The Typology of Multitasking Activity

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research-article2015
EJC0010.1177/0267323114567842European Journal of CommunicationSzékely
Article
European Journal of Communication

2015, Vol. 30(2) 209–225
The typology of © The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/0267323114567842
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Levente Székely
Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary
Abstract
Results produced by researches in recent years prove that communicational and media
consumption habits of people living in today’s ‘age of information’ are defined to a great extent
by multitasking which, alongside juvenile generations, is increasingly common in adult society.
Surveys dealing with the phenomenon of multitasking are typically focused on the growing role
of parallel activities and their effect on cognitive functions. In connection with the subject, in my
research, I try to enquire into the widespread and expanding phenomenon of media multitasking
during media consumption, in relation to types of activity. My efforts concentrate on two of the
latter areas, recreational and resource-enhancing activities. I attempt to determine the extent of
the presence of multitasking in certain activities and the role of the aim and nature of activities
entering the sphere of multitasking.
Keywords
Media and communications multitasking, media consumption, recreation, resource
enhancement, young generation
Introduction
Despite the fact that psychologists have been examining the effect of simultaneous activ-
ities on the cognitive system for a long time now, the ‘coalescence’ of parallel, multi-
channel media consumption and digital communication through information and
communications technology (ICT) devices has begun stimulating the interest of research-
ers only in the past few years. This enhanced attention is without doubt due to infocom-
munications technology increasingly becoming part of our lives. The convergence of
human and machine and the domestication of technology (Silverstone and Haddon,
1996) are apparent in several areas.
Corresponding author:
Levente Székely, Corvinus University of Budapest, Közraktár utca 4-6, Budapest, H-1093, Hungary.
Email: levente.szekely@uni-corvinus.hu
Downloaded from ejc.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 12, 2016

210 European Journal of Communication 30(2)
Infocommunications technology not only provides a broad array of possibilities to

consume various media contents and communicate with our friends or even strangers in
different ways but we can also become participants of an individually mouldable digital
ecosystem – which probably has already happened – in which the consumption of con-
tents and communication are simultaneous activities. At the same time, however, trans-
formations provoked by the development of infocommunications technology are not
limited to media consumption, meaning that the following question can be raised: does
multitasking exceed the boundaries of the media world? It has been hinted that the extent
of multitasking is dependent upon the nature of media (Roberts and Foehr, 2008) and the
activity (Baron, 2008) in question. This research seeks to identify the meaning of paral-
lelism in our various activities, be they mostly recreational such as media consumption
or connected to functions such as learning or work. The research also seeks to identify
whether the separation of fields of activities (recreational and resource-enhancing activi-
ties) can be statistically verified based on empirical data.
Theoretical approaches
Multitasking can only accomplish itself in an environment provided by the informational
society, in an environment where time and space are not given as orientational frames but
as flexible parameters. Castells (1996) argues that in a network society, the rhythm of
both biological and social life cycles disintegrate (e.g. delayed childbearing, lengthened
old age). Robinson and Godbey (1997) refer to the thesis of multitasking as the deepen-
ing of time, while Kenyon (2008) refers to this as the broadening of time.
Earlier, timescale analyses did not deal with parallel activities, and although the
importance of the phenomenon was recognised rather early,1 such figures have generally
only been recorded and analysed from the previous decade (Kenyon, 2008). Although
the frequency of simultaneous activities can be easily ascertained in everyday life, these
had not appeared earlier in timescale surveys due to difficulties concerning the handling
of data. The linear approach to time is questioned by several experts, who claim that it is
fully unrealistic to assume that we only perform a given activity until a certain moment
in time, fully separated from another function. Timescale surveys dealing with the phe-
nomenon of simultaneously performed activities found that the overwhelming majority
of the population reports such experiences. Referring to earlier research studies, Kenyon
(2008) alleges that multitasking activity is typical of 95% of humanity, while parallel
activities are performed on around one-third of days (Kenyon, 2008).
Situations in which we divide our attention are common as are activities which by
nature demand the division of attention. ‘Multitasking’ can refer to the combination of
cognitive and physical actions to two or more tasks in a competing or sequential manner,
including shifting between tasks (Spink et al., 2007). Certain pursuits count among sec-
ondary activities, such as the upbringing of children (Ironmonger cited by Kenyon, 2008;
Wajcman, 2008), which is a secondary activity in three-quarters of the time devoted to it,
similarly to housework (Bittman and Wajcman, 2000), the passive enjoyment of free time
or communicational activities (Baron, 2008). Certain scholars point out the connection
between the rise of simultaneous activities with travel, claiming that time spent travelling
is unexploited and therefore especially practical to connect with other activities, such as

