UNIT-I

Computer Networks: -

 A computer network consists of two or more computing devices that are connected in order
to share the components of your network (its resources) and the information you store
there, as shown in Figure 1.1. The most basic computer network (which consists of just two
connected computers) can expand and become more usable when additional computers join
and add their resources to those being shared.

 The real power of networking computers becomes apparent if you envision your own
network growing and then connecting it with other distinct networks, enabling
communication and resource sharing across both networks. That is, one network can be
connected to another network and become a more powerful tool because of the greater
resources.
 The Importance/Advantage of Computer Networks
i) Sharing of devices such as printer and scanner
ii) a Sharing of program/software/files,
iii) Sharing of data and information,
iv) Sharing of single high-speed internet connection
v) Can access server centred database
vi) Better communication using internet services such as email, mailing list and
Internet Relat Chat (IRC)
 Computers connected to a network are broadly categorized as servers or workstations.
SERVER: - Servers are generally not used by humans directly, but rather run continuously to
provide "services" to the other computers (and their human users) on the network.
o Services provided can include printing and faxing, software hosting, file storage and
sharing, messaging, data storage and retrieval, complete access control (security) for
the network's resources, and many others.
WORKSTATION: - Workstations are called such because they typically do have a human user
which interacts with the network through them.
o Workstations were traditionally considered a desktop, consisting of a computer,
keyboard, display, and mouse, or a laptop, with integrated keyboard, display, and
touchpad. With the advent of the tablet computer, and the touch screen devices
such as iPad and iPhone.
  COMPAIRING SERVER AND WORKSTATION: -
o Servers tend to be more powerful than workstations, although configurations are
guided by needs. For example, a group of servers might be located in a secure area,
away from humans, and only accessed through the network. In such cases, it would
be common for the servers to operate without a dedicated display or keyboard.
However, the size and speed of the server's processor(s), hard drive, and main
memory might add dramatically to the cost of the system.
o On the other hand, a workstation might not need as much storage or working
memory, but might require an expensive display to accommodate the needs of its
user. Every computer on a network should be appropriately configured for its use.

Types of Computer Networks

A. On the Basis of Scalability

1). LAN: - A local area network is a network that connects Local Area Network (LAN) computers and
device in a limited geographical area such as a home, school computer laboratory, office building.

 On a single LAN, computers and servers may be connected by cables or wirelessly.

 Wireless access to a wired network is made possible by wireless access points (WAPs). These
WAP devices provide a bridge between computers and networks. A typical WAP might have
the theoretical capacity to connect hundreds or even thousands of wireless users to a
network, although practical capacity might be far less.
 Nearly always servers will be connected by cables to the network, because the cable
connections remain the fastest. Workstations which are stationary (desktops) are also
usually connected by a cable to the network, although the cost of wireless adapters has
dropped to the point that, when installing workstations in an existing facility with
inadequate wiring, it can be easier and less expensive to use wireless for a desktop.

Advantages of LAN

 Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and hard disks
can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and hardware purchases.
 Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network instead of
purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.
 Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over networked
computers.
 Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the server
computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access their data. Because
data is not stored on workstations locally.
 Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to manage data
at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
 Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing system keeps the
internet expenses cheaper.

Disadvantages of LAN

 High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer resources,
but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
 Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files of each and
every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and computer use history of the
LAN user.
 Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an organization if
centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.
 LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because, there are
problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in Local Area
Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.
 Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one building or a
group of nearby buildings.

2). MAN: - A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a high speed Metropolitan Area network that
connects local area networks in a Network (MAN) metropolitan area such as city or town and
handles bulk of communication activity across the region A MAN typically includes one or more LAN
but covers a smaller geographic area than a WAN.

 It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and
uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city.
 It can be means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single
cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public company.

 It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)

 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN

 Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fibre optic
cables.
 It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions simultaneously.
 A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN

 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage (spying) graphical
regions.
3). WAN: - A wide area network is a network that covers a large Wide Area Network geographical
area such country or the world (WAN) WAN combines many types of media such as telephone lines,
cables and radio wave. A WAN can be one large network or can consist of two or more LANs
connected together. The internet is the world’s largest WAN.

 Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect networks in larger geographic areas, such as Florida,
the United States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be
used to connect this type of global network.
 Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter of
seconds, without paying enormous phone bills. Two users a half-world apart with
workstations equipped with microphones and a webcams might teleconference in real time.
 A WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers, bridges, and routers to connect local and
metropolitan networks to global communications networks like the Internet. To users,
however, a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN.

Advantages of WAN

 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can have
picture, sounds or data included with them (called attachments).
 Expensive things (such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all the
computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each computer.
 Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some users may
have older information than others.

Disadvantages of WAN

 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the network the
more expensive it is.
 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors and
technicians to be employed.
 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information from
other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.

2. On the Basis of

1. Peer to Peer: - A Peer-to-Peer network has no dedicated Servers. Here in Peer-to-Peer network, a
number of workstations (or clients) are connected together for the purpose of sharing devices,
information or data.

 All the workstations are considered as equal. Any one computer can act as client or server
at any instance.
 This network is ideal for small networks where there is no need for dedicated servers, like
home networks, small business networks, or retail shops. The Microsoft term for Peer-to-
Peer network is “Workgroup”.
 There is no limitation for the number of computers in a peer-to-peer network. But Peer-to-
Peer implementations are meant for small networks. Typically a Workgroup contain less
than 10 workstations.
  Peer-to-Peer computer networks are good for small business organizations. For example: A
small pharmacy outlet, An automobile service center, A small clinic etc. The main
disadvantage of Peer-to-Peer networks are listed below.
 Everything is kept distributed in different computers.
 User generated files are stored in individual computers. Data backup is extremely difficult.
 Each computer has its own user database. There is no centralized user & user privilege
management. Users need to remember their user ids and passwords in every computers.
Managing network users is extremely difficult.

2). Client to Server: - As the organization's network grows, they must gradually upgrade their Peer-
to-Peer network to Client-Server based network.

 The Client/Server computer network model is made-up of Client computers and Server
computers.
 Client: - A computer which is seeking any resource from another computer is a Client
Computer. You can think a client as a computer in your network, where a network user is
performing some network activity. For Example: Downloading a file from a File Server,
Browsing Intranet/Internet etc. The network user normally uses a client computer to
perform his day to day work.
 Server: - If a computer has a resource which is served to another computer, it is a Server
computer. The client establishes a connection to a Server and accesses the services installed
on the Server. A Server is not meant for a network user to browse in internet or do
spreadsheet work. A Server computer is installed with appropriate Operating System and
related Software to serve the network clients with one or more services, continuously
without a break.
  In a Client-Server network, high-end servers, installed with the Network Operating System
(Server Operating System) and the related software, serve the clients continuously on a
network, by providing them with specific services upon request.
 Client-Server networks require dedicated servers. Server hardware is more costlier than
normal Desktop computers. Client-Server networks cost more than peer-to-peer networks.
Network Operating System (Server Operating System) are also costlier than Desktop
Operating Systems.

DATA COMMUNICATION:-

Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver. Data
communication is said to be local if communicating devices are in the same building or a similarly
restricted geographical area.

The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The device that transmits the data is known as
source and the device that receives the transmitted data is known as receiver. Data communication
aims at the transfer of data and maintenance of the data during the process but not the actual
generation of the information at the source and receiver.

Datum mean the facts information statistics or the like derived by calculation or experimentation.
The facts and information so gathered are processed in accordance with defined systems of
procedure. Data can exist in a variety of forms such as numbers, text, bits and bytes. The Figure is an
illustration of a simple data communication system.
A data communication system may collect data from remote locations through data transmission
circuits, and then outputs processed results to remote locations. Figure provides a broader view of
data communication networks.

The different data communication techniques which are presently in widespread use evolved
gradually either to improve the data communication techniques already existing or to replace the
same with better options and features. Then, there are data communication jargons to contend with
such as baud rate, modems, routers, LAN, WAN, TCP/IP, ISDN, during the selection of
communication systems. Hence, it becomes necessary to review and understand these terms and
gradual development of data communication methods.

A Communication system has following components:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers,

pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.

2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.

3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver
computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and
receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.

4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender to
the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or
wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.

5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender and
receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.

DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING

 More often, however, distributed processing refers to local-area networks (LANs) designed
so that a single program can run simultaneously at various sites. Most distributed processing
systems contain sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels
out programs to utilize them.
 Remote computers cooperate via a network to appear as a local machine
 Users are given the impression that they are interacting with just one machine
 Spread computation and storage throughout a network of computers
 Applications are able to execute code on local machines and remote machines and to share
data, files and other resources among these machines
 Attributes of distributed systems: Performance, Scalability, Connectivity, Security, Reliability,
Fault tolerance.

