A Study is Presented to the Faculty of

MANUEL V. GALLEGO FOUNDATION COLLEGES INC.

Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Philippines 3100
Institute of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences

Prenatal Nutrition: Nourishing Health for Expecting Mothers

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement in

Bachelor of Science in Nursing

Presented by:

Tristan C. Antonio

Melanie Ibarra Quibrantos

Emerald Ryan Geron Bayudan

Dr. John Paulo Calma

(Research Adviser)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page....................................................................................................................................... i

Table of Contents...........................................................................................................................ii

List of Figures................................................................................................................................iii

CHAPTER I

Rationale of the Study…................................................................................................................ 3

Theoretical Framework................................................................................................................... 3

Conceptual Framework ….............................................................................................................. 4

Statement of the Problem................................................................................................................ 6

Significance of the Study................................................................................................................ 7

Hypothesis………………............................................................................................................... 7

Scope, Delimitation and Limitation of the Study .......................................................................... 9

Definition of Terms....................................................................................................................... 10

References......................................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature and Studies.....................................................................................17

Foreign Literature..........................................................................................................................21

Local Literature.............................................................................................................................23

References......................................................................................................................................29

Synthesis........................................................................................................................................29

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 CHAPTER II

Research design............................................................................................................................34

Locale of the Study…………………….......................................................................................34

Source of data…............................................................................................................................35

Sampling Type and Technique......................................................................................................36

Research Instrument…...................................................................................................................40

Validation of Instrument …...........................................................................................................36

Data Gathering Procedure ….........................................................................................................36

Tool for Data Analysis...................................................................................................................38

Protection of Right.........................................................................................................................38

References………..........................................................................................................................39

LIST OF FIGURES

Paradigm of the Study......................................................................................................................9

Locale of the Study..........................................................................................................................35

Research Locale (Satellite View) ....................................................................................................35

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 Chapter I

Background and Its Problem

Introduction

The expectant mother’s diet is of utmost importance, as it caters to the nutritional

needs of both herself and the unborn child. During the middle part of pregnancy, the

developing fetus requires essential nutrients such as protein, vitamins, calcium, and iron for

optimal growth. It is suggested that one all-purpose vitamin capsule per day can fulfill the

mother's need for vitamins. Inadequate diets lacking these crucial nutrients may lead to

adverse outcomes, including.

For instance, the consumption of one quart of milk daily can provide an adequate

amount of calcium, while iron can be obtained from ingredients used to make fresh salads

(Shryock, 2002). The process of pregnancy spans from fertilization until birth, typically taking

266-270 days, or approximately nine months (Huffman, 2022). Throughout pregnancy,

women may experience strong cravings for specific foods. However, due to the expansion of

the uterus, breasts, and certain muscles, it is essential for pregnant women to monitor their

weight and maintain a balanced diet. Exceeding a certain weight threshold may result in

increased difficulty during childbirth, and extreme weight loss during pregnancy may impede

the proper growth of the baby. To promote fetal and infant growth and development, meeting

specific nutritional requirements is imperative. Changes in dietary supplements and intake

patterns have introduced different ways to fulfill these needs, combining dietary intake with

supplements according to Harrison (2020).

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 Inadequate diets, particularly those lacking iodine, iron, folate, calcium, and zinc, may

lead to serious health risks for both mothers and children. These risks include anemia,

preeclampsia, hemorrhage, and mortality among mothers, as well as stillbirth, low birth

weight, wasting, and developmental delays for children. UNICEF reports that over 20 million

newborns are impacted by low birth weight annually. Physiologically, stress during pregnancy

may lead to the release of cortisol hormones, resulting in an elevated craving for sugary, salty,

or fatty foods and increased appetite (Lindberg, 2021). As food cravings may be associated

with specific nutritional deficiencies, there is a potential impact on fetal development,

potentially influencing later development, such as child behavioural issues (Al-Mehaisen,

2018). Despite the prevalence of poor dietary practices among pregnant women, it is crucial to

address associated problems.

Therefore, the purpose of this study is to assess and outline the dietary supplements

that expecting women should take. Additionally, the study aims to examine the association

between the use of nutritional supplements and various stages of pregnancy,

sociodemographic data, and how these supplements support nutritional needs in environments

with insufficient access to resources.

