MTH 101 (Elementary Mathematics I)

2022/2023 Session

Module 3.2- Surds

Lecture 3, Module 3

Olawanle LAYENI Link

Enoch Adejare Adeboye Professorial Chair

Department of Mathematics,
Obafemi Awolowo University,
220005 ILE-IFE, NIGERIA

November 27, 2023

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Table of Contents

Equality of Mixed Quadratic

Surds
1 Introduction
3 Square Root of Mixed Quadratic
What are Surds? Surds

Similar Surds Theorems

2 Mixed Quadratic Surds Examples

2 / 27
Hello Radicals!

r When a boy I discovered

q p √
π = 2n 2− 2+ 2+ 2+...
√
(with n(= ∞) ’s) , . . .

The Life-Romance of an Algebraist- G. W. Pierce

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Quadratic Surd Expressions
Q UADRATIC S URD E XPRESSIONS

Any expression involving the square root of a positive real number that is not
a perfect square is called a surd or alternatively a quadratic surd expression.

Some examples of quadratic surd expressions are given below.

√
21.
√
2 2.
√
−3 11.
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Rules for Surds, A Reminder
Let k, l, m be non-negative real numbers that are not perfect squares. Then
 √ 2
(1) k = k.

√
(2) k2 = | k | .
√ √√
(3) l×m = l m, l×m ≥ 0.
r √
l l
(4) = √ , m ̸= 0 .
m m
√ √
(5) ( k )n = k n , k ≥ 0 , n ∈ R \ {0}.

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Similar Surds, The Definition

S IMILAR Q UADRATIC S URD E XPRESSIONS

√ √
Two surds a, b are called similar if one is a rational multiple of the other:
√ r√
a= b , where r, s ∈ N .
s

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Example 2, Similar Surds
√
r
81
Question 2: Are 8 and similar surds?
2

Answer 2:

√
r
81
8 and are similar surds.
2

Why so?

9√ 9 √ 9√
r r
81 1
=9 = 2= 2 2= 8,
2 2 2 4 4

√
r
81
This shows that is a rational multiple of 8.
2
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Table of Contents

Equality of Mixed Quadratic

Surds
1 Introduction
3 Square Root of Mixed Quadratic
What are Surds? Surds

Similar Surds Theorems

2 Mixed Quadratic Surds Examples

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Mixed Quadratic Surds, The Definition
M IXED Q UADRATIC S URDS , A D EFINITION
√ √
Let a, b be rationals, b strictly positive. The expression a + b or a − b is
called a mixed quadratic surd.

Example 3: The following are examples of mixed quadratic surds:

√
2+ 3
√
−6 + 3 5
√
7 − 29
r r
1 2 1
−3 − ; ■ − 17
3 5 7
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The Conjugate Surd to a Mixed Quadratic Surd
T HE C ONJUGATE S URD TO A M IXED Q UADRATIC S URD

Let a, b be rationals,
√ b strictly positive. The conjugate surd to the mixed
quadratic surd a + b is the mixed quadratic surd
√
a− b

and vice-versa.

Example 4:
√ √
2− 3 is a conjugate surd to 2 + 3.
r r
1 1
−5 + is a conjugate surd to −5 − .
7 7
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Equality of Mixed Quadratic Surds, The Conditions
Suppose b√and d are two
√ rational numbers. Then two mixed quadratic
surds a + b and c + d are equal if

a = c, b = d

OR

α2 δ2
There exist α, β, δ, ϵ ∈ N; b = ; d = ; and therefore
β2 ϵ2

α δ
a+ = c+ .
β ϵ

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Equality of Mixed Quadratic Surds, An Example

Example 5: Find f , g if
√ √
2 + 5 3 = 6 + f + (3 + g) 12 .

Solution 5:

2 = 6 + f and 2(3 + g) = 5
1
f = −4 and g = −
2

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On Sum or Difference of Two Quadratic Surds

√ √ √ √
Let a, b ∈ Q\{0}. Then, a+ b is rational only if each of a, b is
rational.
√ √
Let a, b ∈ Q\{0}√
. Then, a − b is rational only if a and b are distinct
√
and each of a, b is rational.
√ √ √ √
Example
√ 6 : √ 2 ± 3 is
√ irrational since each of 2, √3 is irrational.
Also, 4 ± 3 ≡ 2 ± 3 is likewise irrational since 3 is irrational.

√ √
r r
1 81
Example 7: 25 − 81 is rational. Also, − is rational.
125 144

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Rationalization of Surdic Denominators of Fractions I

The surdic denominator in a fractional expression can be made

rational through a process called rationalization

The rationalization is attained by multiplying the denominator and the

numerator of that fraction by the conjugate of the denominator.

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Rationalization of Surdic Denominators of Fractions II

By the rationalization process, one can equivalently write a fraction

1
√ ,
a± b

where a2 ̸= b > 0, as

 √  √
1 1 × a ∓ b a∓ b
√ = √  √ = 2 .
a± b a± b a∓ b a − b

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Rationalization of Surdic Denominators of Fractions III

√ √
1 1× 3 3
Example 8: √ = √ √ = .
3 3× 3 3
 √   √ 
1 1 × 1 + 3 − 1 + 3
Example 9: √ = √   √  = .
1− 3 1− 3 1+ 3 2

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Rationalization of Surdic Denominators of Fractions IV
1 √ √
Question 10: Express √ √ in the form a + b c + d e ; where
1+ 2+ 3
a, b, d ∈ Q ; c, e ∈ Q+ .

Answer 10: Here, we shall deploy a process of sequential rationalization in

a non-unique manner as follows.

