a fixed dish antenna
points straight at the WiMAX tower from a rooftop or pole.
• Line-of-sight transmissions use higher frequencies, with ranges
reaching a possible 66 GHz.
• Up to a range of 50km

37 38

Cellular Network Cellular Network Generations

• Made up of cells
• The service area of each base station is called a cell • It is useful to think of cellular Network/telephony in
terms of generations:
• Each mobile terminal is typically served by the ‘closest’ base
– 1G: Analog cellular telephony
stations
– 2G: Digital cellular telephony
– Handoff when terminals move
– 3G: High-speed digital cellular telephony (including video
telephony)
– 4G: IP-based “anytime, anywhere” voice, data, and multimedia
telephony at faster data rates than 3G
– 5G: More use cases – internet of things, vehicle to vehicle
communications
• G refers to generation

39 40

Evolution of Cellular Networks 1G

• 1st generation, 1980s
– Analogue communication
– Voice only
5G
• G refers to generation

1G 2G 2.5G 3G 4G

41 42

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GSM GSM Services

• Voice
• Abbreviation for Global System for Mobile
• Short Message Service (SMS)
Communications – 1985 GSM standard that allows messages of at most 160 chars. (incl.
spaces) to be sent between handsets and other stations
• Concurrent development in USA and Europe in • General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
the 1980’s – GSM upgrade that provides IP-based packet data transmission up to
114 kbps
– GPRS is an example of 2.5G telephony – 2G service similar to 3G
• The European system was called GSM and
deployed in the early 1990’s
• GSM is a 2G technology

43 44

GSM Evolution to 3G UMTS

High Speed Circuit Switched Data
Dedicate up to 4 timeslots for data connection ~ 50 kbps
• Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS)
• UMTS is an upgrade from GSM via GPRS or EDGE
GSM
9.6kbps Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution
• The standardization work for UMTS is carried out
GSM Data HSCSD 3x improvement in data rate on short distances by Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
Also called CSD (Circuit Combine with GPRS (EGPRS) ~ 384 kbps
switched data) Can also be combined with HSCSD • Data rates of UMTS are:
– WCDMA - 2048 kbps for indoor and low range
GSM GPRS
outdoor
WCDMA
General Packet Radio Services
Data rates up to ~ 115 kbps EDGE
Packet switched; resources not tied up all the time

WCDMA – Wideband code division multiple access – Speeds of up to 2 Mbps

45 46

3.5G (HSPA) 4G - LTE

• High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) is an amalgamation of two
mobile telephony protocols, High Speed Downlink Packet • LTE stands for Long Term Evolution
Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet Access • Data rates of up to 100 Mbps
(HSUPA), that extends and improves the performance of • Backward compatible UMTS 3G technology
existing WCDMA protocols
• Optimized for all-IP traffic – entirely packet switched network.
• Data rates of up to 14 Mbps
• LTE-Advanced – up to 1Gbps. LTE- A is the true 4G technology.

47 48

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5G 5G

There have been few trials for 5G worldwide

49 50

5G
Machine to machine communication
• Machine to machine (M2M) is a broad label
that can be used to describe any technology
that enables networked devices to exchange
information and perform actions without the
manual assistance of humans.
• Example - In product restocking, for example,
a vending machine can message the
distributor when a particular item is running
low.

51 52

Vehicle to vehicle communication Comparison of Cellular Network Speeds

• Can warn of the impending collision will start
appearing in cars in just a couple of years.
• Called car-to-car or vehicle-to-vehicle communication,
it lets cars broadcast their position, speed, steering-
wheel position, brake status, and other data to other
vehicles within a few hundred meters.
• The other cars can use such information to build a
detailed picture of what’s unfolding around them,
revealing trouble that even the most careful and alert
driver, or the best sensor system, would miss or fail to
anticipate.