Rationale of the Study

Prenatal Nutrition: Nourishing Health for Expecting Mothers play a crucial role in

ensuring the optimal growth and development of the baby. It is essential for maintaining the

health of both the mother and the developing fetus. Adequate nutrition is vital to provide the

mother with sufficient energy to meet the increased demands of pregnancy. A well-rounded

and nutritious diet supplies the necessary vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients required for

the proper growth and development of the fetus. This, in turn, helps in preventing congenital

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disabilities and mitigating other potential pregnancy complications. Managing pregnancy-

related conditions becomes more feasible when the mother adheres to a balanced and varied

diet, incorporating elements such as plenty of fruits and vegetables, lean proteins, and healthy

fats. Such dietary choices contribute significantly to the overall well-being of both the

expectant mother and the developing baby.

Theoretical Framework

Self-Care Deficit Theory: This theory, proposed by Dorothea Orem, suggests that

individuals have a fundamental need to take care of themselves and maintain their health.

Pregnant women, who have unique self-care requirements because of their developing baby,

may find this especially applicable. Pregnant women may seek out certain foods to fulfill their

self-care needs and cater to their shifting nutritional demands as their bodies undergo changes.

Virginia Henderson's nursing theory emphasizes the importance of meeting basic

human needs to achieve optimal health and wellness. This includes the need for adequate

nutrition, particularly during pregnancy. Nurses play a crucial role in assisting pregnant

women in meeting their nutritional needs by providing education, support, and resources, and

by addressing emotional and psychological needs. This holistic approach promotes optimal

health and well-being for both the mother and the developing fetus. Virginia Henderson's

nursing theory underscores the holistic approach to patient care, focusing on not only physiological

needs but also psychological and emotional well-being. In the context of prenatal care, this theory

becomes particularly relevant, as it acknowledges that addressing the emotional and psychological

needs of pregnant women is integral to promoting overall health and wellness. By considering factors

beyond the physical aspects of nutrition, nurses can create a supportive environment that contributes to

the mental and emotional resilience of expectant mothers.

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 Conceptual Framework

INPUT PROCESS

OUTPUT

1. How may the

Demographic profile of The researchers will

respondents describe in have a quantitative

terms of: research approach that Findings

allows the use of non- Result

1.1 Age
random sampling in Recommendation
1.2 1.2 Family Income
means of the survey

1.3 Educational Attainment questionnaire.

1.4 No. of Births

Data Gathering
1.5 Occupation

Statistical Analysis
2. What are the dietary habits

and nutritional practices

recommended for pregnant

women?

3. What are the

implications of the
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research to nursing

education
 Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to finding the Prenatal Nutrition: Nourishing Health for Expecting

Mothers. Specifically, this study focuses to address the following inquiries:

1. How may the Demographic profile of respondents describe in terms of:

1.1 Age;

1.2 Family Income;

1.3 Educational Attainment;

1.4 No. of Births;

1.5 Occupation;

2. What are the dietary habits and nutritional practices recommended for pregnant women??

2.1 Evaluate if there are any cravings for foods not typically consumed.

2.2 Assess for any challenges affecting their ability to maintain regular food intake.

2.3 Investigate the current frequency of meals per day in their diet.

2.4 Determine whether they are taking any food supplements to augment nutrient requirements.

2.5 Explore their satisfaction with existing dietary habits.

2.6 Examine the consumption of foods rich in Vitamin A.

2.7 Evaluate their assessment of the quality of purchased foods.

2.8 Investigate a preference for foods containing folic acid over natural folate.

2.9 Determine if carbohydrates are consumed as an alternative to alleviate nausea and vomiting.

3. Based on the findings what recommendations can be formulated?

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Significance of the Study

The information revealed by the study of Prenatal Nutrition: Nourishing Health for

Expecting Mothers can be significant to the following.

For Expectant Mothers: The study's insights can empower expectant mothers with better

food habits and increased nutritional status for their children. Nutrition education can play a

pivotal role in enhancing mothers' cleanliness habits and nutritional awareness, positively

influencing children's food diversity and overall nutritional well-being.

For Healthcare Professionals (Obstetricians and Midwives): Understanding the Prenatal

Nutrition: Nourishing Health for Expecting Mothers equips healthcare professionals to

provide tailored care and support. It aids in identifying and addressing potential nutritional

deficiencies or abnormal cravings, contributing to comprehensive and personalized patient

care.

For Researchers: The findings contribute significantly to the understanding of physiological

and psychological changes during pregnancy and their impact on women's nutritional habits.

This research enhances the body of knowledge surrounding pregnancy, providing valuable

insights for future studies and informing evidence-based approaches to maternal health.