Székely 211
entertainment, communication or work. Recently, studies on transportation have started to

deal with the phenomenon of multitasking; Kenyon (2008) cites the works of Laurier
(2004), Lyons and Urry (2005) and Kenyon and Lyons (2007). The listed studies empha-
sise the advantages of multitasking during travel as an opportunity to communicate, recre-
ate or do paid work while on a journey (Kenyon, 2008). In connection with the role of
travel, Schroeder (2010) points out citing Haddon (2004) that mobile telephones often
occur during dead time, for example, travel. The use of appliances during dead time
became genuinely popular with the spread of smartphones, presumably for the reason that
the functionality and array of experiences offered by smartphones is much broader than
those of traditional mobile phones. A profoundly everyday activity, using smartphones in
dead time (instant games, surfing the Internet, visiting social networking sites or checking
email) is also called ‘snacking culture’. Experience shows that alongside use in dead time,
this form of ‘snacking’ is becoming increasingly popular during other activities such as
Sunday lunch, during conversations with friends or colleagues or while consuming media
contents which can therefore now be categorised as overlapping activities (Turkle, 2011).
Scholars appear to agree that parallelism is, in a sense, a response to time pressure
(Wajcman, 2008), meaning that an ever increasing number of tasks have to be performed
within a decreasing amount of time. From the side of the individual, multitasking refers
to attempting to condense two or more activities consecutively consuming more than the
given unit of time into a single time interval. According to Kenyon’s (2008) calculations,
parallelism adds an average of 7 hours to a day, corresponding to Ironmonger’s result of
7.5 hours.
Time as a flexibly variable parameter has never been as important as in our day. Time-
based competition and the resulting abundance of products and services push members
of the information society into a time spiral in which on the one hand, resource-enhanc-
ing activities such as working at a deadline or studying for examinations require flexibil-
ity, and on the other hand, a larger range of leisure pastimes stimulate the more effective
management of time. ‘Overturned’ time manifests itself not only in night shifts or the
constantly ‘open’ Internet, but also vanishing boundaries between basic functions (e.g.
life-long learning) and phases of life (e.g. the development of certain periods in youth).
Consequently, parallelism can be regarded as a tool or skill which, under the pressure of
time, enables us to adapt to conditions from minor tasks such as chatting online while
watching television to activities with a fundamental impact on life such as the co-ordina-
tion of work and studying – all due to the fact that the ability to adapt is one of the most
important elements of human character.
The typology of multitasking activity

Both references in scientific literature and primary research experiences lead to the con-
clusion that beyond the global effects of the information society or socio-demographic
and individual psychological characteristics,2 the objective of the activity and the type of
media also play a role in simultaneous activities. On the basis of a study of media multi-
tasking by the authors Roberts and Foehr (2008), it can be ascertained that certain types
of media are more suitable for simultaneous consumption than others; for example, many
people tend to read while music is playing or the television is on in the background.

Media and communicational multitasking may be interpreted as primary, secondary,

tertiary or primary and background consumption, the latter referring to unintentional
background consumption through exposure to media. With new types of media emerg-
ing, making a distinction between media use and exposure to media has become espe-
cially important; this has been the case to a great extent since the appearance of computers,
which resulted in a rise in simultaneous communication and media consumption.
According to observations, each given computer activity is most often accompanied by
the simultaneous running of another computer activity (Roberts and Foehr, 2008).
The appearance of smartphones, tablet computers, e-books and other portable appli-
ances have given communicational and media multitasking further impetus. Research
studies delving into the phenomenon of multi-screening reflect that an increase in the
number of appliances used results in a higher probability of simultaneous usage.
Experience proves that media and communicational activities linked to portable appli-
ances play a role not only in the occupation of dead time but appear ever more often in
the company of other activities, thus stimulating competition in the strife for attention,
which raises questions in relation to the nature of the basic activity. Although issues of
parallelism concerning attention (efficiency) prove to be significant in the case of all
activities, they can genuinely be considered to be of key importance in two areas: the
sphere of work and studying.
Nowadays, an office working environment is almost unimaginable without computers
with an Internet connection, and it is proven that employees actually do exploit the pos-
sibilities provided by the Internet. According to certain studies, employees dedicate
1–2 hours per day to surfing the Internet for personal means (Beam, 2011). In some
cases, the workplace is the chief location of Internet use (Burst Media, 2007). The
‘always on’ feature provided by ICT devices is becoming ever more important for
employees too, who are keener to work at a company where they have access to their
personal accounts on social media sites (Hopkins, 2008).
International research studies have argued that the use of ICT devices in work hours
raises concerns of efficiency and therefore may result in severe expenditure, even at the
level of the national economy (Fisher, 2005).
The increasingly widespread use of ICT devices is detrimental to the accustomed
framework of the location and period (space and time) dedicated to work. A work envi-
ronment interwoven with infocommunications technology provides an opportunity to
engage in private activities at our workplace and/or during working hours in a matter that
was earlier impossible, or in a reverse sense, enables us to read corporate correspondence
while enjoying Sunday lunch. Beyond the parallel execution of private and work activi-
ties, the importance of jugglery with tasks connected specifically to work is also continu-
ously increasing in corporate circles (such as texting while at a meeting) (Chudoba et al.,
2005; Stephens et al., 2008; Turner and Reinsch, 2007).
Meanwhile the history of research studies dealing with parallel activities in a work
environment spans several decades, communicational and media multitasking can be
considered a hitherto unexplored area. Earlier studies chiefly examined various ICT
devices in corporate communication separately, in relation to functions (Daft et al., 1987;
Daft and Lengel, 1984, 1986); more recent works point out the significance of combined
ICT use, together with the role of both sequential and simultaneous tenure (Chudoba