53 54

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Comparison of wireless networks Overview of wireless networks

200 802.11n
4G – LTE/LTE-A
54 802.11a,g 802.11a,g point-to-point data PAN LAN MAN
WAN
Data rate (Mbps)

802.15.x 802.11
5-11 802.11b 802.16 (WiMAX) 802.16
4 3G cellular 10m 100m e.g 2G,
UMTS/WCDMA-HSPDA, CDMA2000-1xEVDO
enhanced e.g Bluetooth e.g WiFi 2-6km
1 802.15
e.G WiMax
3G, 4G

.384 UMTS/WCDMA, CDMA2000 3G

.056 IS-95, CDMA, GSM 2G

Indoor Outdoor Mid-range Long-range PAN – Personal area network

10-30m 50-200m outdoor outdoor LAN – Local area network
200m – 4 Km 5Km – 20 Km MAN – Metropolitan area network
6-55 WAN – Wide area network 56

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Introduction to Wide Area Networks

• LAN connections are within a company
• WAN connections allow you to connect to remote sites.
• Typically, you don’t own the infrastructure for WAN
Wide Area Networks connections—another company, the ISP, provides the
infrastructure.

1 2

Equipment and Components Equipment and Components

Equipments and Components of a WAN

CO – Central office

Equipments and Components of a WAN

3 4

Defining WAN Terms Defining WAN Terms

• Customer premises equipment (CPE): equipment that’s • Local loop: The local loop connects the demarc to the closest
owned by the subscriber and located on the subscriber’s switching office, which is called a central office.
premises. • Central office (CO):
• Demarcation point: – This point connects the customer’s network to the provider’s (ISP’s)
– The demarcation point is the precise spot where the service provider’s switching/routing network.
responsibility ends – Central office (CO) is sometimes referred to as a point of presence
– It’s your company’s responsibility to cable (extended demarc) from (POP)
this box to the CPE, which is usually a connection to a CSU/DSU
• Toll network:
– Refers to the ISP network.
– This network is a collection of switches/routers and facilities owned by
the ISP.

5 6

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Data Terminal Equipment and Data Data Terminal Equipment and Data Communication
Communication Equipment Equipment
• Data terminal equipment (DTE)
• Source of data
• They connect into data communication equipment
(DCE) like a channel service unit/data service unit
(CSU/DSU).
• Router interfaces, for example, are data terminal
equipment (DTE)
• It could also be a computer
• DCE – Data communicating equipment
– Devices used to establish, maintain and terminate
DTE-DCE-DTE WAN Connection communication network sessions in a WAN
– Made up of CSU and DSU
7 8

Data Terminal Equipment and Data Communication

Equipment – CSU/DSU DTE, DCE and CSU/DSU
• The CSU/DSU plugs into a demarcation location (demarc)
• A CSU/DSU is a digital-interface device used to connect
a data terminal equipment (DTE), such as a router, to
a digital circuit.
• The purpose of both units is to convert a signal from a form
used for local (LAN) transmission to a form used for long
distance (WAN) transmission
• Can also act as a protective barrier to electrical
disturbances that can harm customer premises equipment
• CSU - The channel service unit (CSU) - responsible for the
connection to the telecommunication/ISP network
• Data service unit (DSU) - responsible for managing the
interface with the DTE.

9 10

Classification of WAN Protocols WAN and Switching Technologies

11 12

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Circuit Switched WAN Packet Switched WAN

13 14

Leased Lines Leased Lines

• These are usually referred to as a point-to-point or dedicated
connection.
• A leased line is a pre-established WAN communications path
that goes from the CPE through the DCE switch, then over to
the CPE of the remote site.
• The CPE can communicate at any time with no cumbersome
setup procedures to muddle through before transmitting
data.
• Companies pay for a continuous connection between two
remote sites, and the line is continuously active and available.
• They are generally priced based on the bandwidth required
and the distance between the two connected points.
• Leased lines could be copper wires, fiber, satellite link,
microwave link. Whichever it is the telco/ISP will provide a
fixed, dedicated bandwidth.
• Most secure but expensive.

15 16

Leased Lines Dial Up Circuits

• A dial-up line is a connection or circuit between two
sites through a circuit switched telephone network.
• A dial-up line can form a link between two distant
computers or local area networks.
• With dial-up circuits, connection is established when
there is need to send data unlike dedicated leased lines
that provide a permanent connection between two
sites.
• Modems are required on both ends of a dial-up line.
• Example: Safaricom/Airtel modems.

