Networks and Information Security Essentials

Introduction to Computer Networks

Unit 1

Presented by:
Dr. Orieb AbuAlghanam

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Who Owns “The Internet”?

The internet is not owned by any individual or group. The internet is a worldwide collection of
interconnected networks (internetwork or internet for short), cooperating with each other to exchange
information using common standards. Through telephone wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless transmissions,
and satellite links, internet users can exchange information in a variety of forms.
Everything that you access online is located somewhere on the global internet. Social media sites,
multiplayer games, messaging centers that provide email, online courses — all of these internet
destinations are connected to local networks that send and receive information through the internet.
Think about all of the interactions that you have during the day which require you to be online.

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The Bit
Did you know that computers and networks only work with binary digits, zeros and ones? It can be difficult to imagine that all of our data is stored and
transmitted as a series of bits. Each bit can only have one of two possible values, 0 or 1. The term bit is an abbreviation of “binary digit” and represents the
smallest piece of data.

Humans interpret words and pictures, computers interpret only patterns of bits.
A bit is stored and transmitted as one of two possible discrete states. This can include two directions of magnetization, two distinct voltage or current levels, two
distinct levels of light intensity, or any other physical system of two discrete states.
For example, a light switch can be either On or Off; in binary representation, these states would correspond to 1 and 0 respectively.
Every input device (mouse, keyboard, voice-activated receiver) will translate human interaction into binary code for the CPU to process and store. Every output
device (printer, speakers, monitors, etc.) will take binary data and translate it back into human recognizable form. Within the computer itself, all data is processed
and stored as binary.

Computers use binary codes to represent and interpret letters, numbers and special characters with bits. A commonly used code is the American Standard Code
for Information Interchange (ASCII). With ASCII, each character is represented by eight bits. For example:

•Capital letter: A = 01000001

•Number: 9 = 00111001
•Special character: # = 00100011

Each group of eight bits, such as the representations of letters and numbers, is known as a byte.
Codes can be used to represent almost any type of information digitally including computer data, graphics, photos, voice, video, and music.
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Common Methods of Data Transmission

After the data is transformed into a series of bits, it must be converted into signals that can be sent across the network
media to its destination. Media refers to the physical medium on which the signals are transmitted. Examples of media
are copper wire, fiber-optic cable, and electromagnetic waves through the air. A signal consists of electrical or optical
patterns that are transmitted from one connected device to another. These patterns represent the digital bits (i.e. the data)
and travel across the media from source to destination as either a series of pulses of electricity, pulses of light, or radio
waves. Signals may be converted many times before ultimately reaching the destination, as corresponding media
changes between source and destination.

There are three common methods of signal transmission used in networks:

•Electrical signals - Transmission is achieved by representing data as electrical pulses on copper wire.
•Optical signals - Transmission is achieved by converting the electrical signals into light pulses.
•Wireless signals - Transmission is achieved by using infrared, microwave, or radio waves through the air.

In most homes and small businesses, network signals are transmitted across copper wires (cables) or Wi-Fi enabled
wireless connections. Larger networks employ fiber-optic cables in order to reliably carry signals for longer distances.
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Bandwidth
Streaming a movie or playing a multiplayer game requires reliable, fast connections. To support these “high bandwidth” applications,
networks have to be capable of transmitting and receiving bits at a very high rate.
Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds. The rate of data transfer is usually discussed in terms of bandwidth
and throughput.
Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data. Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to another
in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically measured in the number of bits that (theoretically) can be sent across the media in a
second.
Common bandwidth measurements are as follows:
•Thousands of bits per second (kbps)
•Millions of bits per second (Mbps)
•Billions of bits per second (Gbps)
Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics all play a role in determining available bandwidth.
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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

The table shows the commonly used units of measure for bandwidth.

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 Encryption Theory

A Computer Network is two or

more computers connected by
a cable or by a  wireless radio
connection so they can
exchange information.

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Why Networking is Important?

• Networks are all about sharing:

 Sharing files: directly accessing the files over the network, attaching files to
emails, etc.
 Sharing resources: setting up a printer or a hard drive so everyone on the
network can access it.
 Sharing programs: giving access to software installed on central hard drive and
manage that access through licensing.

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 Encryption Theory

Computer Network Types

• There are many types of computer networks based on the geographical size they cover:
• Local Area Networks (LANs).
• Wide Area Networks (WANs).
• Campus Area Networks (CANs).
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs).
• Personal Area Networks (PANs).
• Storage Area Network (SAN).

• The two most common types of network infrastructures are:

• Local Area Networks (LANs).
• Wide Area Networks (WANs).

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LAN
• Network of computers located in a single location, like a home,
school, or office building
• Can share connection with other LANS and with the internet

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WAN
• Network over a large area like a city, a country, or multiple
countries
• Connects multiple LANs together
• Generally utilizes different and much more expensive networking
equipment than LANs
• The internet is the most popular WAN

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LAN Vs WAN
LAN WAN
Connects host within a relatively Hosts may be widely dispersed.
small geographical area. • Across Campuses
• Same Building • Across Cities/countries
• Same room
• Same Campus
Faster: LANs provide high speed Slower: WANs typically provide slower
bandwidth to internal end devices and speed links between LANs.
intermediary devices.
Cheaper Expensive
Under a control of single ownership Not under a control of a single person.