Székely 213
et al., 2005; Munkejord, 2007; Osterlund, 2007; Reinsch et al., 2008; Stephens, 2012;
Stephens et al., 2008; Turner and Reinsch, 2007; Watson-Manheim et al., 2007).
In information society, methods of access to information have undergone fundamental
transformation, and the acquisition of knowledge has become more simple from several
angles. New forms of studying and swiftly accessible information represent a fundamen-
tal change also for those active in the education system, for example, the teacher is no
longer the sole possessor of knowledge as words spoken from the chair can be instantly
verified or proven false. The paradigm of information society brings about fundamental
changes in the education system, the transmission of knowledge and studying, as well as
gaining information; as Bessenyei (2007) remarks in connection with the online environ-
ment, ‘a large-scale, spontaneous exchange of knowledge is happening on the web’.
Bessenyei (2007) emphasises the cultural difference between the new generation that
uses Web 2.0 services and teachers socialised in industrial societies, pointing out that
students3 prefer the parallel processing of information and handling several tasks simul-
taneously whereas their teachers favour singular processing of information and concen-
trating on a single task (or a small number of problems).
On the whole, only a few, mainly recent research studies4 have dealt with the relation
between multitasking and studying beyond examining the strain of the various tasks on
the cognitive system. According to these, the disruption of the use of memory due to the
division of attention and the appearance of cognitive fatigue mean that the performance
achieved is poorer, especially in cases where the certain channels of information deliver
semantically different data. Referring to the 2006 work of Foerde and his colleagues,
Vega (2009) explains that there can be a difference in the use of memory and thus the
flow of information in the case of studying while engaging in multitasking on the one
hand and focused attention on the other.
The most common parallel activities in the field of studying among young people are
multitasking during school lessons or while writing homework. Parallelism between lec-
tures and writing homework may mean that these activities do not overly engross the
attention of children. According to the experiences of a diary-based research project
conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation, the several children who did multitasking
while studying reported that it enhanced their productivity and that they would have been
bored otherwise (Roberts et al., 2005).
Methodological framework
Taking stock of earlier research studies, it can be said that only a small number of
attempts seek to interpret parallel media consumption on the basis of the typology of
activities; in my study, I aim to examine this area with quantitative and qualitative meth-
ods alike. The chief question raised by my research is whether parallel use differs in
relation to the type of activity and whether those intensively engaged in communica-
tional and media multitasking apply parallelism (and to what extent) in tasks that put an
increased strain on the cognitive system, such as work or studying.
In my analysis of the question, I use both quantitative and qualitative approaches. I
apply the quantitative approach largely on the basis of the Hungarian Youth 20125 sur-
vey, which included questions on resource-enhancing activities alongside media and

100%
20%
30%
80%
60% 42%
34%
40%
20% 36% 38%
0%
2007 2009
Never happens Happens rarely Happens frequently
Figure 1. Prevalence of consuming other types of media while using the Internet (Based on
raw database of World Internet Project (WIP), 2009).
communicational multitasking. In order to study the differences manifesting in the nature

of activities, I use two research materials conducted with qualitative methodology,
namely, a focus group survey on young people’s parallel media consumption6 compiled
at the Corvinus University of Budapest and the results of a further focus group research,
which also extends to parallel use at the workplace (Appendix 1).7
Multitasking in resource-enhancing activities