Line Configuration

 Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attached to a link.
Line configuration is also referred to as connection. A Link is the physical communication
pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur, two
devices must be connected in same way to the same link at the same time.
 There are two possible line configurations.

1. Point-to-Point.

2. Multipoint.
1. Point-to-Point

 A Point to Point Line Configuration Provide dedicated link between two devices use actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two end including microwave & satellite link. Infrared
remote control & tvs remote control.
 The entire capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Most point-to-point line configurations use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the
two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
 Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most
conventional network topologies. It is also the simplest to establish and understand. To
visualize, one can consider point to point network topology as two phones connected end to
end for a two way communication

2. Multipoint Configuration
 Multipoint Configuration also known as Multidrop line configuration one or more than two
specific devices share a single link capacity of the channel is shared.
 More than two devices share the Link that is the capacity of the channel is shared now. With
shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line Config:
 Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, its called Spatially
shared line configuration
 Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link , then its called Temporally
shared or Time Shared Line Configuration

TOPOLOGY
 The term “Topology” refers to the way in which the end points or stations/computer systems,
attached to the networks, are interconnected. We have seen that a topology is essentially a
stable geometric arrangement of computers in a network. If you want to select a topology for
doing networking. You have attention to the following points.
 Application S/W and protocols.
 Types of data communicating devices.
 Geographic scope of the network.
 Cost.
 Reliability.
 Depending on the requirement there are different Topologies to construct a network.

(1) Mesh topology.

(2) Star topology.

(3) Tree (Hierarchical) topology.

(4) Bus topology.

(5) Ring topology.

(6) Cellular topology.

 Ring and mesh topologies are felt convenient for peer to peer transmission.
 Star and tree are more convenient for client server.
 Bus topology is equally convenient for either of them.

1. Mesh Topology
 The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of
subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including
all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.
 The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2

2. Star Topology
 In a star topology, cables run from every computer to a centrally located device called a
HUB. Star topology networks require a central point of connection between media segment.
These central points are referred to as Hubs.
 Hubs are special repeaters that overcome the electromechanical limitations of a media. Each
computer on a star network communicates with a central hub that resends the message
either to all the computers. (In a broadcast network) or only the destination computer. (In a
switched network).
 Ethernet 10 base T is a popular network based on the star topology.

3. Tree (Hierarchical) topology

 It is similar to the star network, but the nodes are connected to the secondary hub that in
turn is connected to the central hub.
 The central hub is the active hub.
 The active hub contains the repeater, which regenerates the bits pattern it receives before
sending them out.
 The secondary hub can be either active or passive.
 A passive hub provides a simple physical connection between the attached devices.

4. Bus topology
 A bus topology connects computers along a single or more cable to connect linearly. A
network that uses a bus topology is referred to as a "bus network" which was the original
form of Ethernet networks. Ethernet 10Base2 (also known as thin-net) is used for bus
topology.

5. Ring topology
 In ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point line configuration only with two
devices on either side of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device until it reaches its
destination.
 Each device in the ring has a repeater. When the devices receive the signal intended for the
other node, it just regenerates the bits and passes them along.
 Ring network passes a token.
 A token is a short message with the electronic address of the receiver.
 Each network interface card is given a unique electronic address, which is used to identify
the computer on the network.

6. Cellular topology
 The cellular topology is applicable only in case of wireless media that does not require cable
connection.
 In wireless media, each point transmits in a certain geographical area called a cell.
 Each cell represents a portion of the total network area.
  Devices that are in the cell communicate through a central hub. Hubs in different cells are
interconnected. They route data across the network and provide a complete network
infrastructure.
 The data is transmitted in the cellular digital packet data (CDPD) format.

Transmission Mode

 A given transmission on a communications channel between two machines can occur in

several different ways. The transmission is characterized by:
o the direction of the exchanges
o the transmission mode: the number of bits sent simultaneously
o synchronization between the transmitter and receiver
 Types of Transmission mode
i. Simplex
ii. Half Duplex
iii. Full Duplex

i) Simplex

A simplex connection is a connection in which the data flows in only one direction, from the
transmitter to the receiver. This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to flow in both
directions (for example, from your computer to the printer or from the mouse to your computer...).

ii) Half Duplex

A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating connection or semi-duplex) is a

connection in which the data flows in one direction or the other, but not both at the same time.
With this type of connection, each end of the connection transmits in turn. This type of connection
makes it possible to have bidirectional communications using the full capacity of the line.

iii) Full Duplex

A full-duplex connection is a connection in which the data flow in both directions simultaneously.
Each end of the line can thus transmit and receive at the same time, which means that the
bandwidth is divided in two for each direction of data transmission if the same transmission medium
is used for both directions of transmission.

OSI MODEL

If network communications need to happen without any trouble, many problems must be solved.
Coordinating all these problems are so complex and not easy to manage. To make these tasks
smooth, in 1977 the International Standards Organization (ISO) proposed the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) network model. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model breaks down
the problems involved in moving data from one computer to another computer. Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model categorizes these hundreds of problems to Seven Layers. A layer in
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a portion that is used to categorize specific problems.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Seven Layered reference model is only just a reference model.
All the problems which are related to the communications are answered by specific protocols
operating at different layers. The following image shows the seven layers described in Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.
1. PHYSICAL LAYER

 At Layer 1, the Physical layer of the OSI model is responsible for ultimate transmission of
digital data bits from the Physical layer of the sending (source) device over network
communications media to the Physical layer of the receiving (destination) device.
 Examples of Layer 1 technologies include Ethernet cables and Token Ring networks.
Additionally, hubs and other repeaters are standard network devices that function at the
Physical layer, as are cable connectors.
 At the Physical layer, data are transmitted using the type of signalling supported by the
physical medium: electric voltages, radio frequencies, or pulses of infrared or ordinary light.
 Functions of Physical Layer:
i. Data Encoding: Modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC
to better accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit
and frame synchronization.
ii. Physical Medium Attachment, Accommodating Various Possibilities in the Medium.
iii. Transmission Technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted
by baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signalling.
iv. Physical Medium Transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals
appropriate for the physical medium.
v. Protocols used at physical layer are ISDN, IEEE 802 and IEEE 802.2.
vi. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both transmitter as well as receiver thus
providing synchronization at bit level.
 vii. Provides physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: Physical layer manages
the way a device connects to network media. For example, if the physical connection
from the device to the network uses coaxial cable, the hardware that functions at
the physical layer will be designed for that specific type of network. All components
including connectors are also specified at physical layer.
viii. Bit rate control: Physical layer defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent in one second. Therefore it defines the duration of a bit.
ix. Line configuration: Physical layer also defines the way in which the devices are
connected to the medium. Two different line configurations are used point to point
configuration and multipoint configuration. To activate, maintain and deactivate the
physical connection.
x. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are:
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
xi. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh.
xii. Multiplexing: Physical layer can use different techniques of multiplexing, in order to
improve the channel efficiency.
xiii. Circuit switching: Physical layer also provides the circuit switching to interconnect
different networks.

2. DATA LINK LAYER

 When obtaining data from the Physical layer, the Data Link layer checks for physical
transmission errors and packages bits into data "frames".
 The Data Link layer also manages physical addressing schemes such as MAC addresses for
Ethernet networks, controlling access of any various network devices to the physical
medium.
 Because the Data Link layer is the single most complex layer in the OSI model, it is often
divided into two parts, the "Media Access Control" sublayer and the "Logical Link Control"
sublayer.
 Functions of Data Link Layer:
i. Link Establishment and Termination: Establishes and terminates the logical link
between two nodes.
ii. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
iii. Frame Traffic Control: Tells the transmitting node to "back-off algorithm" when no
frame buffers are available.
iv. Frame Sequencing: Transmits/receives frames sequentially.
v. Frame Acknowledgment: Provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and
recovers from errors that occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-
acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt.
vi. Frame Delimiting: Creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
vii. Frame Error Checking: Checks received frames for integrity.
viii. Media Access Management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the
physical medium.
ix. Flow control: It is the traffic regulatory mechanism implemented by Data Link layer
that prevents the fast sender from drowning the slow receiver. If the rate at which
data is absorbed by receiver is less that the rate produced in the sender, the data
link layer imposes this flow control mechanism.
 x. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged· or lost frames. It also deals with the problem of
duplicate frame, thus providing reliability to physical layer.
xi. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,
MAC sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over
the channel at a given time.
xii. Feedback: After transmitting the frames, the system waits for the feedback. The
receiving device then sends the acknowledgement frames back to the source
providing the receipt of the frames.