17 18

3

Leased Lines vs Dial Up Circuits
• Leased lines are always connected while in dial-up circuits,
connections are established on demand.
• Leased lines more expensive than dial up circuits.
19
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
• ISDN was a common high-end internet service in the 1990s
and early 2000s and was offered by many ISPs as faster
alternative to dial-up internet access.
• Many businesses and organizations used ISDN service for both
internet access and network connections between locations.
• In the mid-2000s, DSL and cable service began to replace ISDN
connections because of their faster speed and lower cost.
21
X.25
• X.25 supports multiple simultaneous conversations by
multiplexing packets and using virtual communication
channels.
• X.25 Packet Switched networks allow remote devices to
communicate with each other over private digital links
without the expense of individual leased lines.
• It was developed before the OSI Reference Model or the
equivalent Network Access Layer of the TCP/IP protocol
model, and its functionality does not map precisely to either
model.
• X.25 is now obsolete. It was replaced by IP, ATM, frame relay
etc
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ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
• ISDN is a switched digital dial-up service.
• It combines video, voice and data on a single access line
• Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was viewed as a way to
transport voice only in analog form.
• ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system designed
to allow digital transmission of voice and data over
ordinary telephone copper wires.
• It offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data)
in increments of 64 kilobit/s.
20
X.25
• X.25 is a standard which defines the interface between
Terminal Equipment (DTE) and a packet switched network
• The general concept of X.25 was to create a universal and
global packet-switched network on what was then the bit-
error prone analog phone system.
• The X.25 network handles packet assembly at the source
device, delivery, and then assembly at the destination.
• X.25 packet delivery technology included not only switching
and network-layer routing, but also error checking and re-
transmission logic should delivery failures occur.
22
Frame Relay
• Frame-relay is an older WAN technology that was an
alternative to leased lines.
• With a leased line, only one company uses the link so it’s
quite an expensive option.
• Frame-relay offers point-to-point and point-to-multipoint
circuits with a switched/shared network, which is cheaper
than a dedicated line.
• It offers lower-cost data transfer when compared to typical
point-to-point applications, by using virtual connections
within the frame relay network
• The Virtual connections are combined into a single physical
connection at each location.
• It operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI
reference model.
24
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Frame Relay – Virtual Circuit Frame Relay

• The logical connection through the Frame Relay network
between two DTEs is called a virtual circuit (VC).
• The term “virtual” here means that the two DTEs are not
connected directly but through a network.
• For example, the HeadQuarter & Branch 1 (or Branch 2) can
communicate with each other as if they were directly connected
but in fact they are connected through a Frame Relay network
with many Frame Relay switches between them.

25 26

Frame Relay Frame Relay

• With a leased line, to connect to these two branches, the main
site router, HeadQuarter, requires two serial interfaces which a
router can provide.
• But what happens when the company expands to 10 branches,
50 branches?
• For each point-to-point line, HeadQuarter needs a separate
physical serial interface (and maybe a separate CSU/DSU if it is not
integrated into the WAN card).
– It will need many routers with many interfaces and lots of rack space for
the routers and CSU/DSUs.
• By using Frame Relay we only need one serial interface at the
HeadQuarter to connect to all branches.
– This is also true when we expand to 10 or 50 branches.
– Moreover, the cost is much lesser than using leased-lines.

27 28

Frame Relay vs X.25 Cell Relay/Switching

• X.25 prepares and sends packets, while frame relay prepares and sends • Cell switching is very similar to packet switching with the exception
frames. that we use a fixed size for our cells
• X.25 specifies processing at layers 1, 2 and 3 of the OSI model, while frame • Below you can see that each computer sends some data.
relay operates at layers 1 and 2 only. • Whatever they send gets encapsulated in cells with a fixed size, 53
– This means that frame relay has significantly less processing to do at each bytes in this example.
node, which improves throughput by an order of magnitude.
• ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) was a popular WAN protocol
• X.25 packets contain several fields used for error and flow control, none that used cell switching.
of which frame relay needs.
– The frames in frame relay contain an expanded address field that enables
frame relay nodes to direct frames to their destinations with minimal
processing.