.
 √ √  √ √
1 1 × 1 + 2 − 3 1+ 2− 3
√ √ = √ √  √ √ = √ 2
1+ 2+ 3 1+ 2+ 3 1+ 2− 3 1+ 2 −3
√ √
 √ √  √ √ √
1+ 2− 3 1+ 2− 3 × 2 1 3 6
= √ = √ √ = + − .
2 2 2 2× 2 2 4 4
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Table of Contents

Equality of Mixed Quadratic

Surds
1 Introduction
3 Square Root of Mixed Quadratic
What are Surds? Surds

Similar Surds Theorems

2 Mixed Quadratic Surds Examples

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p √
a+ b ; a, b ≥ 0 , a2 ≥ b

p √
T HEOREM 1: b ; a, b ≥ 0 , a2 ≥ b
a+
p √
Let a, b ≥ 0, a2 − b ≥ 0. Then a + b can be expressed in the form
√ √
x + y , x, y ∈ R+ ⊔ {0} ,

where
√
a+ a2 − b
x=
√2
a − a2 − b
y= .
2

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p √
a− b ; a, b ≥ 0 , a2 ≥ b

p √
T HEOREM 2: b ; a, b ≥ 0 , a2 ≥ b
a−
p √
Let a, b ≥ 0, a2 − b ≥ 0. Then a − b can be expressed in the form
√ √
x − y , x, y ∈ R+ ⊔ {0} ,

where
√
a+ a2 − b
x=
√2
a − a2 − b
y= .
2

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Theorem 1; The Proof
p √
Proof of T HEOREM 1: a+ b ; a, b ≥ 0 , a2 ≥ b
Let q √ √ √
a+ b= x+ y ; x, y ∈ R+ ⊔ {0} . (1)
Squaring both sides of Eq.1 gives
√ √
a + b = x + y + 2 xy; (2)
√ p
a + b = x + y + 4xy. (3)

From earlier in this note, the surds equality in Eq.(2) is possible only
if (
a = x+y
(4)
b = 4xy .

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Theorem 1; The Proof, Continued
p √
Proof of T HEOREM 1: a+ b ; a, b ≥ 0 , a2 ≥ b
Solving Eq.4 for x and y yields
 √
x =
 a ± a2 − b


 2
(5)
 √


y = a ∓ a2 − b
,

2
showing the necessity of the positivity restriction a2 ≥ b on the
discriminant a2 − b in Eqs.5a and 5b.

A SSIGNMENT 1: Prove Theorem 2 following similar steps to those

taken above.
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A SSIGNMENT2

A SSIGNMENT2
Let ap∈ Q, b ∈ Q+ ⊔ {0}. Under which further conditions on a and or
√
b is a + b expressible in the form
√ √
x+ y

where x, y ∈ Q+ ⊔ {0}?

Q denotes the set of rational numbers.

Q+ denotes the set of strictly positive rational numbers.

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 √
Example 11:
p
4+2 3
p √
Question 11: Find the square root of 4 + 2 3.
p √ √ √
Answer 11: We shall express 4 + 2 3 in the form x + y, x, y ∈ R+ .
√ √
Firstly, We write 4 + 2 3 as 4 + 12. Afterwards, we apply Theorem 1,
noting that a = 4, b = 12. Therefore,
 √ √
 a + a2−b 4 + 42 − 12

 x = = =3

 2 2
 √ √

 a − a2−b 4 − 42 − 12
y =

= = 1.
2 2

p √ √
Therefore 4+2 3 = 3+1 .
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 √
Example 12:
p
8− 15
p √
Question 12: Find the square root of 8− 15.
p √ √ √
Answer 12: We shall express 8− 15 in the form x− y, x, y ∈ R+ .

From Theorem 2, a = 8, b = 15. Then,

 √ √
 a + a2−b 8 + 82 − 15 15
x =
 = =

 2 2 2
 √ √

 a − a2−b 8 − 82 − 15 1
y =

= = .
2 2 2

√
r r
p 15 1
Therefore 8− 15 = − .
2 2
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 √ √
Example 13: Roots of Quadratic Equations in the Form m± m ; m, n ∈ Q+
√ √ √ √
Question 13: Find the roots of z2 − 2 2z + 2 = 0 in the form a± b,
where a and b are positive rationals.

Answer 13: The roots of the quadratic equation are

√ p √
2 2± 8−4 3
z=
√ q2 √ (6)
= 2± 2− 3.
.
p √ √ √
By Theorem 2, 2 − 3 has the form x − y with x > y > 0, precisely
x = 32 and y = 12 . Then,
r ! r ! r !
√
r r r
3 1 1 3 9 3
z = 2± − ; z= + or − .
2 2 2 2 2 2
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End of Lecture 3, Module 3

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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 MTH 101 (Elementary Mathematics I)
2022/2023 Session

Module 3.1- Operations with Real Numbers

Lectures 1 and 2, Module 3

Olawanle LAYENI Link

Enoch Adejare Adeboye Professorial Chair

Department of Mathematics,
Obafemi Awolowo University,
220005 ILE-IFE, NIGERIA

November 23-24, 2023

1 / 38
Table of Contents

2 L ECTURE 2

1 Lecture 1 Useful Polynomial Identities

Introduction Two Partial Fractions Identities

Notable Subsets of R More Polynomial Identities

Operations on R The Absolute Value

2 / 38
Hello Dictionary!

Real number noun

Kid’s Definition
: a number that is rational or
irrational.

Merriam-Webster Link

3 / 38
I NTRODUCTION I

The set of real numbers, denoted by R, is the union of the disjoint sets of rational
numbers and irrational numbers.

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Introduction II

A shape of the constitution of the set of real numbers, like that of any set, can
be garnered from those of its subsets.

In order to have an insight into this shape, we shall consider the following
subsets of the set of real numbers R: The set of natural numbers, the set of
integers, the set of rational numbers, and the set of irrational numbers.

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The Set of Natural Numbers

This is the set of numbers often called, “the counting numbers,” that is denoted by
N:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .} . (1)

The ellipsis in Eq.(1) is meant to imply that the cardinality of the set of natural
numbers is infinite.