3. NETWORK LAYER

 The Network layer adds the concept of routing above the Data Link layer. When data arrives
at the Network layer, the source and destination addresses contained inside each frame are
examined to determine if the data has reached its final destination.
 If the data has reached the final destination, this Layer 3 formats the data into packets
delivered up to the Transport layer. Otherwise, the Network layer updates the destination
address and pushes the frame back down to the lower layers.
 To support routing, the Network layer maintains logical addresses such as IP addresses for
devices on the network. The Network layer also manages the mapping between these logical
addresses and physical addresses. In IP networking, this mapping is accomplished through
the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
 Functions of Network Layer:
i. Subnet Traffic Control: Routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a
sending station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer
fills up.
ii. Logical-Physical Address Mapping: translates logical addresses, or names, into
physical addresses.
iii. Subnet Usage Accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames
forwarded by subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information.
 In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a node and
its immediate neighbour, but the neighbour may be a node through which data is
routed, not the destination station. The source and destination stations may be
separated by many intermediate systems.
iv. Internetworking
• One of the main responsibilities of network layer is to provide internetworking
between different networks.
• It provides logical connection between different types of network.
• It is because of this layer, we can combine various different networks to form a
bigger network.
v. Logical Addressing
• Large number of different networks can be combined together to from bigger
networks or internetwork.
• In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer defines
an addressing scheme.
• Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
vi. Routing
• When independent networks or links are combined together to create internet
works, multiple routes are possible from source machine to destination machine.
 • The network layer protocols determine which route or path is best from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
• Routes frames among networks.
vii. Packetizing
• The network layer receives the data from the upper layers and creates its own
packets by encapsulating these packets. The process is known as packetizing.
• This packetizing in done by Internet Protocol (IP) that defines its own packet
format.
viii. Fragmentation
• Fragmentation means dividing the larger packets into small fragments.
• The maximum size for a transportable packet in defined by physical layer protocol.
• For this, network layer divides the large packets into fragments so that they can be
easily sent on the physical medium.
• If it determines that a downstream router's maximum transmission unit (MTU) size
is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for transmission and re-
assembly at the destination station.

4. TRANSPORT LAYER

 The Transport Layer delivers data across network connections. TCP is the most common
example of a Transport Layer 4 network protocol.
 Different transport protocols may support a range of optional capabilities including error
recovery, flow control, and support for re-transmission.
 Functions of Transport Layer:
i. Segmentation of message into packet and reassembly of packets into message:
accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller
units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the
network layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
ii. Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
iii. Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message
buffers are available.
iv. Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one
logical link and keeps track of which messages belong to which sessions.
v. Service point addressing: The purpose of transport layer is to delivery message from
one process running on source machine to another process running on destination
machine. It may be possible that several programs or processes are running on both
the machines at a time. In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address.
Thus by specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process on destination machine.
vi. Flow control: Like Data link layer, transport layer also performs flow control.
Transport layer makes sure that the sender and receiver communicate at a rate they
both can handle. Therefore flow control prevents the source from sending data
packets faster than the destination can handle. Here, flow control is performed end-
to-end rather than across a link.

5. SESSION LAYER
  The Session Layer manages the sequence and flow of events that initiate and tear down
network connections.
 At Layer 5, it is built to support multiple types of connections that can be created
dynamically and run over individual networks.
 Functions of Session Layer:
i. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application
processes on different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, called
a session.
ii. Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate
over the network, performing security, name recognition, logging and so on.
iii. Dialog control: Dialog control is the function of session layer that determines which
device will communicate first and the amount of data that will be sent.

6. PRESENTATION LAYER

 The Presentation layer is the simplest in function of any piece of the OSI model. At Layer 6, it
handles syntax processing of message data such as format conversions and encryption /
decryption needed to support the Application layer above it.
 Functions of Presentation Layer:
i. Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
ii. Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
iii. Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
iv. Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password
encryption.

7. APPLICATION LAYER

 The Application layer supplies network services to end-user applications. Network services
are typically protocols that work with user's data. For example, in a Web browser
application, the Application layer protocol HTTP packages the data needed to send and
receive Web page content.
 This Layer 7 provides data to (and obtains data from) the Presentation layer.
 Function of Application Layer:
i. Resource sharing and device redirection.
ii. Remote file access.
iii. Remote printer access.
iv. Inter-process communication.
v. Network management.
vi. Directory services.
vii. Electronic messaging (such as mail).

TCP/IP MODEL

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department of
Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network
interconnection to connect remote machines.

The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model
were:
  Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and destination
machines were functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets) another
application running on different computer.

Description of different TCP/IP protocols

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

i. Lowest layer of the all.

ii. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
iii. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

i. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is

called an internet layer.
ii. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
iii. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
iv. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
v. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
vi. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
Delivering IP packets
Performing routing
Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

i. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

ii. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
iii.The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
iv. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
v. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
vi. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

i. The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol
stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
ii. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine and
run applications on it.
iii. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
iv. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail
between a source and destination, directed via a route.
v. DNS (Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected
over a network.
vi. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
vii. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
 o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol which
handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.
o UDP (User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do not
want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.

Comparison of OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model

Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP
Reference Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /

Internet Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard

standard, acting as a communication protocols around which the Internet has
gateway between the network and end developed. It is a communication protocol,
user. which allows connection of hosts over a
network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does
guarantees the delivery of packets. not guarantees delivery of packets. Still the
TCP/IP model is more reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate Presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate
layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.

5. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented. 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented

and Connection less.

6. Network Layer is both Connection 6. Network Layer is Connection less.

Oriented and Connection less.

7. OSI is a reference model around which 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of
the networks are built. Generally it is used the OSI model.
as a guidance tool.
 8. Network layer of OSI model provides 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
both connection oriented and connectionless service.
connectionless service.

9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.

10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
are easily replaced as the technology
changes.

11. OSI model defines services, interfaces 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and
and protocols very clearly and makes clear protocols are not clearly separated. It is also
distinction between them. It is protocol protocol dependent.
independent.

12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers

MODEM

Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer from one
computer network to another computer network through telephone lines. The computer network
works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying massages across phone lines.

Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting end and
demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end. The process of converting
analog signals of one computer network into digital signals of another computer network so they
can be processed by a receiving computer is referred to as digitizing.

When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices called Data
Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end. DTE can be a terminal or a computer.
The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE into an analog
signal by modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end demodulates the carrier and hand
over the demodulated digital signal to the DTE.

The transmission medium between the two modems can be dedicated circuit or a switched
telephone circuit. If a switched telephone circuit is used, then the modems are connected to the
local telephone exchanges. Whenever data transmission is required connection between the
modems is established through telephone exchanges.

Types of Modems

• Modems can be of several types and they can be categorized in a number of ways.
• Categorization is usually based on the following basic modem features:

1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.

2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.

3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem and synchronous modem.

Half duplex and full duplex Modems

Half duplex

1. A half-duplex modem permits transmission in one direction at a time.

2. If a carrier is detected on the line by the modem, I gives an indication of the incoming carrier to
the DTE through a control signal of its digital interface.

3. As long as they camel' IS being received; the modem does not give permission to the DTE to
transmit data.

Full duplex

• A full duplex modem allows simultaneous transmission in both directions.

• Therefore, there are two carriers on the line, one outgoing and the other incoming. Wire and 4-
wire Modems.

• The line interface of the modem can have a 2-wire or a 4-wire connection to transmission medium.

4-wire Modem

• In a 4-wire connection, one pair of wires is used for the outgoing carrier and the other pair is used
for incoming carrier.

• Full duplex and half duplex modes of data transmission are possible on a 4- wire connection.

• As the physical transmission path for each direction is separate, the same carrier frequency can be
used for both the directions.

2-wire Modem

• 2-wire modems use the same pair of wires for outgoing and incoming carriers.

• A leased 2-wireconrlection is usually cheaper than a 4-wire connection as only one pair of wires is
extended to the subscriber's premises.

• The data connection established through telephone exchange is also a 2-wire connection.

• In 2-wire modems, half duplex mode of transmission that uses the same frequency for the
incoming and outgoing carriers can be easily implemented.

• For full duplex mode of operation, it is necessary to have two transmission channels, one for
transmit direction and the other for receive direction.

• This is achieved by frequency division multiplexing of two different carrier frequencies. These
carriers are placed within the bandwidth of the speech channel.

Synchronous Modem
• Synchronous modems can handle a continuous stream of data bits but requires a clock signal.

• The data bits are always synchronized to the clock signal.

• There are separate clocks for the data bits being transmitted and received.

• For synchronous transmission of data bits, the DTE can use its internal clock and supply the same
to the modem.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one place to another. The
first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven layer model is dedicated to the
transmission media, we will study the OSI Model later.