29 30

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ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Mode

• ATM is a cell relay, packet switching network and data link
layer protocol which encodes data traffic into small (53 bytes;
48 bytes of data and 5 bytes of header information) fixed-
sized cells.
• Small cells are used to allow faster routing – can be done in
hardware rather than software.
• Fast routing is especially necessary for video and audio
communications – they are delay sensitive.
• This differs from other technologies based on packet-switched
networks (such as the Internet Protocol or Ethernet), in which
variable sized packets (known as frames when referencing
layer 2) are used.
• ATM is a connection-oriented technology, in which a logical
connection is established between the two endpoints before
the actual data exchange begins.

31 32

How Does ATM Work? How Does ATM Work?

User Applications User Applications
Voice Video Data
Voice Video Data
• ATM is connection-oriented -- an end-to-end connection must be
established and routing tables setup prior to cell transmission
• ATM creates fixed routes between two points before data
transfer begins – it established virtual circuits
Segmentation
Reassembly • All traffic, whether voice, video, image, or data is divided into 53-
octet cells and routed in sequence across the ATM network
Multiplexing Demultiplexing
• Routing information is carried in the header of each cell
Workstation Workstation
• Routing decisions and switching are performed by hardware in
H

ATM switches
H

ATM Network H

• Cells are reassembled into voice, video, image, or data at the

H

H H H
H H H H H H destination

33 34

MPLS VPNs MPLS VPNs

• An MPLS Network is formed by connecting
each location with a single link (as shown in
• Virtual private networks (VPNs) are private networks that
the second diagram) to a service provider
use a public network to connect two or more remote sites
MPLS network.
securely through encryption.
• Any packet coming to the Label edge routers
• Instead of dedicated connections between networks, VPNs (from individual locations – source, to the
use virtual connections routed (tunneled) through public service provider MPLS network) are
networks that are typically service provider networks. encapsulated with an MPLS label which is used
• VPNs are a cost-effective alternative to expensive dedicated to identify it and route it through the MPLS
lines. network of the ISP.
• VPNs tunnel traffic from one customer site to another • This label is discarded when the packet comes
customer site, using a public network as a transit network out of the MPLS network back to individual
• More on MPLS VPNs: locations – destination.
http://www.networkworld.com/article/2350732/cisco-
subnet/understanding-mpls-vpns--part-i.html

35 36

6

Carrier Ethernet
• Ethernet has also made its way to the WAN.
• From the customer’s perspective, it looks similar to the leased line.
• Example (see diagram): On each customer site, we have a router with a
fiber connection to the Ethernet WAN provider.
– The connection at the service provider side is called the POP (Point of
Presence).
– The connection is based on Ethernet.
– It is called Ethernet private line.
– It’s also possible to have more than two sites, creating a multi-access network.
• Ethernet is also used with different “underlying” WAN technologies like
EoMPLS (Ethernet over MPLS)
37
Carrier Ethernet
• Delivering point-to-point connectivity, E-Line services are used
to create Ethernet private line services (connecting two
customer sites), Ethernet-based Internet access services
UNI – User network interface
39
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Carrier Ethernet
• Carrier Ethernet defines a standard for transporting data
across a network using Ethernet.
• In a Carrier Ethernet network, data is transported across
Point-to-Point and Multipoint-to-Multipoint Ethernet Virtual
Connections
UNI – User network interface 38
DSL and ADSL
• Digital subscriber line (DSL) is a technology used by
traditional telephone companies to deliver advanced
services (high-speed data and sometimes video) over
twisted-pair copper telephone wires.
• DSL modem uses telephone lines for high-speed Internet
connections.
• DSL connections are often referred to as "always on"
connections, so don't do not need to dial up a number.
• ADSL (Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line) :
– This type of service means that the speed of data sent is known
as upstream, and the data received is known as downstream,
and the speeds are not always guaranteed to be the same.
– They have different speeds that change from time to time
40
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Outline
• Virtual private networks
• Firewall
• Intrusion detection system
Network Security

