Notes of DIT

Notes of Computer Network

Chapter No 1

Define the Network and its Types?

When one or more than one computer are connected with each other for the purpose of

sharing information and share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or

allow electronic communications is called Network. The entire computer in the network

may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light

beams.

Following are different type of Computer Network

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

3. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

4. Wireless LAN (WLAN)

5. Wireless WAN (WWAN)

6. Enterprise network

7. Global network

1. Local Area Network

The network in a single building or some group of building is called local area network.

Generally we sat that the network which is established relatively small area is called

local area network. For example network in a lab, in schools and in a building. The

smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate

thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for

increased speed and security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. High

speed and relatively low cost are the defining characteristics of LANs.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or

the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs.

The Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN. We say collection of more

than one network on relatively large aria is called wide area network.

3. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an entire

city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically

limited to a single building or site. Depending on the configuration, this type of network

can cover an area from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect

several LANs together to form a bigger network.

4. Wireless LAN (WLAN)

WLANs provide wireless network communication over short distances using radio or

infrared signals instead of traditional network cabling. These types of networks don’t
require that devices rely on physical cables to connect to the network. A WLAN typically

extends an existing wired local area network. For example Mobile User is Connected

Through Wi-Fi with local area network.

5. Wireless WAN (WWAN)

When two or more than two geographically separate computer networks connected

through wireless link, including infrared, satellite, and radio signals. The cellular towers

transmit a wireless signal over a range of several miles to a mobile device connect to

internet.

6. Enterprise network

The connection of different company office branches or different division are called

Enterprise network. The purpose of an enterprise network is to provide security by

stopping isolated users and workgroups and should be able to maintain and provide

performance and reliability.

7. Global network (GAN)

A global network is any communication network which spans the entire Earth. A global

area network (GAN) basically composed of different interconnected networks that cover

an unlimited geographical area. Internets, broadband GAN, GSM (Global System for

Mobile Communication) are some example of Global Networks.

 8. Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an individual

person within a single building. This could be inside a small office or residence. A typical

PAN would include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game

consoles and other personal entertainment devices.

Advantages of Network

1) File Sharing: - You can easily share data between different users, or access it

remotely if you keep it on other connected devices. We can also share the Hardware

like that printer, DVD etc.

2) Software Cost and Management: - Networking manages the overall cost of the

administration by sharing the software and hardware.

3) Sharing a single internet connection: - If you have only one connection of internet

at your home or office then with the help of networking you can use same connection on

all of your computer and devices.

4) Resource Sharing: - All computers in the network can share resources such as

printers, fax machines, modems, and scanners.

5) Flexible Access: - Networks allow their users to access files from computers

throughout the network. This means that a user can begin work on a project on one

computer and finish up on another. Multiple users can also collaborate on the same

project through the network.

6) Desk Top Sharing: - With the Help of Networking you can access other computer

remotely other place.

Disadvantages of Network

1. Server faults stop applications being available

2. Network faults can cause loss of data.

3. Network fault could lead to loss of resources

4. User work dependent upon network

5. There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security

procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.

6. Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a

computer network to get and share some of their files and resources, a certain

user’s security would be always at risk.

7. Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.

8. Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.

9. Resources could be located too far from users.

Peer-to-peer networks and Server based network

Peer-to-peer networks

Peer-to-Peer network is a network which is established without dedicating server. All the

computer on the network may be server and may be client some time. All the computer

work independently and the directory information such that user and password

information separately store on each computer.

Advantages of peer networks

1. Peer Computers have many advantages especially for small business that

cannot afford to Invest expensive Server, hardware and. Software.

2. Easy Setup

3. No Network administrator required.

4. Ability of users to Control resources sharing.

Disadvantages of peer-to-pee

1. This system is not centralized, making administration difficult

2. Lack of security

3. No link in the network is reliable

Server Base Network

It is a important concept for networking. Server is a system which shares the resources

on the network for client system. When a client link to server its check the security rule

and give permission to client. Clients request Services such as file the server delivers

Storage and Printing. The organization who want to store the data centrally and then

access from different location use server system.

Advantages of server based networks

1. Server based Network has a great many advantages, including:

2. Storage Central Security

 3. Central file Storage, which allows all users to work from the Same Set of data

and provides easy backup.

4. Ability to Share expanses equipment such as laser printers.

5. Easy manageability of a large number of users.

6. Central organization, which keep data from getting lost among Computers.

Disadvantages of server based networks

1. Expensive dedicated hardware.

2. Expensive Network Operating System.

3. A dedicated network administrator required.

What is Data?