For the Community: The study benefits the community by identifying harmful or

problematic beliefs and practices associated with pregnancy cravings. It informs community

efforts to promote healthy and evidence-based approaches to pregnancy and childbirth,

fostering a culture of informed decision-making.

For Spouses: Insights gained from the study enable spouses to understand the factors

influencing their wives' nutritional habits. This understanding facilitates more effective

support and guidance during pregnancy, contributing to the overall well-being of both the

expectant mother and the developing child.

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For Nursing Students: Nursing students can leverage the study's findings to comprehend the

reasons behind food cravings, making informed nutrition choices for themselves and offering

accurate advice to their future patients. Understanding Prenatal Nutrition: Nourishing Health

for Expecting Mothers equips nursing students to debunk misinformation and advocate

evidence-based approaches to nutrition and health in their professional roles.

Hypothesis

The implementation of the findings from the study on the Prenatal Nutrition: Nourishing Health

for Expecting Mothers has the potential to significantly improve dietary health behaviors.

Scope, Delimitation and Limitation of the Study

Scope. The primary goal of this study is to explore the Prenatal Nutrition: Nourishing Health

for Expecting Mothers, with a specific focus on those residing in Brgy. Camp Tinio,

Cabanatuan City. The research will involve mothers who have the capacity and willingness to

respond to the survey questionnaire, which will serve as the primary tool for data collection.

In terms of scope, the study will be geographically limited to Brgy. Camp Tinio, Cabanatuan

City, providing a localized perspective on the Prenatal Nutrition: Nourishing Health for

Expecting Mothers. The chosen area serves as the exclusive site for data gathering,

emphasizing a community-specific approach.

Delimitation. To maintain focus and acknowledge potential variations in nutritional

practices, the study will delimit its scope to urban areas within Camp Tinio, excluding rural

areas. This distinction recognizes the potential differences in dietary habits between urban and

rural settings, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of the nutritional practices under

investigation. The target population for this study is pregnant women, and participation is

contingent upon the ability and willingness of individuals to respond to the survey. The survey

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questionnaire will be the sole instrument employed for data collection, allowing for a

structured and comprehensive exploration of the nutritional practices within the specified

urban context.

Limitation. This study is constrained by its exclusive reliance on the narrative experiences of

mothers within the specified community. The limitation arises from the potential variability in

the quality and depth of information available to pregnant women regarding nutrition during

pregnancy. Some participants may lack access to proper and accurate information, potentially

resulting in suboptimal dietary choices and insufficient intake of essential nutrients. This

limitation emphasizes the need for cautious interpretation of findings, recognizing the

potential impact of varying levels of nutritional awareness and information accessibility

among pregnant women in the studied community.

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Definition of Terms

Age - The duration of time that an individual has been alive or an entity has existed.

Attainment - The action or accomplishment of reaching a goal one has actively worked

towards.

Aversion - A strong dislike or a feeling of disinclination towards something.

Birth - The occurrence of a baby or offspring emerging from the body of its mother, marking

the commencement of life as a physically separate being.

Congenital - A condition or characteristic that is present from birth, stemming from either

genetic or non-genetic factors.

Cravings - An intense desire for a specific food, often accompanied by a feeling of being

unable to satisfy one's hunger until that particular food is consumed.

Deficiency - In the medical context, a shortage of a substance, such as a vitamin or mineral,

essential for the body's well-being.

Development - A process that fosters growth, progress, positive change, or the inclusion of

physical, economic, environmental, social, and demographic elements.

Diet - The type and quantity of food prescribed for an individual or animal for a specific

purpose.

Fetal – Pertaining to the fetus, the developmental stage of a mammal between embryo and

newborn.

Health - A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, extending beyond the

mere absence of disease or infirmity.

Income - Money received, especially on a regular basis, through work or investments.

Lactation - The biological process of producing and releasing milk from the mammary glands

in the breasts.
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Lifestyle - The way in which a person or group lives.

Nutrients - Chemical substances found in every living thing on Earth. They are necessary to

the lives of people, plants, animals, and all other organisms.

Nutrition - is a critical part of health and development. Better nutrition is related to improved

infant, child and maternal health, stronger immune systems, safer pregnancy and childbirth,

lower risk of non-communicable diseases (such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease), and

longevity.

Occupation - A general term that refers to the field or industry you are a part of or the work

you are interested in. It can also refer to your role within an organization

Practice – The actual application of Idea belief or method as opposed to theories about such

application or use repeated exercise in or performance of an activity or skill so as to acquire or

maintain proficiency in it.