The set of natural numbers N is countably infinite.

The set of natural numbers is the archetype of countable sets.

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The Set of Integers I
The set of integers, denoted by Z, is the union

{. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1} ∪ {0} ∪ N (2)

otherwise written as

{. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1} ∪ {0} ∪ {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .} , (3)

which is
n o
. . . , −6, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . . (4)

7 / 38
The Set of Integers II

The set {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1} deployed in the definition above is often
referred to as the set of negative integers and denoted by Z− .

N is also often referred to as Z+ .

Z is countably infinite.

Z = Z− ∪ { 0 } ∪ N = Z− ∪ { 0 } ∪ Z+ .

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The Set of Rational Numbers

The set of rational numbers, denoted by Q, is the set of real numbers that admit
the form
a
(5)
b
where both a and b are integers, b nonzero.

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The Set of Rational Numbers, Illustration

Example 1:

2
is a rational number.
3

1
0.25 is a rational number: It is the terminating decimal form of .
4

2
0.6666 . . . is a rational number: It is the recurring decimal of .
3

23
0.6969 . . . is a rational number: It is the recurring decimal of .
33

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The Set of Rational Numbers: Continued

Every recurring or terminating decimal

is a rational number.

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The Set of Rational Numbers: Continued
The decimal forms of rational numbers either present as terminating decimals (for
example 0.12568) or as recurring decimals (for example 0.725972597259 . . . or
0.69696969 . . .).

Example 2:

a
0.12568 expressible in the form , b ̸= 0, a, b ∈ Z, by writing
b
12568 1571
0.12568 = = .
100000 12500

a
0.72597259 . . . is likewise expressible in the form . Let y = 0.72597259 . . ..
b
Since the length of the recurring digits is 4, multiply y by 104 to have

10000y = 7259.72597259 . . . = 7259 + 0.72597259 . . .

7259
= 7259 + y ; 9999y = 7259 ; y = .
9999

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Set of Irrational Numbers, 1

Irrational numbers are real numbers which are not rational

and therefore CANNOT be expressed in the form
a
b
where a, b ∈ Z, b nonzero.

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Set of Irrational Numbers, 2

The set of irrational numbers Q′ is the complement of the set Q of rational

numbers in the set R of real numbers:

Q′ : = R − Q

14 / 38
Set of Irrational Numbers- Examples

Example 3 (Examples of irrational numbers)

π, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

√ √ √
p, p a prime number, examples of which are 2 and 11.

e, Napier’s constant: The base of natural logarithms, defined by

n
e = lim 1 + n1 .
n→ ∞

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Inclusion of Subsets of the Set of Real Numbers

The infinite subsets of the set of real numbers Q, Z, N are related through the
proper inclusion

N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R (6)

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Operations on R, Commutativity

Let x, y, z be any real numbers. Then

(1a) Commutativity with respect to the + operation holds: x + y = y + x;

and

(1b) Commutativity with respect to the × operation holds: x × y = y × x.

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Operations on R, Associativity

Let x, y, z be any real numbers. Then

(2a) Associativity with respect to the + operation holds: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z;

and

(2b) Associativity with respect to the × operation holds: x × (y × z) = (x × y) × z.

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Operations on R, Distributivity

Let x, y, z be any real numbers . Then

(3) Distributivity of multiplication over addition holds:

x × (y + z)
=⇒
= x×y+x×z
| {z }
Left distributivity of × over +

= y×x+z×x =
| {z }
Right distributivity of × over +

(y + z) × x
⇐=

19 / 38
Operations on R : An Example

Example 4
!
1 1 1 1
(4 × 6 × 10 × 14) + + + = 60 × 14 + 40 × 14 + 24 × 14 + 24 × 10 =
4 6 10 14
(60 + 40)14 + 24(14 + 10) = 100 × 14 + 242 =
| {z } | {z }
due to right distributivity due to left distributivity
of × operation on R over + of × operation on R over +

1400 + 576 = 1976 .

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A Fine Perspective of (R, +, ×)
The set of real numbers is a field on which the operations of addition (+) and
multiplication (×) are defined such that for a, b ∈ R, there exists unique a × b and
a + b in R for which the following operations holds for elements a, b, c of R:

Commutativity: +: a + b = b + a ; ×: a × b = b × a ,

Associativity: +: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c ; ×: a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c ,

Unique Identity: +: ∀ a ∈ R , ∃ 0 ∈ R: 0 + a = a ; ×: ∀ a ∈ R , ∃ 1 ∈ R:
1×a = a,

1
Unique Inverse: +: ∀ a ∈ R, ∃ − a s.t. a + (−a) = 0 ; ×: ∀ 0 ̸= a ∈ R, ∃ s.t.
  a
1
× a = 1 , A ND
a

Distributivity of multiplication × over addition +.

21 / 38
Table of Contents

2 L ECTURE 2

1 Lecture 1 Useful Polynomial Identities

Introduction Two Partial Fractions Identities

Notable Subsets of R More Polynomial Identities

Operations on R The Absolute Value

22 / 38
Operations on R- Useful Identities Ia

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )

23 / 38
Operations on R- Useful Identities Ib
Example 5:
2911729342
Question: Simplify .
2911729332 + 2911729352 − 2

Answer:
2911729342
2911729332 + 2911729352 − 2
2911729342
=
(2911729332 − 1) + (2911729352 − 1)
| {z } | {z }
Difference of two squares Difference of two squares

2911729342
=
(291172934)(291172932) + (291172934)(291172936)
2911729342 1
= )= .
(291172934)(291172932
|
+ 291172936}
{z
2
2×291172934
24 / 38
Operations on R- Useful Identities Ic
Example 6:
Question: Let a, b be real numbers such that a ̸= −b. Simplify
a6 − b6
.
(a3 + b3 )(a2 + ab + b2 )

Answer:

a6 − b6
(a3 + b3 )(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a3 )2 − (b3 )2
= 3 a6 − b6 is a difference of two squares
(a + b3 )(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a3 − b3 ) 3+
(a 3)
b
= 3 3
b )(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a+ 

(a3 − b3 )
= = a−b .
(a2 + ab + b2 )
25 / 38
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIa

For nonzero real numbers x and m, x not taking values −1 or −m, the following
partial fraction identities hold respectively.