The information in raw form is called data. So we say that the measurement, number,

quantities, characters, or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer

and may be stored on media. Data can also be defined as any fact and figure is called

data.

Types of Data

When we talk about data communication then there are basically two types of data is

used.

Analog data

The data which is represented in a physical way and representing by physical properties

and can be express any value along a continuous scale is called analog data. The
analogue clock is simple example of analog data where change is continues. Sound

ways is also example if analog data.

Digital data

A discrete and discontinuous representation of information is called digital data. The

most electronic devices such as Computers, cameras, mobile phones stored and

processed the data inform of number is called digital data. These numbers are in form

of binary number means that 0 and 1 which represent the switches On or OFF. For

example when we store the audio data in the form of ones and zeros. The audio device

such as CD Player , read these ones and zeros and translate into actual signals.

Computer software is a collection of numeric codes which tell the computer what to do

this is also an example of digital data.

Data Transfer Rate (DTR) or DR

The data transfer rate (DTR) is the amount of digital data that is moved from one place

to another in a given time. The data transfer rate can be viewed as the speed of travel

of a given amount of data from one place to another. In general, the greater the

bandwidth of a given path, the higher the data transfer rate. In telecommunications, data

transfer is usually measured in bits per second. For example, a typical low-speed

connection to the Internet may be 33.6 kilobits per second (Kbps).

Baud rate

The baud rate is the rate which is used for the communication purpose and it is used to

identify that how much of the data had been transferred but at how much speed. The
rate indicates the number of electrical oscillations (regular variation) per second that

occurs within a data transmission. The higher the baud rate, the more bits per second

that are transferred.

Chapter No 2

What is Network Topology?

Network topology means the physical or logical layout of a network in which define how

the different nodes are placed and interconnected with each other and also describe

how the data is transferred between these nodes.

The Star Topology

In this topology each of the devices and computers on a network connect to a central

hub / switch. A major disadvantage of this type of network topology is that if the central

hub fails, all computers connected to that hub would be disconnected. All information on

a star network first passes through the hub or switch before continuing to its destination.

It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. Mostly we use twisted pair cable to connect

the entire computer with central device but we can also use coaxial or fiber optical

cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. It is easy to modify and can add new computer or remove without disturbing the

rest of the network.

2. If a single computer Fail in The Network it’s not disturb the whole Network.

3. Several cable type can be used in same network with a hub

 4. Easy to install and wire

5. Easy to detect faults and remove parts

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Requires more cable length then a linear topology

2. If the hub or connector fail, nodes attach are disturb.

3. More expensive then linear bus topology because of the cast of the

concentration.

Ring Topology

In Ring topology all the devices or computer are connected to each other in a circular

shape. All the data which will be send move around the ring until it reaches its final

destination.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. In Ring Topology all the traffic flows in only one direction at very high speed.

2. Each computer has equal access to resources..

3. If a terminal working as the central computer. Any other node can be made by

central computer and the network keep on the working

There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.

Disadvantage of Ring Topology

1. Failure of the one computer of the ring can be effective the whole network.
 2. It is difficult to trouble shoot a ring network.

3. Adding and removing computer disturb the network

4. The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more

expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

The Bus Topology

In This topology all the computer and devices are connected to a single cable. This is

typically use in a small networks and take the advantage of using less cable. Their main

disadvantage is that if any segment of the network fails, all transmissions do as well.

Advantages of bus topology

1. The bus is simple, reliable in a very small network, easy to use and east to

understand

2. The bus requires the last amount of cable to connect the computer together and

therefore less expensive than other cabling arrangement

3. It is easy to extend a bus.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.

2. It is difficult be easy to troubleshoot a bus. If there is an error in the system it

cannot be easily to detect.

3. The entire network shuts down if there is a break with main cable.

Tree topology
In tree topology more than two hubs are connected each other this topology is collection

of linear bus and star topology. The Each star network is a local area network with

central computer or server and the entire node direct ally link to this server and the

central computers or server of the star networks are connected to a main cable called

the bus.