 Factors to be considered while selecting a Transmission Medium

Transmission Rate
Cost and Ease of Installation
Resistance to Environmental Conditions
Distances

GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include Twisted-
Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, and Fibre-Optic Cable.

A signal travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the
medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current. Optical fibre is a cable that accepts and transports signals in
the form of light.

Twisted Pair Cable

 This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap,
can be installed easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important
points :
Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
 Repeater spacing is 2km.
 A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together. One of these wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and
the other is used only as ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the
two.
 In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference(noise) and
crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel,
the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they are at
different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources. This results in a difference at
the receiver.
 Twisted Pair is of two types: -
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
o Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable: -
 It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded
Twisted Pair Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its
own colour plastic insulator. Identification is the reason behind coloured plastic
insulation.
 UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11
connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

 Advantages
i. Installation is easy
ii. Flexible
iii. Cheap
iv. It has high speed capacity,
v. 100 meter limit
vi. Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
vii. It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted
together in a helical form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.
 Disadvantages
i. Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
ii. Provides less protection from interference.

o Shielded Twisted Pair Cable: -

 This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of
insulated conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal
casing. Shielding also eliminates crosstalk (explained in KEY TERMS Chapter).
 It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and
coaxial cable. It is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.
  Advantages
i. Easy to install
ii. Performance is adequate
iii. Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
iv. Increases the signalling rate
v. Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
vi. Eliminates crosstalk
 Disadvantages
i. Difficult to manufacture
ii. Heavy

Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each
other. Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard
one. It is surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of
metal foil, barid or both.
 Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which
completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The
outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
 Here the most common coaxial standards.
50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11: used with thick Ethernet.
50-Ohm RG-58: used with thin Ethernet
75-Ohm RG-59: used with cable television
93-Ohm RG-62: used with ARCNET.
  Base-Band: - This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is
mostly used for LAN's. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The
major drawback is that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.
 Broad-Band: - This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits
several simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared
with Baseband Coaxial Cable.
 Advantages
i. Bandwidth is high
ii. Used in long distance telephone lines.
iii. Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
iv. Much higher noise immunity
v. Data transmission without distortion.
vi. The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when
compared to twisted pair cable
 Disadvantages
i. Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
ii. Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
iii. If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Fiber Optic Cable

 A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
 For better understanding we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light.
 Light travels in a straight line as long as it is mobbing through a single uniform substance. If
ray of light travelling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a
different density), the ray changes direction.
 The below figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a more dense
to a less dense substance.

 Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is
surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two
materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the
cladding instead of being refracted into it.
  Propagation Modes: - Current technology supports two modes (Multimode and Single
mode) for propagating light along optical channels, each requiring fibre with different
physical characteristics. Multimode can be implemented in two forms: Step-index and
Graded-index.

 Advantages
i. Fibre optic has several advantages over metallic cable:
ii. Higher bandwidth
iii. Less signal attenuation
iv. Immunity to electromagnetic interference
v. Resistance to corrosive materials
vi. Light weight
vii. Greater immunity to tapping
 Disadvantages
i. There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fibre:
ii. Installation and maintenance
iii. Unidirectional light propagation
iv. High Cost
Un-Bounded/Un-Guided Transmission Media

 Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This
type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally
broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.
 The below figure shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900
THz, used for wireless communication.

 Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways: Ground
propagation, Sky propagation and Line-of-sight propagation as shown in below figure.

i. Ground Propagation: In this, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the Earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions
from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
ii. Sky Propagation: In this, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere where they are reflected back to Earth. This type of transmission allows for
greater distances with lower output power.
iii. Line-of-sight Propagation: in this type, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in
straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.
 We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups:
i. Radio waves
ii. Micro waves
iii. Infrared waves

1. Radio Waves
  Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have
to be aligned.
 A sending antenna send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The
omnidirectional property has disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one
antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signal suing the
same frequency or band.
 Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls.
This characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage.
Advantage because, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building.
Disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or outside a
building.
 Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions.

 Applications
i. The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting in
which there is one sender but many receivers.
ii. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.

2. Micro Waves

 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called micro waves.
Micro waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be
narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
 The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned
without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
 The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:
i. Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas
need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
ii. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside the buildings.
iii. The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider sub-bands can
be assigned and a high date rate is possible.
iv. Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
 Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two types
of antennas are used for microwave communications: Parabolic Dish and Horn.

 Applications
o Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast(one-to-
one) communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. They are used in
cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.
o There are 2 types of Microwave Transmission :
i. Terrestrial Microwave
ii. Satellite Microwave
 Advantages of Microwave Transmission
i. Used for long distance telephone communication.
ii. Carries 1000's of voice channels at the same time
 Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission
i. It is Very costly

i. Terrestrial Microwave
For increasing the distance served by terrestrial microwave, repeaters can be installed
with each antenna .The signal received by an antenna can be converted into
transmittable form and relayed to next antenna as shown in below figure. It is an
example of telephone systems all over the world
 There are two types of antennas used for terrestrial microwave communication:

1. Parabolic Dish Antenna

In this every line parallel to the line of symmetry reflects off the curve at angles in a way that
they intersect at a common point called focus. This antenna is based on geometry of
parabola.

2. Horn Antenna

It is a like gigantic scoop. The outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem and deflected
outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by curved head.

Fig1: Parabolic Antenna Fig2: Horn Antenna

ii. Satellite Microwave

 This is a microwave relay station which is placed in outer space. The satellites are launched
either by rockets or space shuttles carry them.
 These are positioned 36000KM above the equator with an orbit speed that exactly matches
the rotation speed of the earth. As the satellite is positioned in a geo-synchronous orbit, it is
stationery relative to earth and always stays over the same point on the ground. This is
usually done to allow ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point in the sky.

 Features of Satellite Microwave :

i. Bandwidth capacity depends on the frequency used.
ii. Satellite microwave deployment for orbiting satellite is difficult.
 Advantages of Satellite Microwave :
 i. Transmitting station can receive back its own transmission and check whether the
satellite has transmitted information correctly.
ii. A single microwave relay station which is visible from any point.
 Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave :
i. Satellite manufacturing cost is very high
ii. Cost of launching satellite is very expensive
iii. Transmission highly depends on whether conditions, it can go down in bad weather

3. Infrared Waves

 Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This
advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another, a
short-range communication system in on room cannot be affected by another system in the
next room.
 When we use infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by our
neighbours. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-range
communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the
sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
 Applications
i. The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission.
Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
ii. The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared
waves, has established standards for using these signals for communication between
devices such as keyboards, mouse, PCs and printers.
iii. Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-
of-sight propagation.

SHANNON’S LAW

 Shannon's Law, formulated by Claude Shannon, a mathematician who helped build the
foundations for the modern computer, is a statement in information theory that expresses
the maximum possible data speed that can be obtained in a data channel.
 Shannon's Law says that the highest obtainable error-free data speed, expressed in bits per
second (bps), is a function of the bandwidth and the signal-to-noise ratio.
 Let c be the maximum obtainable error-free data speed in bps that a communications
channel can handle. Let b be the channel bandwidth in hertz. Let s represent the signal-to-
noise ratio. Then Shannon's law is stated as follows:
c = b log2 (1 + s)
The function log2 represents the base-2 logarithm. All logarithms are exponents. The base-2
logarithm of a number x is the number y such that 2y = x.
 No practical communications system has yet been devised that can operate at close to the
theoretical speed limit defined by Shannon's law. Some systems, using sophisticated
encoding and decoding, can approach half of the so-called Shannon limit for a channel
having fixed bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio.
 UNIT-II

TELEPHONY

 Telephony is the technology associated with the electronic transmission of voice, fax, or
other information between distant parties using systems historically associated with the
telephone, a handheld device containing both a speaker or transmitter and a receiver. With
the arrival of computers and the transmittal of digital information over telephone systems
and the use of radio to transmit telephone signals, the distinction between telephony and
telecommunication has become difficult to make.
 Internet telephony is the use of the Internet rather than the traditional telephone company
infrastructure and rate structure to exchange spoken or other telephone information. Since
access to the Internet is available at local phone connection rates, an international or other
long-distance call will be much less expensive than through the traditional call arrangement.
 On the Internet, three new services are now or will soon be available:
o The ability to make a normal voice phone call (whether or not the person called is
immediately available; that is, the phone will ring at the location of the person called)
through the Internet at the price of a local call
o The ability to send fax transmissions at very low cost (at local call prices) through a
gateway point on the Internet in major cities
o The ability to send voice messages along with text e-mail

MULTIPLEXING:

 Multiplexing combines multiple analog or digital signals bound for transmission through a single
communication line or computer channel. This technique has been introduced to increase channel
utilization in multicomputer communication systems and time sharing systems and also to reduce
the communication cost.
 Multiplexing is done by using a device called multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to
generate one output line i.e. (many to one). Therefore multiplexer (MUX) has several inputs and one
output.
 At the receiving end, a device called DE-multiplexer (DEMUX) or (de-muxing) is used that separates
signal into its component signals. So DEMUX has one input and several outputs.
 Different multiplexing methods:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) - Short for frequency division multiplexing, It is used in
analog signal, a multiplexing technique that uses different frequencies to combine multiple streams
of data for transmission over a communications medium.

o FDM assigns a different carrier frequency to each data stream and then combines many
modulated carrier frequencies for transmission. For example, television transmitters use
FDM to broadcast several channels at once.
o Band pass filter is used for separating channels and allows to pass a specific range of
frequencies, during transmission of streams it blocks lower and higher frequencies. In
Frequency Division Multiplexing, channels are separated by unused strips of guard bands to
prevent Overlapping. Guard bands increase the bandwidth for FDM.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) - Short for Time Division Multiplexing, a type of multiplexing
that combines data streams by assigning each stream a different time slot in a set. TDM is designed
for digital signals, which combining several low-rate channels into high-rate one.
 o TDM repeatedly transmits a fixed sequence of time slots over a single transmission channel.
Within T-Carrier systems, such as T-1 and T-3, TDM combines Pulse Code Modulated (PCM)
streams created for each conversation or data stream.
o TDM, slots are further divided into Frames. In order to separate channels AND gates are
used in a TDM receiver.

3. Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) - It is a technology used in fiber optic communications;

and, for the high capacity communication systems, wavelength division multiplexing is the most
promising concept.

o This system uses multiplexer at transmitter to join signals and de-multiplexer to split the
signals apart, at the receiver end. The purpose of WDM is to combine multiple light sources
into a single light source at the multiplexer; and, at the de-multiplexer the single light is
converted into multiple light sources.
o WDM is designed to use the high data rate capability of the fiber optic cable. The data rate
of this cable is higher than the metallic transmission cable’s data rate.
o Conceptually, the wavelength division multiplexing is same as the frequency division
multiplexing, except for the transmission through the fiber optic channels wherein the
multiplexing and de-multiplexing involves optical signals.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

 Aim of Data Communication and Networking is to facilitate the exchange of data such as audio,
text or video between various points in the world. This transfer of data takes place over the
computer network over which the data travels smoothly.
 For the delivery of data or information with the ease of accuracy various types of Switching
Techniques are employed in the Data Communication and Networking
 Need of switching: - A network consists of many switching devices. In order to connect multiple
devices, one solution could be to have a point to point connection in between pair of devices. But
this increases the number of connection.
o The other solution could be to have a central device and connect every device to each
other via the central device which is generally known as Star Topology. Both these
methods are wasteful and impractical for very large network.
o The other topology also cannot be used at this stage. Hence a better solution for this
situation is SWITCHING. A switched network is made up of a series of interconnected
nodes called switches.
 There are basically three types of switching methods are made available. Out of three methods,
circuit switching and packet switching are commonly used but the message switching has been
opposed out in the general communication procedure but is still used in the networking
application.
1) Circuit Switching
2) Packet Switching
3) Message Switching

1. Circuit Switching: -
 Circuit Switching is generally used in the public networks. It come into existence for handling
voice traffic in addition to digital data. However digital data handling by the use of circuit
switching methods are proved to be inefficient. The network for Circuit Switching is shown in
figure.
  Here the network connection allows the electrical current and the associated voice with it to
flow in between the two respective users. The end to end communication was established
during the duration of call.
 In circuit switching the routing decision is made when the path is set up across the given
network. After the link has been sets in between the sender and the receiver then the
information is forwarded continuously over the provided link.
 In Circuit Switching a dedicated link/path is established across the sender and the receiver
which is maintained for the entire duration of conversation.
 Advantages:
o The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.
 Disadvantages:
o Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds, more on long- distance or
international calls.) during which no data can be transmitted.
o More expensive than any other switching techniques, because a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
o Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the channel is not used when
the connected systems are not using it.
2. Packet Switching: -
 In Packet Switching, messages are broken up into packets and each of which includes a
header with source, destination and intermediate node address information. Individual
Packets in packet switching technique take different routes to reach their respective
destination. Independent routing of packets is done in this case for following reasons:
i. Bandwidth is reduces by the splitting of data onto different routes for a busy
circuit.
ii. For a certain link in the network, the link goes down during transmission the the
remaining packet can be sent through another route.
  The major advantage of Packet switching is that they they are used for performing data rate
conversion.
 When traversing the network switches, routers or the other network nodes then the packets
are buffered in the queue, resulting in variable delay and throughput depending on the
network’s capacity and the traffic load on network.
 Packet switching contrasts with another principal networking paradigm, circuit switching, a
method which sets up a limited number of dedicated connections of constant bit rate and
constant delay between nodes for exclusive use during the communication session.
 In cases where traffic fees are charged, for example in cellular communication, packet
switching is characterized by a fee per unit of information transmitted.
 Advantages:
o Packet switching is cost effective, because switching devices do not need massive
amount of secondary storage.
o Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics, because there are no long
messages in the queue (maximum packet size is fixed).
o Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as, busy or disabled links.
o The advantage of packet switching is that many network users can share the same
channel at the same time. Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by making
optimal use of link bandwidth.
 Disadvantages:
o Protocols for packet switching are typically more complex.
o It can add some initial costs in implementation.
o If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data. Another disadvantage is that
packet-switched systems still can’t deliver the same quality as dedicated circuits in
applications requiring very little delay - like voice conversations or moving images.

3. Message Switching: -
 In case of Message Switching it is not necessary to establish a dedicated path in between any
two communication devices. Here each message is treated as an independent unit and
includes its own destination source address by its own. Each complete message is then
transmitted from one device to another through internetwork.

 Each intermediate device receive the message and store it until the nest device is ready to
receive it and then this message is forwarded to the next device. For this reason a message
switching network is sometimes called as Store and Forward Switching.
  Message switches can be programmed with the information about the most efficient route
as well as information regarding to the near switches that can be used for forwarding the
present message to their required destination.
 The storing and Forwarding introduces the concept of delay. For this reasons this switching is
not recommended for real time applications like voice and video.
 Advantages:
o Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-switched systems, because
more devices are sharing the channel.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be temporarily stored in
route.
o Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward technique.
o Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of broadcast address appended
in the message.
 Disadvantages
o Message switching is not compatible with interactive applications.
o Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must have large disks to hold
potentially long messages.

DATA LINK LAYER CONTROL PROTOCOL

Data-link layer is responsible for implementation of point-to-point flow and error control
mechanism.

1. FLOW CONTROL

When a data frame (Layer-2 data) is sent from one host to another over a single medium, it is
required that the sender and receiver should work at the same speed. That is, sender sends at a
speed on which the receiver can process and accept the data. What if the speed
(hardware/software) of the sender or receiver differs? If sender is sending too fast the receiver may
be overloaded, (swamped) and data may be lost.

Two types of mechanisms can be deployed to control the flow:

 Stop and Wait

This flow control mechanism forces the sender after transmitting a data frame to stop and
wait until the acknowledgement of the data-frame sent is received.
  Sliding Window
In this flow control mechanism, both sender and receiver agree on the number of data-
frames after which the acknowledgement should be sent. As we learnt, stop and wait flow
control mechanism wastes resources, this protocol tries to make use of underlying resources
as much as possible.

2. ERROR CONTROL

When data-frame is transmitted, there is a probability that data-frame may be lost in the transit or it
is received corrupted. In both cases, the receiver does not receive the correct data-frame and sender
does not know anything about any loss.In such case, both sender and receiver are equipped with
some protocols which helps them to detect transit errors such as loss of data-frame. Hence, either
the sender retransmits the data-frame or the receiver may request to resend the previous data-
frame.

Requirements for error control mechanism:

 Error detection - The sender and receiver, either both or any, must ascertain that there is
some error in the transit.

 Positive ACK - When the receiver receives a correct frame, it should acknowledge it.

 Negative ACK - When the receiver receives a damaged frame or a duplicate frame, it sends a
NACK back to the sender and the sender must retransmit the correct frame.

 Retransmission: The sender maintains a clock and sets a timeout period. If an

acknowledgement of a data-frame previously transmitted does not arrive before the
timeout the sender retransmits the frame, thinking that the frame or it’s acknowledgement
is lost in transit.