Pregnancy - The term used to describe the period in which a fetus develops inside a woman's

womb or uterus. Pregnancy usually lasts about 40 weeks, or just over 9 months, as measured

from the last menstrual period to delivery.

Theory - A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one

based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained.

Trimester – The third trimester is considered to be the longest trimester of pregnancy. This

trimester begins in week 28 of pregnancy and lasts until you give birth.

Wellness - The act of practicing healthy habits on a daily basis to attain better physical and

mental health outcomes, so that instead of just surviving, you're thriving

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References:

Shryock H. (2002). Motherhood-in-Prospect.Modern Medical GuideI.Revised-Edition-Page7

Huffman, J. W. (2022, November 14). pregnancy. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/pregnancy

Harrison M. (2020, July 31). National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine;

Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board;, editor. Nutrition During Pregnancy

and Lactation: Exploring New Evidence: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington (DC):

National Academies Press 5, Dietary Supplements. Available from:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562622/

Demissie T, Muroki NM, Kogi-Makau W.(1998, January).Food aversions and cravings

during pregnancy: prevalence and significance for maternal nutrition in Ethiopia. Food

Nutr.Bull.19, 20-26. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/156482659801900104

Nursing Theories, Current Nursing.

https://currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/nursing_theorists.html

UNICEF.Preventing malnutrition in pregnant and breastfeeding women. Maternal

nutrition.https://www.unicef.org/nutrition/maternal

Langford, L (2022, January 24). Understand Pender's Health Promotion Mode through

examples. Discover how her health promotion theory stems from patients' self-initiated

change to improve outcomes. https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-the-health-

promotion-model-definition-theory.

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 Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents the conceptual literature and related studies from local and

foreign studies and sources after in-depth research by the researchers. This chapter also

includes the synthesis of the gathered data.

Conceptual Literature

The current chapter delves into various factors affecting pregnancy outcomes, encompassing age,

family income, number of births, occupation, and educational attainment. Age is identified as a crucial

factor in a woman's fertility, where the quality and quantity of eggs decrease with age, influencing the

likelihood of pregnancy and associated complications. The risks of pregnancy complications, such as

miscarriage and chromosomal abnormalities, escalate with age, emphasizing the importance of

considering age-related factors in reproductive health (Steiner, 2016).

Family income is explored within the family stress model, suggesting that poverty can

contribute to inter-parental conflict, potentially impacting family dynamics and leading to

negative child outcomes. Low socioeconomic status is linked to an increased risk of adverse

pregnancy outcomes, though the association with inadequate prenatal care remains unclear

(Duncan & Magnuson, 2007).

The number of births and its interpretation, particularly in multiple pregnancies, is

discussed, emphasizing the potential lack of standardization in documentation. Occupation

during pregnancy is investigated for its impact on maternal and fetal health, with certain

occupations associated with increased risks. Employment during pregnancy, overall, is

15
associated with a reduced risk of preterm birth, but specific occupations may affect pregnancy

outcomes differently (Casas et al., 2015).

Educational attainment is examined in the context of teenage pregnancy, highlighting

the increased risks for both maternal and child health outcomes. Teenage mothers face

challenges in education, employment, and income, contributing to a cycle of adverse

reproductive behaviors (WHO, 2014; Azevedo et al., 2012).

The dietary practices of pregnant women are scrutinized, with a focus on nutritional

demands during pregnancy and the potential consequences of poor dietary habits. The role of

balanced maternal nutrition is emphasized in ensuring maternal and fetal well-being

(Amanuel Nana et al., 2018; Shemsu et al., 2020). Additionally, cravings during pregnancy

are explored, with hormonal imbalances and brain regions responsible for memory, pleasure,

and reward identified as potential contributors (Johnson, 2020).

Foreign Literature

A balanced diet is defined as the consumption of an adequate variety and quantity of foods and

beverages, providing essential nutrition and calories for the development of body cells, tissues, and

organs. During pregnancy, nutrition planning becomes crucial to ensure sufficient energy and nutrients

for both the mother and the developing infant. Social ecological models, as proposed by DiClemente et

al. (2005), highlight the influence of norms, resources, and interpersonal interactions on adolescents'

reproductive and sexual health behaviors, factors potentially shaped by their mothers' educational

attainment (Meade et al., 2008).