Advantages of Tree topology

1. Point to point wiring for individual segments.

2. Supported by several hardware and software venders.

3. Easier maintenance and fault finding

Disadvantages of Tree topology

1. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

2. If the backbone line breaks the entire segment goes down.

3. Huge cabling is needed.

4. A lot of maintenance is needed.

5. Backbone forms the point of failure.

Mesh Topology

In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are

interconnected with one another, allowing for most of the transmission to be distributed ,

even if one of the connection go down. This type of topology is very expensive as there
are many redundant connections, thus it is not mostly used in computer networks. It is

commonly used in wireless networks.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously.

2. This topology can withstand high traffic.

3. Even if one of the components fails data transfer doesn’t get affected.

4. Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other

nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.

2. Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network

topologies.

3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult.

Chapter No 3

Elements of networks

The objects basically used in computer network are known as Computer Network

Elements. Following are the basic elements of Computer Network:

1) Sending and Receiving Terminal:

Terminal is a computer or other equipment that allow a user to input data into a system

and also receive data over computer communication lines.

2) Protocols:

Protocols are some defined rules and conventions for communication between network

devices. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make

connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is

packaged into sent and received messages.

3) Software:

Network software is a foundational element for any network. This type of software helps

administrators deploy, manage and monitor a network. The traditional networks are

made up of specialized hardware, such as routers and switches, that bundle the

networking software into the solution.

4) Hardware:

Communication medium and other devices which are use for interconnecting and

transmission purpose are the computer Network Hardware, for example NIC, Switch

etc.

Components of Local Area Network ( LAN)

Different components of a local area network are as follows:

1. Communication Media
Communication media is used to transfer data from one computer to another computer.

Low-cost LANs are connected with twisted wire pair. Many LANs use coaxial or fiber-

optic cables. Some LANs use wireless transmission media.

2. NIC

NIC stands for network interface card. It is also known as network adapter. A network

interface card is a device that physically connects each computer to a network.

3. Terminal

Terminal is a computer or other devices which are connected with in Local area

Network. Terminal may be a Server and Workstation. Where Server share the

resources and Workstation Use these resources.

4. Switch/ HUB

A Hub / Switch is a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs / Switch

contain more than one port. The all the computer are connected on that port when we

send the data to any computer to other computer then in Hub its switch from one port to

destination port.

5. Protocols:

Protocols are some defined rules and conventions for communication between network

devices. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make

connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is

packaged into sent and received messages.

6. LAN Software:
Once the physical building blocks of the LAN are put into place, the next step is to make

them functional. Software is needed for devices to function cooperatively and effectively

on the LAN.

What is Modem and describe its Different Types?

Modem:

Modem short for modulator-demodulator. In communication modem converts the digital

data in to analog so that it transmits over the phone line because phone line transmits

analog data. in the same way on the other hand when data is received modem again

convert this analog data in to digital single so that computer store and process on this

information.

Types of Modem

1) INTERNAL MODEM

2) EXTERNAL MODEM

3) FAX MODEM

4) DIAL UP MODEM

5) DSL MODEM

6) ISDN MODEMS

7) AUTO ANSWER MODEM

1) INTERNAL MODEM:
An internal modem or on-board modem is a type of modem which is installed on the

slots of mother board. This modem is an expansion card.

2) EXTERNAL MODEM:

External modem is a removable device which is used for communication purpose. This

type of modem is externally connected with computer with COM Port or USB port and

has some lights which indicate the processing status.

3) FAX MODEM

Fax modem enables a computer to transmit and receive documents on a telephone line

normally called Fax. With a fax modem a Computer perform like a Fax Machine.

4) DIAL UP MODEM:

Dial-up reference to a telephone connection in a system of many lines shared by many

users. Dial-up modems use traditional copper phone lines to transmit analog signals

that are classified according to the modulation standards outlined.

5) DSL MODEM

DSL (digital subscriber line) modem also called broadband modem is used for providing

broadband service to different kind of Internet connection. This modem transmits height

speed data. DSL modems are suitable for high speed internet and data transfer over

ordinary phone line.

6) ISDN MODEMS

ISDN stand for Integrated Services for Digital Network is a type of communication

standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video data over single wire or
optical fiber. It can operate over a stander telephone, wires or other media. It is

completely digital in a nature from one end of the connection to another.

7) AUTO ANSWER MODEM

By this modem your computer can receive telephone calls in your absence. It is

necessary when your computer service that people use for calls. In auto-answer mode,

MODEM attempts to establish a connection whenever the telephone rings. Auto-answer

is also a critical feature for fax modems because it enables you to receive fax

documents while you are away. All fax machines are auto-answer.

What is Access Point (AP)?