Statistics produced by the World Internet Project8 for Hungary reflect that almost two-
thirds of the Internet-using population tends to consume another type of media while
online. Results for 2007 and 2009 show a remarkable similarity taking into account that
the youngest age group (15- to 17-year-olds) was left out of the survey (Figure 1). It is
possible to identify a smaller group that frequently engages in multitasking (20–30%), a
group that less often consumes media simultaneously (30–40%) and a group of similar
size that stays away from multitasking altogether.
Analysis of the quantity of media consumption in relation to engaging in multitasking
reveals significant differences in the extent of consumption, especially with regard to
listening to music, talking over the phone or using the Internet. Those frequently engaged
in multitasking while using the Internet spend an average of 13 hours listening to music,
15 hours on the Internet and over 3 (3.2) hours on the phone per week, as opposed to
people refraining from multitasking, who listen to music and surf the Internet for an
average of 7–8 hours per week and spend a weekly average of somewhat over 2 (2.3)
hours talking on the phone (Table 1). A further significant, although weaker, connection
can be detected in the quantity of time spent reading books or playing video games, while
as for reading newspapers and listening to radio programmes, no difference is apparent
in comparison to figures received in 2007.
Analysing figures produced by the aforementioned latest large-sample youth survey,
it is possible to draw conclusions not only in connection with media and communica-
tional multitasking but also research-enhancing activities. Given that age is among the

Székely 215
Table 1. The quantity of media consumption by the practice of multitasking (N = 1338; based
on raw database of World Internet Project (WIP), 2007).
Happens Happens Never Total

often sometimes
Browsing the Internet 14.9 10.6 7.5 10.8
Reading books 4.3 3.7 4.7 4.2
Playing video games 4.8 4.5 2.9 4.2
Listening to music 12.6 8.7 7.3 9.5
Reading newspapers 3.0 2.9 3.2 3.0
Listening to the radio 13.3 12.0 13.2 12.8
Talking on the phone 3.2 2.8 2.3 2.8
Watching television 13.0 12.7 13.6 13.1
most significant explanatory factors of multitasking, with the frequency of the parallel
occurrence of activities declining as age progresses, examination of youth behaviour
opens the door to broader analysis of the issue. Figures cited in the Hungarian Youth
2012 survey reveal that multitasking is present, if only periodically, in the case of the
majority of Hungarian young people between the age of 15 and 29 years who pursue
certain media-related activities.
Among the figures received, only the role of television can give cause for surprise;
watching television, which in the experience of international research studies is one of
the most intensively ‘divided’ activities, rather fits into the mid-range on the basis of
results produced by the Hungarian Youth 2012 survey (Figure 2). A certain ranking of
sensory organs also appears to shine through, with parallelism connected predominantly
to hearing (music, radio) and single-channel consumption being more typical of vision
(reading); mixed contents stimulating both visual and auditory senses (videos, the
Internet) are to be found between these two values.
The above experiences are also valid in the case of online, not exclusively media-
natured activities. Among online activities, parallelism can be identified most frequently
in listening to music and radio broadcasts, while among activities closely linked to the
media, the level is the lowest in the case of consuming written contents. The use of social
networking sites and cumulative consumption while chatting online is especially inter-
esting and may provide an opportunity for deeper analysis in the area of research study-
ing ‘written orality’.9
It is also worth observing that online environments do not necessarily result in the
greater intensity of multitasking, given that the presence of other activities while con-
suming video contents linked to computers and the Internet does not markedly differ
from experiences drawn in the case of the entirety of video contents. Taking into account
the spread of multitasking, all this could mean that the frequency of simultaneous activi-
ties is growing also in offline environments (Figure 3).
On the basis of results, it can clearly be stated that the intense presence of online par-
allel activities (mostly media consumption) is typical of entertainment, relaxation and
chatting (i.e. recreational activities); in the case of more serious (resource-enhancing)
activities demanding greater concentration, the number of those paying attention to

Listening to music (87%) 33% 21% 30% 16%
Listening to the radio (73%) 28% 18% 32% 23%
Browsing the Internet (86%) 18% 22% 32% 28%
Watching TV (92%) 9% 23% 38% 30%
Watching video contents (70%) 4% 12% 38% 45%
Reading a book (68%) 5% 10% 31% 54%
Reading a newspaper (69%) 4% 9% 40% 47%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
In most of the time In half of the time In a small amount of the time Never
Figure 2. The frequency of the occurrence of media multitasking activitiesa (N = 8000; based
on raw database of Hungarian Youth, 2012).
aIn brackets: the proportion of respondents engaging in the given activity.
Listening to online radio/music (72%) 20% 18% 34% 28%

Using social networking sites (81%) 17% 19% 34% 30%
Chatting with friends or contacts (77%) 13% 19% 37% 31%
Searching or browses the Internet (85%) 9% 18% 39% 34%
Watching video contents (74%) 7% 16% 39% 38%
Writing/reading e-mails (83%) 8% 14% 37% 41%
Reading written contents (80%) 6% 14% 40% 40%
Playing games (66%) 6% 13% 37% 44%
Studying (63%) 6% 12% 32% 50%
Working (52%) 7% 10% 26% 58%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
In most of the time In half of the time In a small amount of the time Never
Figure 3. The frequency of the occurrence of online multitasking activitiesa (N = 8000; Source:
Hungarian Youth, 2012).
aIn brackets: the proportion of respondents engaging in the given activity.
additional pursuits diminishes. Consequently, it is of no surprise that respondents engage

in other activities to the greatest extent while listening to radio broadcasts or music
through a computer or chatting using instantaneous messaging programmes. In contrast,
activities related to work or studying are usually not accompanied by other pursuits.
In the Hungarian Youth 2012 survey, with the participation of 8000 young people
between the age of 15 and 29 years, I examined online activities in previously unprece-
dented detail, while bearing in mind the division of parallel consumption according to
contextual characteristics, namely, recreational activities (mainly media consumption),
communicational activities and the enhancement of resources (the latter covering work
linked to the use of a computer or the Internet and online education). Results reflect that
the practice of multitasking in the online environment differs according to the nature of