1 1 1
= −
x(x + 1) x (x + 1)
 
1 1 1 1
= −
x(x + m) m x x+m

26 / 38
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIb
Example 7
Question: Let k be a nonzero real number which does not take values −1 or −2.
1
Express as partial fractions.
k(k + 1)(k + 2)

Answer:
1
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
   
1 1 1 1 1
= = −
k (k + 1)(k + 2) k k+1 k+2
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − − −
k (k + 1) k (k + 2) k k+1 2 k k+2
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
= − + = − + .
2 k k + 1 2(k + 2) 2 k k+1 k+2

27 / 38
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIa

Some generalizations of the aforegiven identities are the following. Let a, b be real
numbers.

(a − b)(a3 + a2 b + ab2 + b2 ) = a4 − b4

(a − b)(a4 + a3 b + a2 b2 + ab3 + b4 ) = a5 − b5
..
.
 
(a − b) an−1 + an−2 b + . . . + abn−2 + bn−1 = an − bn , for all n ∈ N

 
(a + b) an−1 − an−2 b + . . . − abn−2 + bn−1 = an + bn , for odd n ∈ N

28 / 38
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIb
Example 8
1 1
Question: Let x + = 5, x a nonzero real number. Find the value of x3 + 3 .
x x

Answer (i):
 3
3 1 3 1
x + 3 = x +
x x
| {z }
1
Form a3 + b3 a:=x , b:=
x
   2 !
1 1 1
= x+ x2 − x × +
x x x
| {z }
(a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

29 / 38
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIb Continued

 
 
   2 
1  2
 1 
= x+ x + −1
x 
 x 

 | {z } 
2 2
Form a + b
  
  
    
1 2
 
1   1  
= x+  x + −2×x×  − 1
  
x  x x  
 | {z }  
  
2 2 2
a + b = (a + b) − 2ab

= 5([52 − 2] − 1) = 5(23 − 1) = 5(22) = 110 .

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Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIc

Example 8
Question: Suppose that the real numbers x and y satisfy the system of equations
(
x+y = 6
x2 + y2 = 29 .

Calculate (i) xy , (ii) x3 + y3 .

Answer (i): From the identity (x + y)2 − 2xy = x2 + y2 , one observes that
1  1 2  1
xy = (x + y)2 − (x2 + y2 ) = 6 − 29 = 3 .
2 | {z } | {z } 2 2
6 29

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Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIc Continued

Answer (ii): The value of the sum of cubes x3 + y3 can be calculated through the
identity
x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y2 )

7
Since x3 + y3 = (x + y)((x2 + y2 ) − xy); xy = ; x + y = 6; and x2 + y2 = 29, then
    2
3 3 7 51
x + y = (6) (29) − =6 = 153 .
2 2

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Absolute Value of a Real Number

The absolute value of a real number x, denoted by |x|, is defined as


x
 x>0
|x| = 0 x=0

−x x < 0.


33 / 38
Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Ia

Let x, y, and λ be real numbers, m ∈ N. Then,

|λx| = |λ||x| ,

|x| = |y| if and only if x = y or x = −y ,

| xm | = | x | m ,

x |x|
= , y ̸= 0.
y |y|

34 / 38
Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Ib-
Examples
Example 9
|x + |x||
Question: Let x be a nonzero real number. Simplify g(x) := .
x

Answer: We shall two cases for x: (i) x > 0, and (ii) x < 0).

Case (i): x > 0: In this instance, |x| = x, and as such x + |x| = x + x = 2x; and
x + |x| 2x
x + |x| = |2x| = 2x . Therefore g(x) = = = 2
x x

Case (ii): x < 0: In this case, |x| = −x and therefore x + |x| = x − x = 0.

x + |x| 0
Therefore g(x) = = = 0.
x x
35 / 38
Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Ic-
Examples
Example 10
|x| − 3x
Question: If x < 0, find the value of .
7

Answer: Since x < 0, |x| = −x by definition. This means that

−x −3x
|x| − 3x
| {z }
Note that |x|=−x if x<0
=
7 7
4
= − x .
7

36 / 38
Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Id-
Examples
Example 11
Question: Let x, y, z be distinct real numbers such that
1
(2x − 4)2 + (y − 9) + z − 3 = 0 .
4
Find the value x10 + yz .

Answer:

1
Since each of (2x − 4)2 , 4 (y − 9) , or z − 3 is positive and their sum is zero,
they each must be zero.

Then 2x − 4 = 0, y − 9 = 0, z − 3 = 0. That is, x = 2, y = 9, and z = 3.

x10 + yz = 210 + 9 × 3 = 1024 + 27 = 1051 .

37 / 38
End of Lectures 1 and 2, Module 3

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

38 / 38
 MTH 101 (Elementary Mathematics I)
2022/2023 Session
Module 3.1- Operations with Real Numbers
Lectures 1 and 2, Module 3
&
A Ten-Minute Test

Olawanle LAYENI Link

Enoch Adejare Adeboye Professorial Chair

Department of Mathematics,
Obafemi Awolowo University,
220005 ILE-IFE, NIGERIA

November 23-24, 2023 1 / 46

Table of Contents

Useful Polynomial Identities

1 Lecture 1
Two Partial Fractions Identities
Introduction
More Polynomial Identities
Notable Subsets of R
The Absolute Value
Operations on R
Ten-Minute Test
2 L ECTURE 2

2 / 46
Hello Dictionary!

Real number noun

Kid’s Definition
: a number that is rational or
irrational.