An access point is a wireless network device that acts as a portal for devices to connect

to a local area network. Access points are used for extending the wireless coverage of

an existing network and for increasing the number of users that can connect to it.

A high-speed Ethernet cable runs from a router to an access point, which transforms the

wired signal into a wireless one. Wireless connectivity is typically the only available

option for access points, establishing links with end-devices using Wi-Fi.

What is Hubs / Switch?

A Hub is a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs contain more then

one ports. The all the computer are connected on that port when we send the data to

any computer to other computer then in Hub its switch from one port to destination port.

There are three main types of hub:

 1. Passive hub

2. Active hub

3. Intelligent hub

1) Passive hub:

A passive hub simply combines the signals of the network segment. It does not provide

any processing or regeneration of signals. when any one send the data then Each

computer can receive the signal to all computers connected to the hub.

2) Active hub:

Active hub is a central connecting device such as a computer or router that not only

provides connectivity but also regenerates and retransmits the signals sent through it

and send to proper destination.

3) Intelligent hub:

This hub also work like active hub and also have some extra features as compare to

active hub for example network management, bridging, routing and switching. This

intelligent hub gives the remote monitoring and management through Simple Network

Management Protocol (SNMP). Which provide:

 Setting alerts on problem conditions such as excessive collisions

 Isolating and disconnecting problem computers

 Providing network statistics to remote management consoles

What is Repeaters?
Repeater is a hardware device, which is used to extend LAN. When the distance of

local area network is to long then we use a special device repeater which Receive

analog data and convert to digital data and the regenerate a new clean analog signal.

The repeater connects directly to the cable. The maximum size of LAN is 500 meter so

we can increase this size by using a pair of repeater by connecting each LAN segment

to make a network, 1500 meter long.

What is Bridges?

The bridge is a hardware that connects a LAN to LAN that uses the same protocol. The

function of Bridges is its filter and reduced the traffic. For example when a message is

send from any computer then its decides whether a message from you to someone else

is going to the local area network or other local area network.

What is Router?

Router is device which connect two networks for example local network and internet.

Routers determine whether the source and destination are on the same network or

whether data must be transferred from one network type to another. Routers contain

software called firmware for example it contains DHCP which provide IP address to all

connected device. Router is also providing the facility of Switch or Hub. Router is also

use as access point. For example, routers are commonly used in home networks to

share a single Internet connection between multiple computers through cable or

wirelessly through Wi-Fi.

What is Gateway?

Gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. When router

routing the information from one network to another network then gateway specify the

exits point and when any information is coming from another network then gateway is

entry point. for example a device which is provide from ISP for internet service is a

getaway which create exist and entry point to next network.

Network / Communication Media

The means from which information is transmitted are called communication media.

There are different media are used for transmitting data from one place to another

place.

The following are the two major types of communication media are:

1. Cable communication media

2. Wireless media

Cable Communication Media/ Guided media

Cable is the medium of communication through which information usually moves from

one device to another device within one network or different network. There are several

types of cable, which are commonly used for communication. The type of cable chosen

for a network is depending on your topology, protocol, and size of network.

Cable media consist of:

 1. Twisted pair cables.

2. Coaxial cable.

3. Fiber optic cables.

1) Twisted Pair Cables

Twisted Pair cable consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around one

another. The purpose of two wires twisted together is reducing crosstalk and

electromagnetic induction. Twisted pair cable is used in telephone network and also

local aria computer networking at home and much company. There are two type of

Twisted Pair cable are available:

(a) Shielded Pair Cable (STP): Some time twisted pair insolated with a special kind of

copper surrounding the wires to protect the transmission.

Unshielded Pair Cable (UTP): Unshielded twisted Pair cable (UTP) consists of a

number of twisted pairs with a simple plastic casing. This cable is commonly use for

local area networking due to less expensive.

2) Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable was invented in 1929 and first used on commercial basics in 1941.

Coaxial cable consists of a center wire surrounded by insulation and then outer channel

used as ground. The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference.

Coaxial cable is used by cable TV companies between the community antenna and

user homes and businesses. This cable can carry information for a great distance.

Advantages
 1. Coaxial cable is relatively inexpensive.

2. Coaxial cable is simple as compare to other cables.

3. Band with is Up to 56 Kbps

4. Compared to twisted-pair, coax provides greater bandwidth system wide, and it

also offers greater bandwidth for each channel.

Disadvantages:

1. More expensive than twisted pairs and is not supported for some network

standards.