Székely 217
Recreaon Resource enhancement
Listening to the radio/music online

Working
Searching and browsing
Chang with friends and contacts (e. g. MSN,

Skype, GTalk, Facebook, etc.)
Studying
Using social networking sites (e. g. iWiW,
Facebook)
Figure 4. The factor structure of online activities.
the activity. One can observe that other activities are present mostly in the case of listen-
ing to music or radio broadcasts online, with one-fifth (20%) of young people engaging
in this form of activity (almost three-quarters of the entire age group) pursuing a further
activity in the majority of time spent listening to the radio or music online. In contrast,
this proportion during activities of resource enhancement such as studying or working
stands at 6–7%, leading to the conclusion that parallelism is not independent from the
nature of certain activities.
Factor analysis is one of the applicable statistical methods of verifying the conclusion
by displaying the differences between the nature of activities entering multitasking.
Serving to reveal latent structures, factor analysis ultimately orders the effects of multi-
tasking linked to the examined seven (traditional and online) types of media into a chief
component while ignoring listening to the radio and music,10 resulting in the conserva-
tion of somewhat over half (56%) of the total information content.
On the basis of the 10 separate multitasking activities linked to an online environ-
ment, a bifactor structure extending to altogether six criteria (gaming, video contents,
writing and reading emails and reading news and other contents in text format were left
out of the model) was finally established.11 The two factors explain somewhat over
half (53%) of the total variance, with the first factor contributing 35% and the second
17% of explanatory power. The latent structure described by the completed factor anal-
ysis practically verifies the separation of resource-enhancing and recreational activi-
ties (Figure 4).
The established factor structure is explained to a varying degree by criteria concern-
ing lifestyle and life situations.12 Although the age segment of the Hungarian Youth 2012
survey encompasses exclusively the 15- to 29-year-old age group, a significant connec-
tion between certain age groups and the established factors can nevertheless be identi-
fied. Among one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs), a significant model can be
detected in the case of the recreation factor, albeit with very weak explanatory power.13
The latter refers to the increasing frequency of parallelism in online recreational activi-
ties as research progresses to ever younger generations. Age does not have a significant
explanatory force in the case of the online research-enhancing factor.
Similarly with the age, the model compiled on the basis of the division between those
currently pursuing studies and those not in education boasts only weak explanatory
power;14 the latter example reveals that parallelism in the case of online activities is more

typical among those currently in education than those not studying. The two-way
ANOVA model, also able to display interactional connections between age and studying,
can be considered significant in relation to resource-enhancing activities. The connection
implies that the direction of age-related characteristics observed earlier among those cur-
rently in education appear to be reversing, meaning that increase in the frequency of
parallelism is connected to the progress of age.15 This phenomenon can easily be
explained by the different studying habits of secondary and tertiary education students.
Consequently, it is sensible to make a distinction between resource-enhancing and
recreational activities with regard to parallelism. These experiences are reinforced also
by results produced by various qualitative research studies. On the basis of experiences
drawn from a qualitative focus group research conducted at the Corvinus University of
Budapest among 14- to 23-year-olds, young people widely make use of the opportunities
provided by the Internet, not only for communication or entertainment but also in the
case of studying and work, of which it has become an important instrument. Certain dif-
ferences, however, can be identified, but these are explained mainly by age: work (seek-
ing employment) is typical mainly of those of a more elevated age, while studying
(searching for information related to studying) is general among the younger age group
(Urbán and Székely, 2008).
Our focus group research on the habits of people working in offices with ICT devices
revealed that employees demand without exception the use of appliances at the work-
place for non-professional, private purposes, including the use of the Internet where this
is physically possible (access is not blocked). On the whole, it can be stated that employ-
ees admit to engaging in activities loosely or closely related to professional tasks in the
majority of working hours. Parallel activities are present in the case of every respondent,
almost without exception. It is common to have several windows open and an average of
five to six applications running at once, which are mainly connected to work. One of the
limits of divided attention is when windows become superimposed on each other, mak-
ing them impossible to tell apart.
Employees at companies with an international background agree that mastering the
application of multitasking is a necessity. According to the general assessment, division
of attention is a defining feature of their entire lives. Expectations of high-quality work
and multitasking simultaneously exert pressure upon employees. ‘Who is able to pay
attention to only one thing can’t stand ground here’. All these become visible during the
training of newly recruited employees, who often find it impossible to keep up with the
pace of work.
Activities forming part of the world of work but unrelated to professional tasks
(largely media consumption) can serve to facilitate work, especially if it involves per-
forming monotonous tasks. In such cases, focus group participants mainly reported lis-
tening to music from online sources such as YouTube or interrupted professional activity
with browsing social networking sites, playing games or reading news. However, the
majority refrains from parallel activities when conducting tasks demanding the most
attention.
Therefore, it can be established that media and communicational multitasking linked
to research-enhancing activities is present in the life of the examined 14- to 23-year-old
age group, although a very diverse pattern of individually unique practices can be