The nutritional demands during pregnancy necessitate a diverse diet and micronutrient

supplements. In the second and third trimesters, there is an increased energy requirement, especially in

the third trimester, where higher amounts of protein, carbohydrates, and fats are essential for meeting

16
the elevated energy needs. The selection of fats becomes crucial during this period, playing a

significant role in fetal development and infant growth (Yawledged et al., 2020).

Nutritional issues, encompassing both undernutrition and overnutrition, are prevalent

worldwide, affecting individuals in both developed and developing countries. Pregnant women, in

particular, are vulnerable to these issues due to the additional energy and nutrient requirements for the

growing fetus and maternal tissues. Ethiopia faces challenges with malnutrition, contributing

significantly to maternal illness and death. Protein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies

are widespread, with 22% of Ethiopian women experiencing undernourishment indicated by a BMI

below 18.5 (Schiavaco, 2020).

The significance of appropriate, balanced maternal nutrition as a determinant of maternal and

fetal well-being is emphasized. Addressing dietary practices and nutritional status among pregnant

women becomes imperative, aligning with the recommendations of the food pyramid. Halkalash et al.

(2021) conducted a study aiming to assess dietary practices and nutritional status among pregnant

women attending antenatal care in the rural Family Health Unit. Their facility-based cross-sectional

study in the Terrene family health unit, Gharbia Governorate, involved 350 pregnant women chosen by

a simple random sample. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using semi-structured

questionnaires, and statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS version 20. Results indicated

significant predictors of nutritional status among pregnant women attending antenatal care, including

age, education, occupation, medical service utilization, socioeconomic status, previous delivery,

presence of sickness, hemoglobin level, and daily meal frequency. This study underscores the

multifaceted factors influencing nutritional status during pregnancy and highlights the need for targeted

interventions based on these predictors.

Local literature

A study conducted by Aloysius N. Maduforo in 2010 assessed the impact of traditional beliefs and

17
taboos on the feeding practices and nutritional status of pregnant women in Nwangele Local

Government Area, Imo state. The investigation utilized structured and validated questionnaires to

gather information on the socio-economic characteristics, food taboos, and feeding practices of the

subjects. Anthropometric measurements, including weight, height, and body mass index, were also

assessed using standard tools.

The survey findings revealed significant aspects of the participants' circumstances. Approximately 54%

of the subjects had a monthly income of less than N5,000.00, indicating a challenging economic

situation. Additionally, 15% of the pregnant women adhered to traditional beliefs and food taboos,

which might influence their dietary choices. Malnutrition was observed in 38% of the women, while

62% fell within the expected body weight range.

To address these findings, the study recommended the intensification of nutrition education in health

centers and various villages within the local government. This educational effort aimed to empower

pregnant women with knowledge about healthy food selection and the importance of proper nutrition

during pregnancy.

In line with these recommendations, general guidelines for pregnant women are provided, emphasizing

the consumption of a variety of nutrient-rich foods and beverages. This includes fruits, vegetables,

whole grains, low or no-fat dairy products, and protein-rich foods. Taking a prenatal vitamin

containing folic acid, iron, and iodine is advised. Moreover, incorporating seafood into the diet,

limiting specific foods like undercooked fish or shellfish, and avoiding certain items such as soft

cheeses, raw meats, and unpasteurized products are recommended for ensuring food safety during

pregnancy.

Furthermore, the guidelines suggest limiting the intake of coffee and sugar-filled beverages while

opting for water or seltzer. Alcohol use is strongly discouraged during pregnancy to ensure the well-
18
being of both the mother and the developing fetus (Oash, 2023). These recommendations align with

broader health guidelines to support the nutritional needs and overall health of pregnant women.

Foreign Literature

Gezimu et al. (2022) highlighted the critical impact of insufficient nutrition on

pregnant women, leading to various health risks, including infections, pregnancy losses,

preeclampsia, anemia, and the birth of underweight infants. Malnutrition in women not only

affects their health but also poses risks to the health of their infants, contributing to 1.5 million

deaths worldwide in women and children. The study emphasized the low knowledge, attitude,

and practice of pregnant women toward nutrition, with educational status, occupation, and

parity identified as associated factors. The findings underscored the need for strengthened

community nutritional education and antenatal counseling to enhance awareness and practices

among pregnant women.

In another study by G. Daba, F. Beyene, W. Garoma, et al. (2013), the importance of

nutrition during pregnancy was emphasized, with an acknowledgment of relatively low

maternal nutrition practices among pregnant mothers. Positive relationships were found

between information about nutrition and family size of mothers, highlighting the need for

government interventions and collaborative efforts to enhance nutritional education and

practices during pregnancy.