Merriam-Webster Link

3 / 46
I NTRODUCTION I

The set of real numbers, denoted by R, is the union of the disjoint sets of rational
numbers and irrational numbers.

4 / 46
Introduction II

A shape of the constitution of the set of real numbers, like that of any set, can
be garnered from those of its subsets.

In order to have an insight into this shape, we shall consider the following
subsets of the set of real numbers R: The set of natural numbers, the set of
integers, the set of rational numbers, and the set of irrational numbers.

5 / 46
The Set of Natural Numbers

This is the set of numbers often called, “the counting numbers,” that is denoted by
N:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .} . (1)

The ellipsis in Eq.(1) is meant to imply that the cardinality of the set of natural
numbers is infinite.

The set of natural numbers N is countably infinite.

The set of natural numbers is the archetype of countable sets.

6 / 46
The Set of Integers I
The set of integers, denoted by Z, is the union

{. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1} ∪ {0} ∪ N (2)

otherwise written as

{. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1} ∪ {0} ∪ {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .} , (3)

which is
n o
. . . , −6, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . . (4)

7 / 46
The Set of Integers II

The set {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1} deployed in the definition above is often
referred to as the set of negative integers and denoted by Z− .

N is also often referred to as Z+ .

Z is countably infinite.

Z = Z− ∪ { 0 } ∪ N = Z− ∪ { 0 } ∪ Z+ .

8 / 46
The Set of Rational Numbers

The set of rational numbers, denoted by Q, is the set of real numbers that admit
the form
a
(5)
b
where both a and b are integers, b nonzero.

9 / 46
The Set of Rational Numbers, Illustration

Example 1:

2
is a rational number.
3

1
0.25 is a rational number: It is the terminating decimal form of .
4

2
0.6666 . . . is a rational number: It is the recurring decimal of .
3

23
0.6969 . . . is a rational number: It is the recurring decimal of .
33

10 / 46
The Set of Rational Numbers: Continued

Every recurring or terminating decimal

is a rational number.

11 / 46
The Set of Rational Numbers: Continued
The decimal forms of rational numbers either present as terminating decimals (for
example 0.12568) or as recurring decimals (for example 0.725972597259 . . . or
0.69696969 . . .).

Example 2:

a
0.12568 expressible in the form , b ̸= 0, a, b ∈ Z, by writing
b
12568 1571
0.12568 = = .
100000 12500

a
0.72597259 . . . is likewise expressible in the form . Let y = 0.72597259 . . ..
b
Since the length of the recurring digits is 4, multiply y by 104 to have

10000y = 7259.72597259 . . . = 7259 + 0.72597259 . . .

7259
= 7259 + y ; 9999y = 7259 ; y = .
9999

12 / 46
Set of Irrational Numbers, 1

Irrational numbers are real numbers which are not rational

and therefore CANNOT be expressed in the form
a
b
where a, b ∈ Z, b nonzero.

13 / 46
Set of Irrational Numbers, 2

The set of irrational numbers Q′ is the complement of the set Q of rational

numbers in the set R of real numbers:

Q′ : = R − Q

14 / 46
Set of Irrational Numbers- Examples

Example 3 (Examples of irrational numbers)

π, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

√ √ √
p, p a prime number, examples of which are 2 and 11.

e, Napier’s constant: The base of natural logarithms, defined by

n
e = lim 1 + n1 .
n→ ∞

15 / 46
Inclusion of Subsets of the Set of Real Numbers

The infinite subsets of the set of real numbers Q, Z, N are related through the
proper inclusion

N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R (6)

16 / 46
Operations on R, Commutativity

Let x, y, z be any real numbers. Then

(1a) Commutativity with respect to the + operation holds: x + y = y + x;

and

(1b) Commutativity with respect to the × operation holds: x × y = y × x.

17 / 46
Operations on R, Associativity

Let x, y, z be any real numbers. Then

(2a) Associativity with respect to the + operation holds: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z;

and

(2b) Associativity with respect to the × operation holds: x × (y × z) = (x × y) × z.

18 / 46
Operations on R, Distributivity

Let x, y, z be any real numbers . Then

(3) Distributivity of multiplication over addition holds:

x × (y + z)
=⇒
= x×y+x×z
| {z }
Left distributivity of × over +

= y×x+z×x =
| {z }
Right distributivity of × over +

(y + z) × x
⇐=

19 / 46
Operations on R : An Example

Example 4
!
1 1 1 1
(4 × 6 × 10 × 14) + + + = 60 × 14 + 40 × 14 + 24 × 14 + 24 × 10 =
4 6 10 14
(60 + 40)14 + 24(14 + 10) = 100 × 14 + 242 =
| {z } | {z }
due to right distributivity due to left distributivity
of × operation on R over + of × operation on R over +

1400 + 576 = 1976 .

20 / 46
A Fine Perspective of (R, +, ×)
The set of real numbers is a field on which the operations of addition (+) and
multiplication (×) are defined such that for a, b ∈ R, there exists unique a × b and
a + b in R for which the following operations holds for elements a, b, c of R:

Commutativity: +: a + b = b + a ; ×: a × b = b × a ,

Associativity: +: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c ; ×: a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c ,

Unique Identity: +: ∀ a ∈ R , ∃ 0 ∈ R: 0 + a = a ; ×: ∀ a ∈ R , ∃ 1 ∈ R:
1×a = a,

1
Unique Inverse: +: ∀ a ∈ R, ∃ − a s.t. a + (−a) = 0 ; ×: ∀ 0 ̸= a ∈ R, ∃ s.t.
  a
1
× a = 1 , A ND
a

Distributivity of multiplication × over addition +.