Székely 219
identified. Among activities of communication pursued while studying, it is important to

emphasise the role of chat messaging; as pointed out by several authors, this not only
provides a further venue for entertainment and keeping contact with friends but is also
widely employed during studying for being able to recreate the realistic process of prob-
lem-solving much more effectively than solitary exercise. In several cases, information
is obtained from ‘others’ in this manner (finding the equivalents of foreign-language
words or checking homework).
Media consumption while studying appeared much more frequently in the group
regularly engaged in multitasking. However, consciousness in users’ behaviour is
strongly present, resulting in separation from other recreational activities even among
people frequently performing parallel activities, leading to the conclusion that multi-
tasking observed during various activities does not take place spontaneously but is
rather the planned and deliberate result of individual strategy, based on the results of
our focus groups.
Focus group surveys prepared among young people and office workers have ascer-
tained that parallel activities are also present in the course of resource-enhancing activi-
ties; their role is much slighter than during recreational pursuits.
Summary and conclusion

On the basis of empirical experiences applying quantitative and qualitative approaches,
it can be ascertained that a recurring feature of cognitive approaches, the negative effects
of dividing attention, cannot be proven in most cases due to the different features of the
objectives and nature of activities entering multitasking. Empirical evidence reflects that
the intensity of parallelism typical of certain activities is uneven. In the case of recrea-
tional activities and (mostly online) communication, multitasking plays a significantly
more important role than in resource-enhancing activities. My research studies on media
and communicational multitasking have revealed that it is an everyday activity pursued
more or less often by the majority of people. Situations in which we divide our attention
while consuming media are common, as are activities involving communication during
which we also engage in other (often media-related) pursuits.
Probably the most important result of this research is that the separation of fields of
activities can be statistically verified based not only on their frequencies but in their
structure according to the factor analysis. Various empirical analyses show that perma-
nent multitasking activities do not form spontaneously but are planned, conscious and
dependent on the personal strategy of the subject. Furthermore, it can be argued that
media and communicational activities are interlaced by parallelism which is a serious
task for commercial industry and content industry.
The empirical results presented, however, do have a weak point: namely, that without
the instrumental examinational method, the results are unable to reflect to the problemat-
ics of efficiency. The validity of results, however, are to be interpreted with further limi-
tations as the empirical surveys have been conducted in Hungary and occasionally refer
exclusively to a narrowed social group, namely, the youth of Hungary.
In relation to the foreseeable future of media and communicational multitasking, it
can be said that it will definitely continue to expand due to stimulation by at least three