2. Along the length of the coaxial cable, part of the transmitted signal will be lost or

attenuated.

3. A small percent may escape the cable's shielding and more will be converted to

heat.

3) Fiber optical cables

Fiber Optical cable containing more than one optical glass that carry the signal in shape

of light. Each of the glass are individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a

protective tube suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed. Optical

fiber transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical

interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of

electrical interference. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much

longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. The optical fiber carry the information

with greater speeds.

Advantages of Fiber Optical

1. Work with grater bandwidth and capacity

2. The %age of Loss of signal is very low.

3. Immunity to Electrical Noise

4. No crosstalk

5. Freedom from short circuit and sparks

6. Reduced size and weight cables

7. Safe form radiation and temperature variations.

Disadvantages

1. Fiber optic versus metal cable is that it is difficult to make connections to fiber

optic cable.

2. The optical fiber must be highly polished to allow light to pass with little loss.

Wireless Medias or Unguided Media

When it is impossible to install wires and cables or cabling is expensive then you can

use Wireless Medias. Wireless media generate higher electromagnetic frequency, such

as radio wave, microwave and infrared. They transmit signal over a long distance. In

wireless transmission, various types of electromagnetic waves are used to transmit

signal. For example Radio satellite transmission visible light, infrared light, x- rays and

gamma rays.

Wireless media consist of:

 1. Radio waves transmission

2. Micro wave transmission

3. Infrared transmission

4. Radio Wave Transmission:

The radio wave one of the types of wireless media which transmit the signal through the

air, often over millions of miles. In this transmission electromagnetic (radio) energy

travels from a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna. It is used for the radio and

TV program for the portable phone. The computer data also transmitted in the form of

radio waves. It does not require a direct physical connection between computers. Each

computer attach to an antenna which transmit and receive radio frequency.

Types of Radio Waves

1. Short wave

2. Short wave

3. Ultra high frequency (UHF)

2) Micro wave transmission

Microwave transmission transmits the signal via radio using a series of microwave

towers. Microwave Communication is the most common wireless communication

medium and is spread widely across the world. The wireless access points and wireless

devices work on microwave communication. This communication medium widely used

in computers and also cellular communication as well.

3) Infrared Transmission:
Infrared radiation IR is electromagnetic radiation which is used for medium and short

range communications. Infrared communication device use infrared light beams to

transmit signal. Infrared is one of the most primitive forms of wireless communication.

Infrared Networks need to have the two devices in line with each other with an angle of

+_15 degrees. With infrared transmission, computers can transfer files and other digital

data bidirectional.

Network Cables Connector

1) RJ-45 Connector:

The RJ-45 connector is mostly used for network cabling and for telephony applications.

RJ-45 can also used for serial connections in computer devices. This connector used

for 10Base-T and 100Base-TX Ethernet connections.

2) RJ-11 Connector:

RJ-11 is abbreviation of Registered Jack – 11, used in telephone set. The RJ-11

connects the telephone set to telephone line and also telephone hand receiver to

telephone set. The RJ-11 can also be used in some type of local area network. RJ-11

used 4 or 6 twisted pair cable.

3) BNC Connector:

Short for Bayonet connector. This type of connector used with coaxial cables such as

the RG-58 cable used with the 10Base-2 Ethernet system. This connector has a center

pin connected to the center cable conductor and a metal tube connected to the outer

cable shield. A rotating ring outside the tube locks the cable to any female connector.
BNC connectors can also be used to connect some monitors, which increases the

accuracy of the signals sent from the video adapter.

Chapter No 5

OSI seven-layer model

The OSI is abbreviation of Open System Interconnection. The OSI model defines how

network protocol works it’s describe complete networking framework to implement

protocols in seven layers. The major purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide

vendors and developers who develop digital communication products and software

programs. So that they create will interoperate, and to facilitate clear comparisons

among communications tools.

Following are the seven layer of OSI Module:

1. Physical layer

2. Data link layer

3. Network layer

4. Transport layer

5. Session layer

6. Presentation layer

7. Application layer

7. Application Layer
The Application Layer is the one at the top. It’s what most users see. In the OSI model,

this is the layer that is the “closest to the end user”. Web browser (Google Chrome,

Firefox, Safari, etc.) or other app - Skype, Outlook, Office - are examples of Layer 7

applications.