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Network Infrastructure

The path that a message takes from its source to destination can be as simple as a single cable connecting one computer

to another, or as complex as a network that literally spans the globe. This network infrastructure is the platform that

supports the network. It provides the stable and reliable channel over which our communications can occur.

The network infrastructure contains three categories of hardware components:

•End devices

•Intermediate devices

•Network media

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Physical Components of the Network

• End Devices or Hosts: These devices form the interface between users and the underlying
communication network. Examples of end devices are Computers (work stations, laptops, file
servers, web servers), Network printers, VoIP phones, Mobile handheld devices, and … etc.
• A host device is either the source or destination of a message transmitted over the network.
• Intermediary Network Devices: Intermediary devices connect the individual hosts to the network
and can connect multiple individual networks to /form an internetwork. Examples of intermediary
devices are switches, wireless access points, routers, firewalls, and … etc.
• These devices use the destination host address to determine the path that messages should take through
the network.
• Network Media: The medium provides the channel over which the message travels from source to
destination. The three types of media are Copper, Fiber Optic, and Wireless.

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End Devices
Some examples of end devices are as follows:
•Computers (workstations, laptops, file servers, web servers)
•Network printers
•Telephones and teleconferencing equipment
•Security cameras
•Mobile devices (such as smart phones, tablets, PDAs, and wireless debit/credit card readers and barcode scanners)

An end device (or host) is either the source or destination of a message transmitted over the network. In order to
uniquely identify hosts, addresses are used. When a host initiates communication, it uses the address of the
destination host to specify where the message should be sent.

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Network Interfaces Card (NIC)

• NIC: is a device installed in a computer, printer, or any other
network component so they can be connected to a network.

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Hubs
 Physical Layer devices: essentially repeaters
operating at bit levels: repeat received bits on one
interface to all other interfaces
 Broadcast: the data are sent to every device on a
network.

 Hubs can be arranged in a hierarchy (or multi-tier

design), with backbone hub at its top.

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• Switch: is a device that contains multiple ports to connect multiple computers or

network devices to each other. Unlike hub, switch can send the data to only the
destined computer.

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Bridges
 Link Layer devices: operate on Ethernet frames, examining frame header and selectively
forwarding frame based on its destination
 Bridge: we can say that the bridge is the old version of the switch, where the bridge works almost
like the switch.

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Router

a device whose primary purpose is to connect two or more networks and determine the
next network point to which the data should be forwarded toward its destination.

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Comparisons

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Transmission Medium
• anything that can carry
information from a
source to a destination.
• Transmission medium
can be classified into
Guided media and
Unguided media.

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Guided Media
1.Twisted-pair cables, which use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current. Twisted-pair types are:
•Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)
•Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

2.Coaxial cables, which use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in
the form of electric current. Coaxial types are:
•Thin
•Thick

3.Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
•Single mode
•Multimode
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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Unshielded Twisted-pair (UTP)

• UTP has four pairs
of wires inside the
jacket.
• Each pair is
twisted with a
number of twists
per inch to help
eliminate
interference from
adjacent pairs and
other electrical
devices. 27
 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Unshielded Twisted-pair (UTP) Continued

UTP is the most popular and is

generally the best option for
workplaces, schools, and homes.
The standard connector for
unshielded twisted pair cabling
is an RJ-45 connector.

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Unshielded Twisted-pair (UTP) Continued

UTP categories
Category Speed Use
1 1 Mbps Voice only (telephone wire)
2 4 Mbps LocalTalk & telephone (rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token ring (rarely used)
5 100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
1,000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet
5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Shielded Twisted-pair (STP)

Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

provides better noise protection
than UTP cabling. However,
compared to UTP cable, STP cable
is significantly more expensive.
Like UTP cable, STP uses an RJ-45
connector.

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Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons

• Cheap
• Easy to work with
• Low data rate
• Short range

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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. BNC

A plastic layer provides insulation between the center conductor

and a braided metal shield.

Coaxial is the most widely used media for transporting high radio
frequency signals over wire, especially cable television signals.
Traditional cable television was composed completely of coax
cable.

In the past, coaxial cable was used in Ethernet installations. Today

UTP offers lower costs and higher bandwidth than coaxial.

The connector used with coaxial cables is the BNC connector. 32

 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Fiber-optics
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by
several layers of protective materials.
It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the
problem of electrical interference.
Either lasers or light emitting diodes (LEDs) generate the light pulses
that are used to represent the transmitted data as bits on the media. 
More expensive (usually) than copper media over the same distance
(but for a higher capacity)
Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less
attenuation and is completely immune to EMI and RFI.