factors: (1) the entry of new generations, (2) the spread of mobile appliances and (3) the
strategies of advertisers, media proprietors, as well as producers of contents and appli-
ances. Advertisers and media proprietors are expected to tackle the challenges multitask-
ing raises by stimulating the activity to a still greater degree, offering consumers an even
greater array of linked contents, which in turn will further spur the use of mobile appli-
ances. Similarly to those engaged in the advertising industry, other related branches of
the economy will also market increasingly sophisticated services more and more suitable
for multitasking.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or
not-for-profit sectors.
Notes
1. Kenyon (2008) refers to Szalai’s 1972 work as an example. The phenomenon, identified as
simultaneous processes, activities overlapping each other, concurrent tasks, parallel activi-
ties, secondary activities, polychronic use of time or multitasking, is a long-since known and
important question of timescale analyses. Stephens and his colleagues have drawn attention to
several adjoining notions, such as the parallel or simultaneous use of several information and
communications technologies (ICTs), recombinant use, the mixing of media in educational
environments (Rice et al., 2004; Stephens et al., 2008).
2. Among different disciplines, psychology has been concerned longest about characteristics of
tasks conducted in parallel. Jevons examined the divided attention back in 1871, but until our
times, it seems to be a productive field of sciences (Cowan, 2006; Cummings et al., 2010;
Spink et al., 2007; Wang and Tchernev, 2012). The socio-demographical features behind mul-
titasking such as age (Carrier et al., 2009; Roberts and Foehr, 2008; Vandewater and Lee,
2009) and gender (Criss, 2006; Roberts and Foehr, 2008; Wajcman, 2008) are the most impor-
tant features when examining multitasking. Vega (2009) summarises the explanatory factors
behind multitasking as age, gender, level of education, occupation, household income and
cultural status based on studies of other authors.
3. Bessenyei (2007) uses – the lately often criticised (e.g. Hargittai, 2010; Thomas, 2011) –
dichotome terminology of digital natives and digital immigrant composed by Prensky (2001)
in order to distinguish the young and the old.
4. Foehr (2006) cited by Vega (2009).
5. Under the Hungarian Youth 2012 survey, we put questions on their lifestyle and personal situa-
tion to 8000 young people between the age of 15 and 29 years with the help of an approximately
70-minute questionnaire. The research is representative for the Hungarian population between
the age of 15 and 29 years by region, type of settlement, age group and gender (Székely, 2013).
6. In 2007, we conducted a qualitative research at Corvinus University of Budapest with Ágnes
Urbán on changes in young people’s media consumption habits. Under the focus group
research, we studied whether the overlapping of various levels of communication, along with
parallel media consumption, is identifiable among Hungarian young people, and if so, what
effect does this have on communicational and media consumption habits. We organised four
focus groups with six to eight participants each in Budapest, separating age groups of 14- to
18-year-olds from 19- to 23-year-olds and – based on results of the filter questionnaire – par-
allel media consumers from control groups. The length of the focus groups was 90–120 min-
utes each.

Székely 221
7. We revealed the habits of people working in offices with ICT devices and the attitudes of
their employers through a qualitative research involving both focus group and interview tech-
niques, which was conducted by the research centre Excenter Research in 2011. During the
focus group research phase, we had the opportunity to work with a total of four groups, each
comprising six to eight people employed by medium-sized or larger state-owned or market
companies in a position requiring the use of a computer in the majority of their professional
time. The main objective of the research was to study the overlapping of private and profes-
sional activities, as well as gaining knowledge of the extent and motivations of using ICT
devices for private means at the workplace, including employers’ attitudes and strategies
towards the phenomenon. Under the focus group research phase, we also examined multitask-
ing related to ICT devices in a professional environment.
8. The World Internet Project (WIP) is a comprehensive international project aimed at the
study of the effects of the Internet on society, initiated by the Californian University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Center of Communications Policy and Singapore’s Nanyang
Technological University (NTU) School of Communications Studies in 1999. Hungary has
been a participant in the WIP project since 2001, during which eight collections of data have
taken place, primarily on the basis of representative samples (about 3000–5000 respondents)
of the Hungarian population aged 14 years and above.
9. The written language of online environments often resembles verbal characteristics, espe-
cially on social networking sites.
10. During the first application of the Maximum Likelihood method, two factors appeared
to establish themselves; although the communalities were identical, the relevance of the
model was low in the face of Chi-squared statistics (Chi: 483.240; df: 8; sig.: .000). On the
basis of rotated facto scores, an unambiguous match could similarly not be ascertained for
several of the variables; after listening to music (.92), the single dominant element of the
second factor, was left out, only one factor remained. An analysis of major components on
the remaining set of variables proves the weakening of the communality of listening to the
radio (.212); if this is left out, a stable structure with high communalities and factor scores
results.
11. As we could see in the case of the general multitasking factor analysis, the first session drew
up two factors in this instance too (under the Maximum Likelihood method), accompanied by
a high Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value (.915) and appropriate communalities. On the whole, how-
ever, Chi-squared statistics reflect that the factors model the measured variables inaccurately
(Chi: 432.512; df: 26; sig.: .000). Although it is possible to create further subdivisions within
recreational activities (communication and content consumption), the matching of factors
based on more than two factors is also incorrect. In four steps, I excluded variants bearing the
weakest communality or unequivocal connection from the model one by one, but this did not
see a detectable improvement in the matching of the model (Chi: 19.138; df: 4; sig.: .001).
While the latter can hardly be considered ideal, excluding further variables would damage the
model’s logical value.
12. Among the examined criteria, we can identify significant explanation in relation to age,
studying and the weekly amount of media consumption in total; however, gender provides
explanation for none of the factors, similarly to whether respondents are engaged in income-
generating activity or not.
13. Of the heterogeneity of the recreational online multitasking factor, the dichotomous variable
explains a mere 1%, which, however, is significant at the 15.883 value of F-statistics (sig.:
.000). The factor for resource-enhancing online multitasking produces an F-statistical figure
of 2.454, which hints to an insignificant (sig.: .086) connection, leading us to accept the null
hypothesis, meaning that the two variables are independent from each other.