The nutritional needs of women at different life stages, particularly before and during

pregnancy and while breastfeeding, were emphasized in the context of ensuring the well-

being and survival of both mothers and children. Access to sufficient services, care, and

nutrient-rich diets was deemed crucial, and the study called for a focus on nutritional

education and information to improve maternal nutrition practices during pregnancy.

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 Additionally, a study by Hinkle et al. (2020) in the US revealed suboptimal dietary

quality among pregnant women, emphasizing the necessity for effective interventions to

enhance dietary quality, especially for specific demographic groups. The significance of

meeting key nutrient requirements during pregnancy to prevent adverse health outcomes for

both mothers and infants was stressed.

The diverse opinions and advice on what pregnant women should eat or avoid were

acknowledged, with attention drawn to the potential hazards of mercury in fish despite its

importance for brain development. Furthermore, the link between chocolate consumption

during pregnancy and the possibility of having a contented baby was explored, considering

both biological and psychosocial factors.

The study conducted by Dr. Katri Raikkonen in 2004 suggested a link between food

cravings during pregnancy and a psychosocial purpose, indicating a potential negotiation with

societal norms of motherhood. The belief that a pregnant woman's food cravings could impact

the baby's complexion was mentioned, with a caution to manage one's diet properly during

pregnancy.

Local Literature

The study conducted by Fidel Mar G. Sebastian, Wilhelmina A. Mercado, Maria Victoria A.

Rondaris, Mary Agnes S. Regal, and Ermengard C. Gemira (2022) underscores the

significance of nutrition education and counseling in improving the nutritional status of

pregnant women. The strategies involved in this approach include promoting a balanced diet

with increased nutrient diversity, ensuring adequate weight gain through a balanced intake of

protein and calories, and encouraging the use of micronutrient supplements, food

20
supplements, or fortified foods to meet additional nutritional needs during pregnancy. The

delivery strategy implemented during public health emergencies aims to enhance pregnant

women's nutrition knowledge and improve their nutritional status.

The National Nutrition Council emphasizes the need for pregnant women to consume an

additional 300 calories, emphasizing a healthy and varied diet to provide essential nutrients

for fetal development. Recommendations include avoiding processed foods, fatty foods, and

opting for complex carbohydrates over simple sugars.

Flango et al. (2016) emphasize the importance of protein for fetal growth, recommending a

protein intake of 0.88-1.1 gm/kg body weight, with variations based on the trimester of

pregnancy. Healthy sources of fat are highlighted for brain development, emphasizing the

utilization of vitamins A, D, E, and K.

The study by Vanessa Maria F. Torres-Ticzon, MD, reveals micronutrient shortages,

including folate, iron, and calcium, emphasizing the importance of a balanced and nutritious

diet. Specific examples of folate-rich foods, such as green leafy vegetables, are mentioned.

The study emphasizes the significance of early and regular prenatal checks to prevent

pregnancy and neonatal problems.

In India, the nutrition of pregnant women is discussed in the context of cultural influences,

food fads, taboos, customs, and religious beliefs. The challenging nature of pregnancy,

influenced by individual preferences and cultural factors, is acknowledged.

The misconception of "eating for two" is addressed by Madden (2019), highlighting that

pregnant women only need to add approximately 340 calories during the second trimester and

450 calories during the third trimester for a healthy pregnancy. The emphasis is on avoiding

the consumption of excessive empty calorie foods and processed high-fat foods.
21
Synthesis

The researchers draw on related research studies and literature to highlight the

nutritional needs of pregnant women. It is emphasized that all mothers, especially during the

second and third trimesters, require more diverse foods and micronutrient supplements. In

particular, the third trimester demands increased intake of protein, carbohydrates, and fats to

meet heightened energy requirements, with a wise selection of fats crucial for fetal

development and infant growth. The nutritional requirements are recognized to vary based on

factors such as age, gender, and physiological changes like pregnancy. Pregnancy is identified

as a critical phase in a woman's life, necessitating optimal nutrients and superior food qualities

to support fetal development.

The study reveals that the Prenatal Nutrition: Nourishing Health for Expecting

Mothers concerning maternal nutrition were relatively low. The information about nutrition

and family size of mothers is identified as having a positive and significant relationship with

mothers’ nutrition practices in the study area.