21 / 46
Table of Contents

Useful Polynomial Identities

1 Lecture 1
Two Partial Fractions Identities
Introduction
More Polynomial Identities
Notable Subsets of R
The Absolute Value
Operations on R
Ten-Minute Test
2 L ECTURE 2

22 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities Ia

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )

23 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities Ib
Example 5:
2911729342
Question: Simplify .
2911729332 + 2911729352 − 2

Answer:
2911729342
2911729332 + 2911729352 − 2
2911729342
=
(2911729332 − 1) + (2911729352 − 1)
| {z } | {z }
Difference of two squares Difference of two squares

2911729342
=
(291172934)(291172932) + (291172934)(291172936)
2911729342 1
= )= .
(291172934)(291172932
|
+ 291172936}
{z
2
2×291172934
24 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities Ic
Example 6:
Question: Let a, b be real numbers such that a ̸= −b. Simplify
a6 − b6
.
(a3 + b3 )(a2 + ab + b2 )

Answer:

a6 − b6
(a3 + b3 )(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a3 )2 − (b3 )2
= 3 a6 − b6 is a difference of two squares
(a + b3 )(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a3 − b3 ) 3+
(a 3)
b
= 3 3
b )(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a+ 

(a3 − b3 )
= = a−b .
(a2 + ab + b2 )
25 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIa

For nonzero real numbers x and m, x not taking values −1 or −m, the following
partial fraction identities hold respectively.

1 1 1
= −
x(x + 1) x (x + 1)
 
1 1 1 1
= −
x(x + m) m x x+m

26 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIb
Example 7
Question: Let k be a nonzero real number which does not take values −1 or −2.
1
Express as partial fractions.
k(k + 1)(k + 2)

Answer:
1
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
   
1 1 1 1 1
= = −
k (k + 1)(k + 2) k k+1 k+2
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − − −
k (k + 1) k (k + 2) k k+1 2 k k+2
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
= − + = − + .
2 k k + 1 2(k + 2) 2 k k+1 k+2

27 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIa

Some generalizations of the aforegiven identities are the following. Let a, b be real
numbers.

(a − b)(a3 + a2 b + ab2 + b3 ) = a4 − b4

(a − b)(a4 + a3 b + a2 b2 + ab3 + b4 ) = a5 − b5
..
.
 
(a − b) an−1 + an−2 b + . . . + abn−2 + bn−1 = an − bn , for all n ∈ N

 
(a + b) an−1 − an−2 b + . . . − abn−2 + bn−1 = an + bn , for odd n ∈ N

28 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIb
Example 8
1 1
Question: Let x + = 5, x a nonzero real number. Find the value of x3 + 3 .
x x

Answer (i):
 3
3 1 3 1
x + 3 = x +
x x
| {z }
1
Form a3 + b3 a:=x , b:=
x
   2 !
1 1 1
= x+ x2 − x × +
x x x
| {z }
(a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

29 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIb Continued

 
 
   2 
1  2
 1 
= x+ x + −1
x 
 x 

 | {z } 
2 2
Form a + b
  
  
    
1 2
 
1   1  
= x+  x + −2×x×  − 1
  
x  x x  
 | {z }  
  
2 2 2
a + b = (a + b) − 2ab

= 5([52 − 2] − 1) = 5(23 − 1) = 5(22) = 110 .

30 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIc

Example 8
Question: Suppose that the real numbers x and y satisfy the system of equations
(
x+y = 6
x2 + y2 = 29 .

Calculate (i) xy , (ii) x3 + y3 .

Answer (i): From the identity (x + y)2 − 2xy = x2 + y2 , one observes that
1  1 2  1
xy = (x + y)2 − (x2 + y2 ) = 6 − 29 = 3 .
2 | {z } | {z } 2 2
6 29

31 / 46
Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIc Continued

Answer (ii): The value of the sum of cubes x3 + y3 can be calculated through the
identity
x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y2 )

7
Since x3 + y3 = (x + y)((x2 + y2 ) − xy); xy = ; x + y = 6; and x2 + y2 = 29, then
    2
3 3 7 51
x + y = (6) (29) − =6 = 153 .
2 2

32 / 46
Absolute Value of a Real Number

The absolute value of a real number x, denoted by |x|, is defined as


x
 x>0
|x| = 0 x=0

−x x < 0.


33 / 46
Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Ia

Let x, y, and λ be real numbers, m ∈ N. Then,

|λx| = |λ||x| ,

|x| = |y| if and only if x = y or x = −y ,

| xm | = | x | m ,

x |x|
= , y ̸= 0.
y |y|

34 / 46
Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Ib-
Examples
Example 9
|x + |x||
Question: Let x be a nonzero real number. Simplify g(x) := .
x

Answer: We shall two cases for x: (i) x > 0, and (ii) x < 0).

Case (i): x > 0: In this instance, |x| = x, and as such x + |x| = x + x = 2x; and
x + |x| 2x
x + |x| = |2x| = 2x . Therefore g(x) = = = 2
x x

Case (ii): x < 0: In this case, |x| = −x and therefore x + |x| = x − x = 0.

x + |x| 0
Therefore g(x) = = = 0.
x x
35 / 46
Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Ic-
Examples
Example 10
|x| − 3x
Question: If x < 0, find the value of .
7

Answer: Since x < 0, |x| = −x by definition. This means that

−x −3x
|x| − 3x
| {z }
Note that |x|=−x if x<0
=
7 7
4
= − x .
7

36 / 46
Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Id-
Examples
Example 11
Question: Let x, y, z be distinct real numbers such that
1
(2x − 4)2 + (y − 9) + z − 3 = 0 .
4
Find the value x10 + yz .

Answer:

1
Since each of (2x − 4)2 , 4 (y − 9) , or z − 3 is positive and their sum is zero,
they each must be zero.

Then 2x − 4 = 0, y − 9 = 0, z − 3 = 0. That is, x = 2, y = 9, and z = 3.

x10 + yz = 210 + 9 × 3 = 1024 + 27 = 1051 .