There are three types of techniques available which Data-link layer may deploy to control the errors
by Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQ):

i. Stop-and-wait ARQ
  The following transition may occur in Stop-and-Wait ARQ:

o The sender maintains a timeout counter.

o When a frame is sent, the sender starts the timeout counter.

o If acknowledgement of frame comes in time, the sender transmits the next frame in
queue.

o If acknowledgement does not come in time, the sender assumes that either the
frame or its acknowledgement is lost in transit. Sender retransmits the frame and
starts the timeout counter.

o If a negative acknowledgement is received, the sender retransmits the frame.

ii. Go-Back-N ARQ

Stop and wait ARQ mechanism does not utilize the resources at their best. When the
acknowledgement is received, the sender sits idle and does nothing. In Go-Back-N ARQ method,
both sender and receiver maintain a window.

The sending-window size enables the sender to send multiple frames without receiving the
acknowledgement of the previous ones. The receiving-window enables the receiver to receive
multiple frames and acknowledge them. The receiver keeps track of incoming frame’s sequence
number.
When the sender sends all the frames in window, it checks up to what sequence number it has
received positive acknowledgement. If all frames are positively acknowledged, the sender sends next
set of frames. If sender finds that it has received NACK or has not receive any ACK for a particular
frame, it retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive any positive ACK.

iii. Selective Repeat ARQ

In Go-back-N ARQ, it is assumed that the receiver does not have any buffer space for its window size
and has to process each frame as it comes. This enforces the sender to retransmit all the frames
which are not acknowledged.

In Selective-Repeat ARQ, the receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers, buffers the frames
in memory and sends NACK for only frame which is missing or damaged.

The sender in this case, sends only packet for which NACK is received.

DATA LINK LAYER SYNCHRONOUS AND ASYNCHRONOUS PROTOCOL

SYNCHRONOUS PROTOCOL: -

Character-oriented protocols (or byte-oriented protocols)

- The frame or packet is interpreted as a series of characters

Bit-oriented protocols

- The frame or packet is interpreted as a series of bits

Take the whole bit stream and chop it into characters of equal size

Faster than asynchronous transmission

ASYNCHRONOUS PROTOCOL:

Treat each character in a bit stream independently

Use start and stop bits to frame the data units

Inexpensive

Used primarily in modems

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for digital telephone
connection and the transmission of voice and data over a digital line. These digital lines are
commonly telephone lines and exchanges established by the government. Before ISDN, it was not
possible for ordinary telephone lines to provide fast transportation over a single line.

ISDN was designed to run on digital telephone systems that were already in place. As such, it meets
telecom's digital voice network specifications. However, it took so long for ISDN to be standardized
that it was never fully deployed in the telecommunications networks it was intended for.

ISDN history: -

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a digital telephone standard designed to replace
analogue connections by utilizing ordinary copper wires that are used in standard analogue
telephone systems. It started as a recommendation within the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU)'s Red Book in 1984, although prior to 1992, the ITU was known as the International
Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT). The ITU is responsible for developing
recommendations on international standards within the industry.

ISDN was developed to provide digital transmission of both voice and data, resulting in better quality
and speeds above those of Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) systems.

There are two types of ISDN Channels:

 The B-Channel – This is known as the Bearer ("B") channel, which is a 64 Kbps channel used
for voice, video, data or multimedia transfer. These can be aggregated together to give
higher bandwidth utilization.

 The D-Channel – This is known as the Delta ("D") channel, which can be either 16 Kbps or 64
Kbps and is used primarily for the signaling between the switching equipment. Some say that
this adds to the security of ISDN because the controlling and data channels are separate.

ISDN was slow to achieve standardization and was rapidly overtaken and surpassed in both speeds
possible and breadth of deployment by packet-switched technologies.

Broadband ISDN (BISDN): - Broadband ISDN (BISDN) extends the integration throughout the rest of
an end-to-end path at higher data rates -- for example, using fiber optic or radio media. ISDN can
combine both analog/voice data and digital data on the same network link. Most video conferencing
services used in the 1990s and early 2000s were delivered primarily via ISDN services.

ISDN can deliver speeds up to 128 Kbps over home phone lines. Where it is still available for
residential users, it -- like acoustic modems -- typically serves as a last-resort technique for low-end
data connectivity, used only when DSL and cable modem services are not available.

The different layers and protocols of ISDN

ISDN uses circuit-switching to establish a physical, permanent point-to-point connection from the
source to the destination. ISDN has standards defined by the ITU that encompass the OSI, the
bottom three layers of which are Physical, Data Link and Network (see Table 1 below).

At the physical layer, the ITU has defined the user network interface standard as I.430 for Basic Rate
Access and I.431 for Primary Rate Access (please see the ITU-T I.414 "Overview of Recommendations
on Layer 1 for ISDN and B-ISDN customer accesses" document on the ITU Web site). ANSI has
defined the user network interface standard as T1.601. As stated above, the physical layer uses the
normal telephone cabling as its physical cabling structure.

Layers: -

 The B-Channel – This is known as the Bearer ("B") channel, which is a 64 Kbps channel used
for voice, video, data or multimedia transfer. These can be aggregated together to give
higher bandwidth utilization.

The ISDN B channels will typically utilize a point-to-point protocol such as HDLC (High-Level
Data Link Control) or PPP frames at Layer 2. However, you can sometimes see other
encapsulation, such as frame relay. As you would expect, at Layer 3 you typically see IP
packets. ISDN operates in Full-Duplex, which means that traffic can be received and
transmitted at the same time.

 The D-Channel – This is known as the Delta ("D") channel, which can be either 16 Kbps or 64
Kbps and is used primarily for the signalling between the switching equipment. Some say
that this adds to the security of ISDN because the controlling and data channels are
separate.

 The ISDN D channel will utilize different signalling protocols at Layer 3 and Layer 2 of the OSI
Model. Typically, at Layer 2, LAP-D (Link Access Procedure -- D Channel) is the Q.921
signalling used, and DSS1 (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 1) is the Q.931 signalling
that is used at Layer 3. It is easy to remember which one is used at which layer by simply
remembering that the middle number corresponds to the layer at which it operates.

OSI Layer B Channel D Channel

Table 1
3 IP DSS1 (Q.931)

2 HDLC/PPP LAP-D (Q.921)

1 I.430/I.431 or ANSI T1.601

 UNIT-III

Computer networking devices are known by different names such as networking devices, networking
hardware, network equipment etc. However, all of the names mean the same but have got different
purposes. After covering different topics on network topologies and their advantages and
disadvantages, we are here once again with a series on the network devices.

Different networking devices:

1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which
the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about
repeaters is that they do no amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal
bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.

2. Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port,
thus making it a 2 port device.

3. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that
may work upon different networking models. They basically works as the messenger agents that
take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called
protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex
than switch or router.

4. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and
have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

5. Network Hub- Network Hub is a networking device which is used to connect multiple network
hosts. A network hub is also used to do data transfer. The data is transferred in terms of packets on
a computer network. So when a host sends a data packet to a network hub, the hub copies the data
packet to all of its ports connected to. Like this, all the ports know about the data and the port for
whom the packet is intended, claims the packet.

o However, because of its working mechanism, a hub is not so secure and safe. Moreover,
copying the data packets on all the interfaces or ports makes it slower and more congested
which led to the use of network switch.

6. Network Switch- Like a hub, a switch also works at the layer of LAN (Local Area Network) but you
can say that a switch is more intelligent than a hub. While hub just does the work of data
forwarding, a switch does ‘filter and forwarding’ which is a more intelligent way of dealing with the
data packets.

o So, when a packet is received at one of the interfaces of the switch, it filters the packet and
sends only to the interface of the intended receiver. For this purpose, a switch also
maintains a CAM (Content Addressable Memory) table and has its own system configuration
and memory. CAM table is also called as forwarding table or forwarding information base
(FIB).
The Network Layer Design Issues:
1) Store and formed packet switching.
2) Service provided to the transport layer.
3) Implementation of connectionless service.
4) Implementation of connection-oriented source.

1) Store and formed packet switching:

i. Host transmits packet to router across LAN or oval point to point link.
ii. Packet is stored on router until fully arrived and processed.
iii. Packet is forward to next router.

2) Service provide to transport layer:

The network layer services have been designed with the goals: -
i. The advice should independent of router telnet
ii. The transport layer should be shielded from the number type and topology of the router present.
iii. The network addresses made available to transport

3) Implementation of connectionless service:

i. Connectionless service is offered packets are injected into the subnet individually and routed
independently of each other. Each packet is transmitted independently.
ii. Connectionless service used in network layer ID and transport layer.
iii. Packet are frequently called datagram connectionless service is largly for data communication the
internet.