The inclusion of supporting literature and related studies on the nutritional practices of

pregnant women is deemed essential for the study. Additionally, the assessment of selected

demographic profiles is noted to be relevant, providing further information on pregnant

women's nutritional practices. Overall, the research draws on existing knowledge to

underscore the importance of addressing the specific nutritional needs of pregnant women

during various stages of pregnancy.

22
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reproductive age cohort', Fertility and Sterility, vol. 105, no. 6, pp. 1584–1588.

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2 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0715-7

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During Prenatal and Early Postnatal Periods and Its Impact on Psychosocial Child

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Casas, M et al., (2015). Maternal occupation during pregnancy, birth weight, and length of

gestation: combined analysis of 13 European birth cohorts. Scandinavian Journal of Work,

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https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/repro/pregnancyjob.developing.
23
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tĕhotenství [The occupation of the pregnant woman in relation to the course and outcome of

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Suga, R., Tsuji, M., Tanaka, R. et al. Factors associated with occupation changes after

pregnancy/delivery: result from Japan Environment & Children’s pilot study. BMC Women's

Health 18, 86 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-018-0575-3

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Rebekah, M. Stephen F. et al.,2019. The Influence of Educational Attainment on Teenage

Pregnancy in Low-Income Countries: A Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Social

Work in the Global Community 2019, Volume 4, Issue 1, Pages 19–31

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(2019, September 24).6 Pregnancy Superstitions Debunked.Makati Medical Center.

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Pinoy Pregnancy Superstitions You May Or May Not Believe In.

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Al-Mehaisen, L., & r A. Al-Husban, N, (2018, December).Is there a relationship between

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Article ID 5091318 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/5091318

CHAPTER III

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 THE METHODOLOGY

This chapter details the strategies and approaches to answer the research problem. The

Research Design, Locale of the Study, Sources of Data, Sampling Types and Techniques,

Research Instruments, Validation of the Research Instrument, Data Gathering Procedure,

Tools for Data Analysis, and Protection of Rights will discuss here

Research Design

The chosen research design for this study is quantitative, emphasizing objective

measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data. Quantitative

methods involve the collection of numerical data through polls, questionnaires, surveys, or the

manipulation of pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. As described by

Babbie (2010), quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it

across groups of people or explaining a particular phenomenon.

The primary objective of this quantitative research is to address the issues highlighted in the

problem statement presented in the first chapter. The researchers aim to support and achieve

the study's objective by comprehensively understanding the nutritional practices of pregnant

respondents. This approach involves the systematic collection and analysis of numerical data

to draw conclusions and make generalizations about the nutritional behaviors of pregnant

women.

Locale of the Study

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 Figure 2. Brgy. Camp Tinio, Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija (Left)

Figure 3. Satellite view (Right)

This study will take place at Brgy. Camp Tino, Cabanatuan City, of Nueva Ecija. Its

population, as determined by the 2020 Census, was 11,917. This represented 3.64% of the

total population of Cabanatuan. According to the 2015 Census, the age group with the highest

population in Campo Tinio is 20 to 24, with 1,254 individuals. Conversely, the age group with

the lowest population is 75 to 79, with 65 individuals.

Sources of Data

The data for this study will be collected through both primary and secondary sources. Primary

sources will involve the administration of surveys and questionnaires to a sample of residents

from Brgy. Camp Tinio, Cabanatuan City. These individuals will serve as the primary

providers of information regarding their nutritional practices during pregnancy.

In addition to primary data collection, secondary sources will be utilized to complement the

research. These secondary sources include journal articles, relevant government documents,

published studies, information available in libraries, and online resources. The combination of

primary and secondary data will enhance the comprehensiveness and depth of the study,

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allowing for a more thorough examination of the nutritional practices of pregnant women in

the specified community.

Sampling Type and Technique

The researchers employed a non-probability sampling method, specifically Snowball

sampling, to gather study respondents. Non-probability sampling involves selecting units from

a population in an arbitrary manner and is a quick, simple, and cost-effective method that

doesn't require a complete survey frame. The assumption in this sampling method is that the

sample is representative enough to make inferences about the entire population.

In the context of this study, Snowball sampling was utilized in the selection of a group of

students. In Snowball sampling, new units are recruited by existing units to form part of the

sample. This method can be particularly useful when researching individuals with specific

traits who might be challenging to identify through other means.

The study involved a total of 50 pregnant women who responded. The researchers applied a

95% confidence level, resulting in a margin of error of 5%. This approach allows for the study

to proceed without the constraints of using a randomized sample, providing valuable insights

into the nutritional practices of pregnant women.