1 2

Friends and enemies: Alice, Bob, Trudy Network security objectives

• Well-known in network security world
• Bob, Alice want to communicate “securely” • Confidentiality: only sender, intended receiver should
“understand” message contents
• Trudy (intruder) may intercept, delete, add messages
• sender encrypts message
• receiver decrypts message
Alice Bob • Authentication: sender, receiver want to confirm identity of
channel data, control
messages
each other
• Message integrity: sender, receiver want to ensure message is
secure secure
data data not altered (in transit, or afterwards) without detection
sender receiver
• Access and availability: services must be accessible and
available to users
Trudy

8-3 8-4

Firewalls Firewall Example: Application gateways

Firewall
Isolates organization’s internal net from larger Internet, allowing • Also known as application proxy or application-level proxy
some packets to pass, blocking others. • Application Gateway is a type of firewall that provides
application-level control over network traffic.
• It is an application program that runs on a firewall system
between two networks.
• It filters incoming node traffic to certain specifications which
mean that transmitted network application data can be
allowed or denied.
administered public
network Internet

firewall

8-5 8-6

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Firewall Example: Application gateways Firewall Example: Application gateways gateway-to-remote

host telnet session
host-to-gateway
telnet session
• Application gateways can be used to deny access to the • Filters packets on application
resources of private networks to distrusted users over the data as well as on application router and filter
gateway
Internet. IP/TCP/UDP fields.
• Example network applications include File Transfer Protocol • Example: allow select
internal users to telnet
(FTP), Telnet, Real Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) and outside.
BitTorrent.
• Application gateways examine incoming packets at the 1. Require all telnet users to telnet through gateway.
application level and then use proxies to create secure 2. For authorized users, gateway sets up telnet connection to
sessions with remote users. dest host. Gateway relays data between 2 connections
3. Router filter blocks all telnet connections not originating
from gateway.

8-7 8-8

Firewall Example: Application gateways Firewall Example: Application gateways

• When a client program establishes a connection to • Once connected, the proxy makes all packet-forwarding
a destination service, it connects to an application gateway, decisions.
or proxy. • Since all communication is conducted through the proxy
• The client then negotiates with the proxy server in order to server, computers behind the firewall are protected
communicate with the destination service.
• In effect, the proxy establishes the connection with the
destination behind the firewall and acts on behalf of the
client, hiding and protecting individual computers on the
network behind the firewall.
• Two connections are created:
– one between the client and the proxy server
– And another one between the proxy server and the destination.

8-9 8-10

Intrusion detection systems Intrusion detection systems

• An intrusion detection system (IDS) inspects all inbound • Multiple IDSs: different types of checking at different
and outbound network activity and identifies suspicious locations
patterns that may indicate a network or system attack
from someone attempting to break into or compromise a
system. Application Firewall
• Packet filtering: Gateway

– Operates on TCP/IP headers only Internet

– No correlation check among sessions
Internal
• IDS: intrusion detection system Network Web
– Deep packet inspection: look at packet contents (e.G., Check Ids Server Dns
character strings in packet against database of known virus, attack Sensors Server
Ftp
strings) Server Demilitarized
Zone
8-11 8-12

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Virtual Private Networks (VPN) Virtual Private Networks (VPN)

• A VPN is a private data network that makes use of the public
telecommunication infrastructure, such as the Internet, by
adding security procedures over the unsecure communication
channels.
• The security procedures that involve encryption are achieved
through the use of a tunneling protocol.
• There are two types of VPNs:
– Remote access which lets single users connect to the protected
company network
– Site-to-site which supports connections between two protected
company networks.
• In either mode, VPN technology gives a company the facilities
of expensive private leased lines at much lower cost by using
the shared public infrastructure like the Internet.

13 14

Virtual Private Networks (VPN) Virtual Private Networks (VPN)

• The two components of a VPN are: • VPN technology must do the following activities:
– Two terminators: – IP encapsulation:
• Perform encryption, decryption and authentication services.
• This involves enclosing TCP/IP data packets within another packet
• They also encapsulate the information
with an IP-address of either a firewall or a server that acts as a
• Are either software or hardware.
VPN end-point.
– A tunnel:
• This encapsulation of host IP-address helps in hiding the host.
• The tunnel is a secure communication link between the end-points and networks
such as the Internet. – Encryption – is done on the data part of the packet.
• This tunnel is virtually created by the end-points.

15 16