14. Of the heterogeneity of the recreational online multitasking factor, the three-valued age group
explains 2.6%, which, however, is significant at the 79.785 value of F-statistics (sig.: .000).
The resource-enhancing online multitasking factor produces an F-statistical value of 36.605,
also referring to a significant connection (sig.: .000).
15. In the case of the two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), the F-statistics of interaction is
significant at the value of 3.647 (sig.: .026), where the explanation of age is somewhat weaker
than that of studying (Beta: .097 vs .163).
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Appendix 1
Methodological framework
The World Internet Project. The World Internet Project (WIP) was initiated in 1999 by
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and the Nanyang Technological Univer-
sity (NTU) School of Communications Studies in Singapore. WIP focuses on the social
effects of the Internet, among Internet users as well as non-users. Sample sizes were suf-
ficiently big (about 3000–5000 respondents) to analyse Internet users in depth.
For the first 3 years (2001–2003), it was a panel sample (i.e. the same respondents
were attempted to be asked every year by our interviewers). However, to overcome
‘panel aging’ effect, sample additions were also made. Since 2004, cross-sectional
surveys have been conducted. The sample was prepared by a multiple-stage, propor-
tionally layered probabilistic sampling method. Data collection was conducted accord-
ing to address-listing, with a decreasing sample method. Field work, that is,
questionnaire interviewing, was done in every mentioned year. In 2007, interviewers
visited 6462 addresses and 3059 persons were successfully interviewed; the percent-
age of answerers is 47.3%.
http://www.worldinternetproject.net/
Székely, Levente–Urbán, Agnes: Multitasking – new way of communication and media consump-
tion among young people. Communication and media researches pointed out a remarkable
phenomenon in the last years. Young people spend more and more time to communica-
tion and media consumption. On the one hand, it is the result of the diffusion of new
devices and services (Internet, mobile). On the other hand, there is a dramatic change in
the consumption patterns in the background.
People do not have significantly more dispensable free time than before, but the
simultaneous activities became widespread. Computers offer wide range of services, and
the users can open 8–10 windows on theirs screen (chat, email, Internet surfing, radio,
video, etc.). Especially, young people can concentrate on several functions at the same
time and they can use them simultaneously. The international literature calls this phe-
nomenon ‘multitasking’.

Székely 225
We just have a research focused on the media and Internet usage of young people
(ages of 14–18 and 19–23 years). The aim of our research is to describe the main charac-
teristics of simultaneous communication consumption and identify the communication
situations when this behaviour is typical. Besides the desk-research, we use qualitative
technique (focus groups).
We organised four focus groups with six to eight participants each in Budapest, sepa-
rating age groups of 14- to 18-year-olds from 19- to 23-year-olds and – based on results
of the filter questionnaire – parallel media consumers from control groups. The length of
the focus groups was 90–120 minutes each.
http://mediaxxi.com/OnlineBookShop/index.php?page=shop.product_details&
flypage=flypage.tpl&product_id=294&category_id=17&option=com_virtuemart&Itemid=
65& lang=en
Excenter research – Qualitative research (not published yet). We revealed the habits
of people working in offices with information and communications technology (ICT)
devices and the attitudes of their employers through a qualitative research involving
both focus group and interview techniques, which was conducted by the research centre
Excenter Research in 2011.
During the focus group research phase, we had the opportunity to work with a total of
four groups, each comprising six to eight people employed by medium-sized or larger
state-owned or market companies in a position requiring the use of a computer in the
majority of their professional time.
The main objective of the research was to study the overlapping of private and profes-
sional activities, as well as gaining knowledge of the extent and motivations of using ICT
devices for private means at the workplace, including employers’ attitudes and strategies
towards the phenomenon. Under the focus group research phase, we also examined mul-
titasking related to ICT devices in a professional environment.
Methodological note to accompany the Hungarian Youth 2012 survey. The Hungarian Youth
2012 survey, conducted by Kutatópont, is the fourth wave of the series of research titled
Youth, which begun at the turn of the millennium. The present methodological note
serves to introduce the major parameters of research, from planning the survey to inter-
preting data included in the volume.
In the course of research, we interviewed 8000 young people between the age of 15
and 29 years using the Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) technique. The
questions put to interviewees addressed a broad range of issues the age group faces.
The sample of the research is representative of the Hungarian population aged between
15 and 29 years in terms of region, type of settlement, age and gender. The sample was
compiled with multi-level sampling and with the method of clustered probability
sampling.
The questionnaire used to conduct the survey was organised into 10 larger thematical
chapters; the time of completion averaged at 70 minutes.
http://kutatopont.hu/files/2013/09/Magyar_Ifjusag_2012_tanulmanykotet.pdf

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European Journal of Communication

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Infocommunications technology not only provides a broad array of possibilities to

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entertainment, communication or work. Recently, studies on transportation have started to