Research Instrument

For the survey and questionnaire, a non-random selection approach will be utilized, meaning

that participants will be chosen based on specific criteria rather than through random

selection. Closed-ended questions will be used in the survey, allowing respondents to select

answers from predetermined options. These questions are designed based on the issues

outlined in the problem description and conceptual framework.

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The sociodemographic characteristics of the recruited women will be collected and analyzed.

Frequencies and percentages will be computed to assess the prevalence of dietary supplement

usage among the respondents.

Once the data is collected, the researchers will categorize and analyze it to derive meaningful

findings. This analysis will involve examining patterns, trends, and relationships within the

data to address the research objectives and provide insights into the nutritional practices of

pregnant women in the study population.

Validation of Instrument

The validity of a questionnaire is assessed by examining whether the questionnaire effectively

measures what it is intended to measure. In this study, a questionnaire will serve as the

primary tool for data collection. The chosen method is a survey questionnaire, where

respondents are presented with predetermined response options and are required to choose

from among them.

This type of questionnaire offers several advantages. It is relatively straightforward to tabulate

and summarize the results, making data analysis more manageable. Additionally, the

responses are constrained to the options already provided by the researchers. The structured

format of the survey questionnaire enhances the ease of data collection, organization, and

analysis. (Barrentos-Tan, 2011)

Data Gathering Procedure

The instrument, upon completion, will be submitted to the dean and the adviser along with a

formal letter for approval. Once approval is obtained, the survey questionnaire will be

administered to the randomly selected respondents. The researchers will provide an

explanation of the study's objectives, assure respondents that their information will be kept
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confidential, and give instructions for completing the questionnaire. Subsequently, the

researchers will collect and analyze the questionnaire and survey results to draw conclusions.

Tool for Data Analysis

Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique, and it doesn't follow a

specific formula in the way that probability sampling methods do. In snowball sampling,

researchers typically start with a small group of participants, and those participants then refer

or introduce the researchers to others who meet the criteria for the study. This process

continues, creating a "snowball" effect as the sample size grows.

There are variations in how the snowball sampling method is implemented. Linear

sampling, as you mentioned, involves each existing participant referring only one new

participant. In contrast, exponential sampling allows existing participants to refer as many

new participants as they can find. The choice between these methods depends on the research

objectives and the characteristics of the population being studied.

Protection of Rights

The Philippines enacted Republic Act 10173, known as the Data Privacy Act of 2012,

as a crucial step to safeguard individuals' fundamental privacy rights by establishing stringent

measures for the secure and protected handling of private information. In the realm of

research, it is imperative for researchers to uphold ethical standards, ensuring that their studies

are conducted with the utmost respect for the rights of respondents. This involves obtaining

informed consent and allowing participants the option to withdraw from the study at any stage

of data collection. Moreover, a commitment to confidentiality is essential, preventing the

32
unauthorized disclosure of gathered information without explicit consent from the

participants. By adhering to these principles, researchers contribute to a responsible and

compliant research environment that prioritizes the privacy and rights of individuals in

accordance with the Data Privacy Act.

References:

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research. 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage,

2010; Muijs, Daniel. Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS. 2nd edition.

London: SAGE Publications, 2010.

https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/quantitative

Republic Act of 10173 or the Data Privacy Act of 2012. (Sgd.) FELICIANO BELMONTE

JR. Speaker of the House of Representatives (Sgd.) JUAN PONCE ENRILE President of the

SenateThis Act which is a consolidation of Senate Bill No. 2965 and House Bill No. 4115 was

finally passed by the Senate and the House of Representatives on June 6, 2012. (Sgd.)

MARILYN B. BARUA-YAP Secretary General House of Representatives (Sgd.) EMMA

LIRIO-REYES Secretary of the Senate Approved: AUG 15 2012. (Sgd.) BENIGNO S.

AQUINO III President of the Philippines

https://www.privacy.gov.ph/data-privacy-act/

Simkus, J. (2022, January 10).Simply Paychology. Snowball Sampling: Definition, Method

and Examples.https://www.simplypsychology.org/snowball-sampling

Data on population, and households, are from the Philippine Statistics Authority.Postal code

information is from the Philippine Postal Corporation

https://www.philatlas.com/luzon/r03/nueva-ecija/cabanatuan/campo-tinio.html
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Nikolopoulou.K. (2022, August 17, 2022) . What Is Snowball Sampling?|Definition

&Examples.https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/snowb

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