6. Presentation Layer

Presentation layer represents the preparation or translation of application format to

network format, or from network formatting to application format. In other words, the

layer “presents” data for the application or the network. A good example of this is

encryption and decryption of data for secure transmission

5. Session Layer

When two devices, computers or servers need to “speak” with one another, a session

needs to be created, and this is done at the Session Layer. Functions at this layer

involve setup, coordination (how long should a system wait for a response, for example)

and termination between the applications at each end of the session.

4. Transport Layer

Transport layer work under the Network Layer. Network layer set the logical path

between sender and receiver and Transport layer transparently transfer the data

between end systems. So this layer is end-to-end communication over a network. This

layer is also responsible for the management of error correction, providing quality and

reliability to the end user.

3. Network Layer
This layer is responsible for packet forwarding, including routing through different

routers. You might know that your Boston computer wants to connect to a server in

California, but there are millions of different paths to take. Routers at this layer help do

this efficiently.

2. Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer provides node-to-node data transfer (between two directly

connected nodes), and also handles error correction from the physical layer. Two sub

layers exist here as well - the Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link

Control (LLC) layer. In the networking world, most switches operate at Layer 2.

1. Physical Layer

Physical Layer is bottom layer, which represents the electrical and physical

representation of the system. This can include everything from the cable type, radio

frequency link, as well as the layout of pins, voltages and other physical requirements.

When a networking problem occurs, many networking pros go right to the physical layer

to check that all of the cables are properly connected and that the power plug hasn’t

been pulled from the router, switch or computer, for example.

Chapter No 6

What is IP Address?
IP is an abbreviation for Internet Protocol. The IP identify a single computer on TCP/IP

Network. In network a name identify the computer and IP identify the address of

computer means where is this computer. The format of an IP address is a 32-bit

numeric address written as four numbers separated by periods. Each number can be

zero to 255. For example, 912.168.1.1 could be an IP address. Within an isolated

network, you can assign IP addresses at random as long as each one is unique.

However, connecting a private network to the Internet requires using registered IP

addresses (called Internet addresses) to avoid duplicates.

Following three IP address classes are used in TCP/IP Network.

Class A - supports 16 million hosts on each of 126 networks

Class B - supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks

Class C - supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks

ss Starting IP Address Ending IP Address

A 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255

B 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255

C 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255

IP version 4 addresses (IPv4 Addressing)

IPv4 is short from Internet Protocol Version 4 is the fourth version of the Internet

Protocol which are used to identify a single device a TCP/IP network through an

addressing system. In IPv4 an address consists of 32 bits, which allows 2^32 addresses

which are just over 4 billion addresses. IPv4 addresses consists of four decimal

numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots for example 192.168.1.1.

IP Version 6 protocol

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is a new and an upgrade version of IP version 4

(IPv4). Devices can use IPv6 as source and destination addresses to pass packets over

a network. The most obvious improvement in IPv6 over IPv4 is that IP addresses are

lengthened from 32 bits to 128 bits. Does not require manual configuration or DHCP .

IPv6 also supports auto-configuration to help correct most of the shortcomings in

version 4. Ip 6 Supports a 1280-byte packet size (without fragmentation).

What is sub netting?

Subnetting is the strategy used to partition a single physical network into more than one

smaller logical sub-networks (subnets). Subnets were initially designed for solving the

shortage of IP addresses over the Internet. Subnets are designed by accepting bits from

the IP address's host part and using these bits to assign a number of smaller sub-

networks inside the original network. Subnetting allows an organization to add sub-

networks without the need to acquire a new network number via the Internet service

provider (ISP). Subnetting helps to reduce the network traffic and conceals network

complexity. Subnetting is essential when a single network number has to be allocated

over numerous segments of a local area network (LAN). For Example if we have two

partition in our network A- with ip 10.0.0.0/24 and B: with IP 10.1.0.0/24

Access Point

In a wireless local area network (WLAN), an access point is a station that transmits and

receives data (sometimes referred to as a transceiver). An access point connects users

to other users within the network and also can serve as the point of interconnection

between the WLAN and a fixed wire network. Each access point can serve multiple

users within a defined network area as people move beyond the range of one access

point, they are automatically handed over to the next one.

Routed Protocols

A routed protocol is a Network Layer protocol that is used to move traffic between

networks. IP, IPX, and AppleTalk are all examples of routed protocols. Routed protocols

are contains a network address as well as a device address. It allows packets to be

forwarded from one network to another. For example TCP/IP, IPX, AppleTalk etc are

the some of the routed protocols.