37 / 46
End of Lectures 1 and 2, Module 3

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

38 / 46
Ten-Minute Test

In the following slides, there are ten questions meant to be taken over a period of
ten minutes. Have your pencil and paper ready. Best of fortune!

39 / 46
Question 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

Which of the following is/are true of the set R of real numbers, the set Q′ of
irrational numbers, and the set N of natural numbers?

A. N ⊂ Q′ ⊂ R.

B. Q′ ⊂ N ⊂ R.

C. Q′ ⊂ R.

D. N ∩ Q′ = ∅.

E. N ⊂ R; and Q′ ⊂ R.

40 / 46
Question 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

Which of the following is/are true?

√
A. 3 is a rational number.
√
B. 27 is an irrational number.

C. 0.825 is a rational number.

D. 1.62576257 . . . is an irrational number.

E. 75.2828 . . . is a rational number

41 / 46
Question 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

12496
=
(−12496)2 + (−12495)(12497)

A. −1

B. 12496

C. 1

D. −12496

E. 0

42 / 46
Question 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

853 + 183
=
85 × 67 + 182

A. 1.

B. 67.

C. 103.

D. 49.

E. 100.

43 / 46
Question 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3− − − − − − − =
6 12 20 30 42 56 72

11
A. 2 .
18

7
B. 1 .
18

1
C. 2 .
9

7
D. 2 .
18

E. 2.
44 / 46
Question 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Evaluate
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + .
4 24 48 80 120

1
A. .
2

3
B. .
4

1
C. .
12

1
D. .
3

2
E. .
3 45 / 46
Question 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

7. Calculate
99
k2 + 1
∑ k2 − 1
.
k =2

8. Evaluate
100
1
∑ k(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
k =1

9. Evaluate
12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + 52 − . . . − 20092 + 20102 .

10. Is the set of rational numbers Q countably infinite?

46 / 46
 EE5110: Probability Foundations for Electrical Engineers July-November 2015

Lecture 3: Cardinality and Countability

Lecturer: Dr. Krishna Jagannathan Scribe: Ravi Kiran Raman

3.1 Functions

We recall the following definitions.

Definition 3.1 A function f : A → B is a rule that maps every element of set A to a unique element in
set B.

In other words, ∀x ∈ A, ∃y ∈ B and only one such element, such that, f (x) = y. Then y is called the image
of x and x, the pre-image of y under f . The set A is called the domain of the function and B, the co-domain.
R = {y : ∃x ∈ A, s.t. f (x) = y} is called as the range of the function f .

Definition 3.2 A function f : A → B is said to be an injective (one-to-one) function, if every element

in the range R has a unique pre-image in A.

Definition 3.3 A function f : A → B is said to be a surjective (onto) function, if R = B, i.e,

∀y ∈ B, ∃x ∈ A, s.t. f (x) = y.

Definition 3.4 A function f : A → B is a bijective function if it is both injective and surjective.

Hence, in a bijective mapping, every element in the co-domain has a pre-image and the pre-images are
unique. Thus, we can define an inverse function, f −1 : B → A, such that, f −1 (y) = x, if f (x) = y. In simple
terms, bijective functions have well-defined inverse functions.

3.2 Cardinality and Countability

In informal terms, the cardinality of a set is the number of elements in that set. If one wishes to compare the
cardinalities of two finite sets A and B, it can be done by simply counting the number of elements in each
set, and declare either that they have equal cardinality, or that one of the sets has more elements than the
other. However, when sets containing infinitely many elements are to be compared(for example, N versus Q),
this elementary approach is not efficient to do it. In the late nineteenth century, Georg Cantor introduced
the idea of comparing the cardinality of sets based on the nature of functions that can be possibly defined
from one set to another.

Definition 3.5 (i) Two sets A and B are equicardinal (notation |A| = |B|) if there exists a bijective
function from A to B.

(ii) B has cardinality greater than or equal to that of A (notation |B| ≥ |A|) if there exists an injective
function from A to B.

3-1
3-2 Lecture 3: Cardinality and Countability

(iii) B has cardinality strictly greater than that of A (notation |B| > |A|) if there is an injective function,
but no bijective function, from A to B.

Having stated the definitions as above, the definition of countability of a set is as follow:

Definition 3.6 A set E is said to be countably infinite if E and N are equicardinal. And, a set is said
to be countable if it is either finite or countably infinite.

The following are some examples of countable sets:

1. The set of all integers Z is countably infinite.
We can define the bijection f : Z → N as follows :
n = f (z) ∈ N z∈Z
1 0
2 +1
3 -1
4 +2
5 -2
. .
. .
. .
The existence of this bijective map from Z to N proves that Z is countably infinite.

2. The set of all rationals in [0, 1] is countable.

Consider the rational number pq where q 6= 0. Increment q in steps of 1 starting with 1. For each such q and
0 ≤ p ≤ q, add the rational number pq to the set, if it not already present. By this way, the set of rational
numbers in [0, 1] can be explicitly listed as: {0, 1, 12 , 13 , 23 , 14 , 34 , 15 , 25 , 53 , 45 , 16 , 56 , ...}
Clearly, we can define a bijection from Q ∩ [0, 1] → N where each rational number is mapped to its index in
the above set. Thus the set of all rational numbers in [0, 1] is countably infinite and thus countable.

3. The set of all Rational numbers, Q is countable.

In order to prove this, we state an important theorem, whose proof can be found in [1].

S
Theorem 3.7 Let I be a countable index set, and let Ei be countable for each i ∈ I. Then i∈I Ei is
countable. More glibly, it can also be stated as follows: A countable union of countable sets is countable.