4) Implementation of connection-oriented service:

i. Connection-oriented service is used a path from the source router to the destination router must
be established before any data packet can be sent.
ii. Connection oriented service also called virtual circuit service. This service used network layer for
ATM. It also used in transport layer for TCP.
iii. A connection must be established before any can be sent packets order preserved logical
connection is also established here.

ADDRESSING: -

IP address is an address having information about how to reach a specific host, especially outside the
LAN. An IP address is a 32 bit unique address having an address space of 232.

Generally, there are two notations in which IP address is written, dotted decimal notation and
hexadecimal notation.

Dotted Decimal Notation

Hexadecimal Notation
Classful Addressing

 The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are:

o Class A
o Class B
o Class C
o Class D
o Class E
 Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved for
multicast and experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first octet
determine the classes of IP address.
 IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
I. Network ID
II. Host ID
 The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID and the
number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP or network
administrator assigns IP address to each device that is connected to its network.

Class A:

 IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of
hosts.

 The network ID is 8 bits long.

 The host ID is 24 bits long.

 The higher order bits of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits in
first octet are used to determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine
the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A
has a total of:

 2^7 – 2 = 126 network ID

 2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID

  IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 1.x.x.x – 126.x.x.x

Class B:

 IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from medium-sized
to large-sized networks.

 The network ID is 16 bits long.

 The host ID is 16 bits long.

 The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10. The
remaining 14 bits are used to determine network ID. The 16 bits of host ID is used to
determine the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class B is 255.255.x.x. Class
B has a total of:

 2^14 = 16384 network address

 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address

 IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.x.x – 191.255.x.x.

Class C:

 IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.

 The network ID is 24 bits long.

 The host ID is 8 bits long.

 The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C are always set to 110. The
remaining 21 bits are used to determine network ID. The 8 bits of host ID is used to
determine the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class C is 255.255.255.x.
Class C has a total of:

 2^21 = 2097152 network address

 2^8 – 2 = 254 host address

 IP addresses belonging to class C ranges from 192.0.0.x – 223.255.255.x.

Class D:

 IP address belonging to class D are reserved for multi-casting. The higher order bits of the
first octet of IP addresses belonging to class D are always set to 1110. The remaining bits are
for the address that interested hosts recognize.
 Class D does not posses any sub-net mask. IP addresses belonging to class D ranges from
224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255.

Class E:

 IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP
addresses of class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254. This class doesn’t have any
sub-net mask. The higher order bits of first octet of class E are always set to 1111.

Range of special IP addresses:

i) 169.254.0.0 – 169.254.0.16 : Link local addresses

ii) 127.0.0.0 – 127.0.0.8 : Loop-back addresses

iii) 0.0.0.0 – 0.0.0.8 : used to communicate within the current network.

Rules for assigning Host ID:

 Host ID’s are used to identify a host within a network. The host ID are assigned based on the
following rules:
i. Within any network, the host ID must be unique to that network.
ii. Host ID in which all bits are set to 0 cannot be assigned because this host ID is used to
represent the network ID of the IP address.
 iii. Host ID in which all bits are set to 1 cannot be assigned because this host ID is reserved as a
broadcast address to send packets to all the hosts present on that particular network.

Rules for assigning Network ID:

 Hosts that are located on the same physical network are identified by the network ID, as all
host on the same physical network are assigned the same network ID. The network ID is
assigned based on the following rules:
i. The network ID cannot start with 127 because 127 belongs to class A address and is reserved
for internal loop-back functions.
ii. All bits of network ID set to 1 are reserved for use as an IP broadcast address and therefore,
cannot be used.
iii. All bits of network ID set to 0 are used to denote a specific host on the local network and are
not routed and therefore, aren’t used.

Summary of Classful addressing:

ROUTING CONCEPTS

Forward and Filter Decision Switching

There are three distinct functions of layer 2 switching: address learning, forward/filter decisions, and
loop avoidance.
1. Address learning Layer 2 switches and bridges remember the source MAC address of each frame
received on an interface, and enter this information into a MAC table called a forward/filter table.

2. Forward/filter decisions When a frame is received on an interface, the switch looks at the
destination MAC address and finds the exit interface in the MAC table. The frame is only forwarded
out the specified destination port.

3. Loop avoidance If multiple connections between switches are created for redundancy purposes,
network loops can occur. Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is used to stop network loops while still
permitting redundancy.

 When a switch is first powered on, the MAC table is empty. When a frame is received on a
port, the source MAC address is placed in the MAC address table, along with the port ID of
the port on which it was received. If the MAC address was already in the table, its associated
aging countdown timer is reset (300 seconds by default). Then the MAC address table is
searched using the destination MAC address to determine which action to take.
  Forward If the destination MAC address comes from another port within the switch, then
the frame is sent to the identified port for transmission.

 Flood If the destination MAC address is not in the MAC address table, then the frame needs
to be flooded and is sent to all ports except for the port through which it arrived. This action
is known as unicast flooding.

 Filter If the destination MAC address comes from the same port on which it was received, (in
another words, source mac address and destination mac address have the same exit port)
then there is no need to forward it, and it is discarded.

ROUTING:

 Routing is the process of transferring data across an internetwork from a source host to a
destination host. Routing can be understood in terms of two processes: host routing and
router routing.
 Host Routing: - Host routing occurs when the sending host forwards a packet. Based on the
destination network address, the sending host must decide whether to forward the packet
to the destination or to a router. In Figure 1.2, the Source Host forwards the packet destined
for the Destination Host to Router 1.
 Router Routing: - Router routing occurs when a router receives a packet that is to be
forwarded. The packet is forwarded between routers (when the destination network is not
directly attached to the router) or between a router and the destination host (when the
destination network is directly attached). In Figure 1.2, Router 1 forwards the packet to
Router 2. Router 2 forwards the packet to the Destination Host.

 There are two primary ways of configuring routing: statically and dynamically.
1. Static Routing: - Static routing is typically used on very small networks, where the number
of routes to be configured is just as small. However, static routing is sometimes used in
larger networks as a small piece of an overall dynamically controlled routing infrastructure.
In such cases, static routes typically configure default routes, or direct traffic out of the
network to another network controlled by another party.
2. Dynamic Routing: - Dynamic routing is built to deal with network changes automatically as
the topology changes within the network, and are typically used on all other network types
not previously mentioned.
 Example: - Let's visualize this with the topology shown in Figure 1. This example shows a
number of different paths that a message can take when leaving R1 and destined for R6. For
example, it could go R1 > R2 > R4 > R6, or it could go R1 > R3 > R4 > R6. When configuring
static routing, typically the engineer has a single path in mind to reach the destination. So, to
configure a route from R1 to R6 using the path through R2 and R4, a static route would need
to exist on R1, R2, and R4 for the forward trip (R1 > R6), and another route would need to
exist on R6, R4, and R2 for the reverse trip (from R6 back to R1). Keep in mind that this route
is for a single reachable destination.
  To provide reachability to every destination that potentially exists in the network, the
engineer would need to calculate the best paths for each destination initially, and then
individually configure each route along each best path. Obviously, this process can quickly
become very time-consuming.
 These reasons indicate why dynamic routing protocols are used on larger networks, and
static routing is left for very small networks or other specific use cases. Dynamic routing
protocols avoid the manual configuration problem; they also are built to handle many
complex topologies, as well as dealing with network outages—without the need for
additional administrative attention.

Hierarchical Routing: -

Because of the global nature of Internet system, it becomes more difficult to centralize the system
management and operation. For this reason, the system must be hierarchical such that it is
organized into multiple levels with several group loops connected with one another at each level.
Therefore, hierarchical routing is commonly used for such a system.

1. A set of networks interconnected by routers within a specific area using the same
routing protocol is called domain

2. Two or more domains may be further combined to form a higher-order domain

3. A router within a specific domain is called intra-domain router. A router connecting domains
is called inter-domain router

4. A network composed of inter-domain routers is called backbone.

Each domain, which is also called operation domain, is a point where the system operation is divided
into plural organizations in charge of operation. Domains are determined according to the territory
occupied by each organization.

Routing protocol in such an Internet system can be broadly divided into two types:

1. Intra-domain routing

2. Inter-domain routing.

Each of these protocols is hierarchically organized. For communication within a domain, only the
former routing is used. However, both of them are used for communication between two or more
domains.

Distributed Routing Technique:

  In the distributed method of path computation nodes exchange routing information and the
routing decision at each node is based on a combination of locally available as well as
exchanged information.
 These algorithms basically work on the fact that if neighbour Y of node X has estimated
distance to destination D of XD, and the length of the link X-Y is LXY then node X’s estimate to
destination D via neighbour Y is LXY+ XD.