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Fiber-optics Continued
The connectors used with Fiber-optics cables are ST and SC connectors. Subscriber Connector (SC) is
widely used with single-mode
Because light can only travel in one direction over optical fiber, two fiber

fibers are required to support full duplex operation.

Note: The laser light transmitted over fiber-optic cabling can damage the
human eye. Care must be taken to avoid looking into the end of an active
Straight Tip (ST) connector is
widely used with multimode
optical fiber. fiber

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Single-mode Fiber (SMF)

Single-mode fiber (SMF) consists of a very small core and uses expensive laser technology to send a
single ray of light. Popular in long-distance situations spanning hundreds of kilometers such as
required in long haul telephony and cable TV applications.

Fiber Media Cable Design

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Multimode Fiber (MMF)

Multimode fiber (MMF) consists of a larger core and uses LED emitters to send light.
Specifically, light from an LED enters the multimode fiber at different angles. Popular in LANs
because they can be powered by low cost LEDs.

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Fiber Optical - Benefits

• Greater capacity
• Data rates of hundreds of Gbps
• Smaller size & weight
• Lower attenuation
• Electromagnetic isolation
• Greater repeater spacing
• 10s of km at least

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Fiber vs. Copper

Networks use copper media because it is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low
resistance to electrical current. However, copper media is limited by distance and
signal interference.

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Ethernet Cabling
The internal wires of a UTP cable are arranged in specific order when
used with Ethernet.
The arrangement of the wires depend on the devices to be connected by
the cable.
There are three Ethernet cabling types in terms of the internal wires
arrangement:
• Straight-Through cable.
• Crossover cable.
• Rolled cable.

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Straight-Through Cable

In 10/100 Mbps Ethernet you

need to connect 1 to 1, 2 to 2,
3 to 3, and 6 to 6.
In 1 gigabit Ethernet and
above, you need to connect 1
to 1, 2 to 2, and so on up to pin
8.

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Crossover Cable

In 10/100 Mbps Ethernet you need

to connect 1 to 3, 2 to 6, 3 to 1, and
6 to 2.
In 1 gigabit Ethernet and above, you
still cross 1 to 3 and 2 to 6, but you
would add 4 to 7 and 5 to 8.

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Rolled Cable

Serial Port: you can use a rolled

Ethernet cable to connect a host
EIA-TIA 232 interface to a router
console serial communication
(COM) port.

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Ethernet Cables Applications

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Which Cable To Use?

• Group1: Switch + Hub
• Group2: Router + PC

• Same group Cross

• Different groups  straight

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Auto-MDIX
Most switch devices now support the automatic medium-dependent
interface crossover (auto-MDIX) feature.
When the auto-MDIX feature is enabled, the switch detects the required
cable type for copper Ethernet connections and configures the interfaces
accordingly.

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Topology and Network Design

• The topology of a network is the arrangement or relationship of the network devices and the
interconnections between them. LAN and WAN topologies can be viewed in two ways:
Physical topology diagrams illustrate the physical location of Logical topology diagrams illustrate devices, ports, and the
intermediary devices and cable installation. addressing scheme of the network.

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Physical LAN Topologies

In shared media LANs, end devices can be interconnected using the following physical topologies:
• Star: End devices are connected to a central intermediate device. The star topology is the most
common physical LAN topology primarily because it is easy to install, very scalable (easy to
add and remove end devices), and easy to troubleshoot.

• Extended star or hybrid: This is a combination of the other topologies such as star networks
interconnected to each other using a bus topology.

• Bus: All end systems are chained to each other and terminated in some form on each end. Bus
topologies were used in legacy Ethernet networks.

• Ring: End systems are connected to their respective neighbor forming a ring. Unlike the bus
topology, the ring does not need to be terminated. Ring topologies were used in legacy Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) networks.
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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Physical LAN Topologies Continued

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Protocols
The sending of a message, over a network, is governed
by rules called protocols.
A Protocol is information added to the “header”
and/or a “trailer” of the data in order to be send to the
intended destination and to be interrupted in correct
way. Common computer protocols include: Message
format, Message size, Timing, Encoding, and Message
delivery options.

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 Networks and Information Security Essentials

Protocols Continued
When data travels on the media, it is converted into a stream of bits, or 1s
and 0s. If a node is receiving long streams of bits, how does it determine
where a frame starts and stops or which bits represent the address?
Framing breaks the stream into decipherable groupings, with control
information inserted in the header and trailer as values in different fields.
This format gives the physical signals a structure that can be received by
nodes and decoded into packets at the destination. The data link layer
frame includes:
Header: Contains control information, such as addressing, and is located at the beginning of the PDU.
Data: Contains the IP header, transport layer header, and application data.

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Packet Loss
Packet loss occurs when one or more packets
of data travelling across a computer network
fail to reach their destination.
Queue preceding link in buffer has finite
capacity.
Packet arrived to full queue is dropped (lost).
Lost packet may be retransmitted by previous
node, by source end system, or not at all.

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