We will now use this theorem to prove the countability of the set of all rational numbers. It has been already
proved that the set Q ∩ [0, 1] is countable. Similarly, it can be showed that Q ∩ [n, n + 1] is countable, ∀n ∈ Z.
Let Qi = Q ∩ [i, i + 1]. Thus, clearly, the set of all rational numbers, Q = ∪i∈Z Qi – a countable union of
countable sets – is countable.
Remark: For two finite sets A and B, we know that if A is a strict subset of B, then B has cardinality
greater than that of A. As the above examples show, this is not true for infinite sets. Indeed, N is a strict
subset of Q, but N and Q are equicardinal!

4. The set of all algebraic numbers (numbers which are roots of polynomial equations with rational co-
efficients) is countable.

5. The set of all computable numbers, i.e., real numbers that can be computed to within any desired
precision by a finite, terminating algorithm, is countable (see Wikipedia article for more details).
Lecture 3: Cardinality and Countability 3-3

Definition 3.8 A set F is uncountable if it has cardinality strictly greater than the cardinality of N.

In the spirit of Definition 3.5, this means that F is uncountable if an injective function from N to F exists,
but no such bijective function exists.
An interesting example of an uncountable set is the set of all infinite binary strings. The proof of the
following theorem uses the celebrated ‘diagonal argument’ of Cantor.

Theorem 3.9 (Cantor) : The set of all infinite binary strings, {0, 1}∞ , is uncountable.

Proof: It is easy to show that an injection from N to {0, 1}∞ exists (exercise: produce one!). We need to
show that no such bijection exists.
Let us assume the contrary, i.e, let us assume that the set of all binary strings, A = {0, 1}∞ is countably
infinite. Thus there exists a bijection f : A → N. In other words, we can order the set of all infinite binary
strings as follows:
a11 a12 a13 . . .
a21 a22 a23 . . .
a31 a32 a33 . . .
where, aij is the j th bit of the ith binary string, i, j ≥ 1.
. . .
. . .
. . . ,
Consider the infinite binary string given by ā = a¯11 a¯22 a¯33 ..., where a¯ij is the complement of the bit aij .
Since our list contains all infinite binary strings, there must exist some k ∈ N such that the string ā occurs
at the k position in the list, i.e., f (ā) = k. The k th bit of this specific string is a¯kk . However, from the
above list, we know that the k th bit of the k th string is akk . Thus, we can conclude that the string ā cannot
occur in any position k ≥ 1 in our list, contradicting our initial assumption that our list exhausts all possible
infinite binary strings.
Thus, there cannot possibly exist a bijection from N to {0, 1}∞ , proving that {0, 1}∞ is uncountable.
Now using Cantor’s theorem, we will prove that the set of irrational numbers is uncountable.

Claim 3.10 The sets [0, 1], R and {R \ Q} are uncountable.

Proof: Firstly, consider the set [0, 1]. Any number in this set can be expressed by its binary equivalent
and thus, there appears to be a bijection from [0, 1] → {0, 1}∞ . However, this is not exactly a bijection
as there is a problem with the dyadic rationals (i.e., numbers of the form 2ab , where a and b are natural
numbers, and a is odd). For example, 0.01000.... in binary is the same as 0.001111.... . However we can
tweak this “near bijection” to produce an explicit bijection in the following way. For any infinite binary
∞
string x = (x1 , x2 , . . . ) ∈ {0, 1} , let
X∞
g(x) = xk 2−k .
k=1
∞
The function g maps {0, 1} “almost bijectively” to [0, 1], but unfortunately, the dyadic rationals have two
pre-images. For example we have g(1000...) = g(0111...) = 21 . To fix this let the the set of dyadic rationals
be diven by the list
 
1 1 3 1 3 5 7
D = d1 = , d2 = , d3 = , d4 = , d5 = , d6 = , d7 = , ....
2 4 4 8 8 8 8
3-4 Lecture 3: Cardinality and Countability

Note that the dyadic rationals can be put in a list as given above as they are countable. Next, we define the
∞
following bijection f (x) from {0, 1} to [0, 1].

 g(x) if g(x) ∈
/ D,
f (x) = d2n−1 if g(x) = dn for some n ∈ N and xk terminates in 1,
d2n if g(x) = dn for some n ∈ N and xk terminates in 0.


∞
This is an explicit bijection from {0, 1} to [0, 1] which proves that the set [0, 1] is uncountable. (Why?)
π
Next, we can define a bijection from (0, 1) → R, for instance using the function tan(πx − 2 ), x ∈ (0, 1).
Thus the set of all real numbers, R is uncountable.
Finally, we can write, R = Q ∪ {R \ Q}. Since Q is countable and R is uncountable, we can easily argue that
{R \ Q}, i.e, the set of all irrational numbers, is uncountable.

3.3 Exercises

1. Prove that 2N , the power set of the natural numbers, is uncountable. (Hint: Try to associate an infinite
binary string with each subset of N.)

2. Prove that the Cartesian product of two countable sets is countable.

3. Let A be a countable set, and Bn be the set of all n-tuples (a1 , ..., an ), where ak ∈ A(k = 1, 2, ..., n)
and the elements a1 , a2 , ..., an need not be distinct. Show that Bn is countable.

4. Show that an infinite subset of a countable set is countable.

5. A number is said to be√ an algebraic number if it is a root of some polynomial equation with integer
coefficients. For example, 2 is algebraic since it is a root of the polynomial x2 − 2. However, it is known
that π is not algebraic. Show that the set of all algebraic numbers is countable. Also, a transcendental
number is a real number that is not algebraic. Are the transcendental numbers countable?

6. The Cantor set is an interesting subset of [0, 1], which we will encounter several times in this course.
One way to define the Cantor set C is as follows. Consider the set of all real numbers in [0, 1] written down
in ternary (base-3) expansion, instead of the usual decimal (base-10) expansion. A real number x ∈ [0, 1]
belongs to C iff x admits a ternary expansion without any 1s. Show that C is uncountably infinite, and that
it is indeed equi-cardinal with [0, 1].

References

[1] Walter Rudin, “Principles of Mathematical Analysis,” McGraw Hill International Series,
Third Edition.