Most distributed routing algorithm are adaptive, however any of these algorithm can be termed as
non-adaptive if they are used only once at network setup time to determine shortest paths and
never again.

Distance Vector Protocols

 A few main attributes are associated with traditional distance vector routing protocols:
i. The router's view of the network is only discovered from the known routes of its neighbors
("routing by rumor").
ii. The router sends a complete version of its routing table to its neighbors at regular intervals.
iii. They take a long time to converge after a failure because the update is only sent at regular
intervals.
iv. Compared with link-state protocols, distance vector protocols have a higher risk of causing
routing loops.
v. The only modern routing protocol that is traditionally distance vector is RIP. It advertises a
complete copy of its routing table every 30 seconds via all enabled interfaces.

 Once a router receives an update from a neighbor, it places the update into the routing table
(assuming that there are no conflicts). If something happens and the route becomes
unreachable, the route remains in the routing table for at least 180 seconds (default invalid
timer) before being marked as unreachable. This technique slows down the convergence of
a failed route and delays traffic from being routed along an alternate path.
 RIP comes in three versions: RIP version 1, RIP version 2, and RIPng. Their operations are
very similar; however, there are a few differences: RIP version 1 broadcasts updates,
whereas RIP version 2 multicasts updates. This design prevents non-RIP devices from
processing extra packets every 30 seconds. RIP version 2 also supports subnetted (classless)
networks, while RIP version 1 only supports classful networks. RIPng works similarly to RIP
version 2, but for IPv6 addresses.
 EIGRP is technically a distance vector protocol in that its view is based on its neighbors'
views alone, but it has some features that make it act like a link-state protocol. This is why
EIGRP is usually discussed as being a hybrid protocol, using attributes from both traditional
distance vector as well as link-state protocols. Crossover features include the use of
neighbour-ships and triggered partial updates, to name two.
 Loop management for distance vector routing protocols uses two different methods: poison
reverse and split horizon. Poison reverse is used every time a new route is learned from a
neighbour; when this happens, the router automatically sends a route advertisement back
out the learned interface with an infinite metric. This action prevents the neighbour from
using that route to the newly learned destination.
 Split horizon is also used when a router advertises routes out its interfaces. With split
horizon, if a route was learned on interface 1, it will not advertise that same route back out
interface 1.

Link-State Protocols
 Link-state protocols provide each of the routers in a network with a network-wide view,
giving each router the ability to calculate the best path through the network. All modern
link-state routing protocols use Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm.
 Link-state protocols work by establishing neighbour-ships with connected routers and
exchanging a copy of the known network (not just the routing table contents) to these
neighbours. All updates that are received are immediately relayed to all other connected
neighbours.
 Both OSPF and IS-IS are link-state protocols, and both use Dijkstra's algorithm for best-path
mapping. However, their configurations are quite different, and the selection of one versus
the other is based mainly on the requirements of a specific network. OSPF is more
commonly deployed in enterprises, and IS-IS is more popular in service provider networks.
 Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm
i. Initially mark all nodes (except source) with infinite distance.
Working node = source node
Sink node = destination node
ii. While the working node is not equal to the sink
1. Mark the working node as permanent.
2. Examine all adjacent nodes in turn
If the sum of label on working node plus distance from working node to adjacent
node is less than current labelled distance on the adjacent node, this implies a
shorter path. Re-label the distance on the adjacent node and label it with the
node from which the probe was made.
3. Examine all tentative nodes (not just adjacent nodes) and mark the node with
the smallest labelled value as permanent. This node becomes the new working
node.
iii. Reconstruct the path backwards from sink to source.
 UNIT-IV

1. TRANSPORT LAYER

 Transport layer manages end to end (source to destination) (process to process) message delivery
in a network and also provides the error checking and hence guarantees that no duplication or
errors are occurring in the data transfers across the network. It makes sure that all the packets of
a message arrive intact and in order.
 Transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and
retransmits the data if error is found. The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered
error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or duplications.
 The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get from the
network layer. Transport layer is at the core of OSI model. Transport layer provides services to
application layer and takes services from network layer.
 Transport layer divides the message received from upper layer into packets at source and
reassembles these packets again into message at the destination.
 Transport layer provides two types of services:

i. Connection Oriented Transmission

(a) In this type of transmission the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source
after a packet or group of packet is received.

(b) This type of transmission is also known as reliable transport method.

(c) Because connection oriented transmission requires more packets be sent across network, it is
considered a slower transmission method.

(d) If the data that is sent has problems, the destination requests the source for retransmission by
acknowledging only packets that have been received and are recognizable.

(e) Once the destination computer receives all of the data necessary to reassemble the packet, the
transport layer assembles the data in the correct sequence and then passes it up, to the session
layer.

ii. Connectionless Transmission

(a) In this type of transmission the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet.

(b) Sending device assumes that packet arrive just fine.

(c) This approach allows for much faster communication between devices.

(d) The trade-off is that connectionless transmission is less reliable than connection oriented.

 Functions of Transport Layer:

o Segmentation of message into packet and reassembly of packets into message: accepts a
message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message into smaller units (if not
already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network layer. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
o Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
o Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers
are available.
 o Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one logical link
and keeps track of which messages belong to which sessions.
o Service point addressing: The purpose of transport layer is to delivery message from one
process running on source machine to another process running on destination machine. It
may be possible that several programs or processes are running on both the machines at a
time. In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer header includes a
type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address,
transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on
destination machine.
o Flow control: Like Data link layer, transport layer also performs flow control. Transport layer
makes sure that the sender and receiver communicate at a rate they both can handle.
Therefore flow control prevents the source from sending data packets faster than the
destination can handle. Here, flow control is performed end-to-end rather than across a link.

o Error control: Like Data link layer, Transport layer also performs error control. Here error
control is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link. The sending transport layer
ensures that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error
(damage, loss or duplication). Error correction is achieved through retransmission.
o Protocols: These protocols work on the transport layer TCP, SPX, NETBIOS, ATP and NWLINK.

2.SESSION LAYER

 Session layer has the primary responsibility of beginning, maintaining and ending the
communication between two devices, which is called Session. It also provides for orderly
communication between devices by regulating the flow of data.
 The session protocol defines the format of the data sent over the connections. Session
layer establish and manages the session between the two users at different ends in a network.
Session layer also manages who can transfer the data in a certain amount of time and for how
long.
 The examples of session layers and the interactive logins and file transfer sessions. Session layer
reconnect the session if it disconnects. It also reports and logs and upper layer errors. The session
layer allows session establishment between processes running on different stations. The dialogue
control and token management are responsibility of session layer.
 Functions of Session Layer:
o Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application processes on
different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session.
o Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate over
the network, performing security, name recognition, logging and so on.
 o Dialog control: Dialog control is the function of session layer that determines which device
will communicate first and the amount of data that will be sent.

o When a device is contacted first, the session layer is responsible for determining which
device participating in the communication will transmit at a given time as well as controlling
the amount of data that can be sent in a transmission. This is called dialog control.
o The types of dialog control that can take place include simplex, half duplex and full duplex.
o Dialog separation or Synchronization: The session layer is also responsible for adding
checkpoint or markers within the message. This process of inserting markers to the stream
of data is known as dialog separation.
o Protocols: The protocols that work on the session layer are NetBIOS, Mail Slots, Names
Pipes, and RPC

3. PRESENTATION LAYER

 Presentation Layer is also called Translation layer. The presentation layer presents the data into a
uniform format and masks the difference of data format between two dissimilar systems. The
presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can be viewed as
the translator for the network.
 This layer may translate data from a format used by the application layer into a common format
at the sending station, and then translate the common format to a format known to the
application layer at the receiving station.

 Functions of Presentation Layer:

 o Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
o Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
o Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
o Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.

4. APPLICATION LAYER

 The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access network
services. The application layer makes the interface between the program that is sending or is
receiving data and the protocol stack. When you download or send emails, your e-mail program
contacts this layer. This layer provides network services to the end-users like Mail, ftp, telnet,
DNS.

 Function of Application Layer:

o Resource sharing and device redirection.
o Remote file access.
o Remote printer access.
o Inter-process communication.
o Network management.
o Directory services.
o Electronic messaging (such as mail).
 Network Virtual Terminal: A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal
and allows a user to log on to a remote host. For this, application layer creates a software
emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the software terminal
which, in turn, talks to the host and vice-versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with
one of its own terminals and allows the user to log on.
 File transfer, access and management (FTAM): This application allows a user to access a file in a
remote host to make changes or to read data, to retrieve files from remote computer for use in
local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
 Mail services: This application provides various e-mail services such as email forwarding and
storage.
 Directory services: This application provides the distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.
 Protocols used at application layer are FTP, DNS, SNMP, SMTP, FINGER, and TELNET.