Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Microelectronic Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mee

Review article

Review of the pressure sensor based on graphene and its derivatives

Yuwei Guo, Simei Zeng, Qi Liu, Jingye Sun, Mingqiang Zhu, Linan Li *, Tao Deng *
School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China

A B S T R A C T

Pressure sensors are widely used in a variety of industrial automatic control environments and in everyday life, including production automatic control, aerospace,
healthcare, electronic skin and many other industries. Different structural designs are suitable for different application scenarios. With the development of tech­
nology, the demand for high sensitivity and wide range pressure sensors is increasing. The appearance of graphene-based materials has pushed the performance of
pressure sensors to new heights. In this paper, the research progress of pressure sensors in the past ten years based on graphene and its derivatives is deeply discussed.
According to the classification of application directions based on different substrate structures, the current pressure sensors based on graphene and its derivatives are
reviewed. Finally, the current development status of pressure sensing technology based on graphene and its derivatives is summarized, and the development prospect
in this field is prospected.
Index Terms.
Pressure sensor, Graphene, Graphene derivatives.

1. Introduction significant attention on a global scale. In addition, graphene exhibits

The sensor converts detected environmental signals, such as pressure
[1,2], strain [3–5], temperature [6–8], humidity [9,10], and gas
[11–13], into electrical signals or other required forms of information
output according to specific rules to achieve sensing capabilities. Among
these signals, pressure detection plays a crucial role in both daily ac­
tivities and industrial production. Since the discovery of silicon's pie­
zoresistive characteristics in the mid-1950s, extensive research has been
conducted on pressure sensors based on silicon materials, which has
greatly accelerated the development of micromechanical pressure sen­
sors [14]. With advancements in MEMS technology, these sensors have
reached micron or even nano scales, further enhancing their maturity.
Additionally, there are specific criteria for evaluating device perfor­
mance including range [15,16], sensitivity [17–19], linearity, and
response recovery time [20], etc.
Since its discovery in 2004 [21], graphene has emerged as a prom­
inent research area due to its exceptional physical, mechanical, and
multifaceted properties along with its vast potential for application
development. In the realm of electricity, owing to its distinctive two-
dimensional planar structure, graphene exhibits minimal electron scat­
tering during transport caused by defects or external factors. Conse­
quently, it demonstrates an unexpectedly high electron mobility
(200,000 cm2⋅V− 1 s− 1 [22]), surpassing traditional silicon materials by a
factor of 100. This remarkable attribute positions graphene as an
intriguing candidate for advanced electronic devices and warrants
excellent electrical conductivity due to the unrestricted movement of π
electrons within its two-dimensional sp2 orbital plane. From a me­
chanical perspective, graphene stands out as the thinnest material (0.34
nm [23]) discovered thus far while maintaining remarkable strength.
The intrinsic tensile strength and elastic modulus of single-layer gra­
phene reach an impressive 130.5 GPa and 1.1 TPa respectively [24],
surpassing steel's strength by over 100 times. Furthermore, graphene
demonstrates exceptional hardness exceeding that of steel by approxi­
mately 100 times, and can withstand a maximum fracture pressure of 29
N/m. In addition to possessing exceptional electrical and mechanical
characteristics, it also demonstrates remarkable properties such as a
high specific surface area of 2630 m2⋅g− 1 and excellent thermal con­
ductivity of 5000 W⋅m− 1 K− 1 [25–27].
In recent years, the ongoing advancement in mechanical materials
research has led to the progressive exploration of application prospects
for graphene and its derivatives. The graphene derivatives discussed in
this paper primarily encompass graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene
oxide (rGO), and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). These distinct derivatives of
graphene possess unique properties that set them apart from one
another. Graphene derivatives exhibit a diverse range of characteristics
compared to pure graphene due to variations in their structure and
chemical composition. For instance, Graphene oxide exhibits a distinc­
tive honeycomb carbon structure adorned with aerobic functional
groups on both sides. Despite the compromised integrity of its layered
structure, the material exhibits preserved conductive properties with an

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: lnli@bjtu.edu.cn (L. Li), dengtao@bjtu.edu.cn (T. Deng).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mee.2024.112167
Received 17 December 2023; Received in revised form 30 January 2024; Accepted 23 February 2024
Available online 29 February 2024
0167-9317/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y. Guo et al.
electron mobility of approximately 10,000 cm2⋅V− 1 s− 1, while its me­
chanical characteristics remain largely unimpaired. Consequently, these
exceptional characteristics render graphene oxide highly valuable for
diverse applications such as medical sensors and transparent, flexible
conductors [28,29].rGO obtained by the reduction of GO, has further
enhanced electrical conductivity and mechanical properties. The room
temperature mobility exhibits a remarkable value of up to 15,000
cm2⋅V− 1 s− 1 and remains unaffected by variations in temperature.
Moreover, the average modulus attains an impressive magnitude of 0.25
TPa. Thus, making it more suitable for specific applications such as
biosensors, energy storage and catalysis. Another class of two-
dimensional materials is CNTs, which are made from sheets of gra­
phene rolled into cylinders. Its unique properties of high aspect ratio and
conductivity, mechanical strength, and flexibility make it suitable for
applications ranging from drug delivery to environmental sensors
[30–33]. In summary, the properties exhibited by GO, rGO, and CNTs
make them highly promising for diverse applications. The advancement
in these materials unlocks novel possibilities across fields such as energy
storage, biosensors, electronics, and catalysis [34]. In addition to its
unique advantages, a major benefit of this material is its adjustability of
properties, which allows for tailored performance in various applica­
tions. For instance, it exhibits variable elemental ratios and tunable
band gap energies, allowing for precise control over stoichiometry to
regulate electrical and optical properties [35–37]. The similarity in
crystal structure with graphene-like 2D materials enables the effective
and straightforward method of stacking multiple 2D materials to tailor
their properties [38–42]. Furthermore, heterojunctions can be employed
to further fine-tune performance. A commonly used approach involves
the mechanical transfer of separated two-dimensional crystals. Although
this method is straightforward, it still presents numerous challenges and
necessitates further investigation. Doping and chemical modification are
both techniques employed to enhance two-dimensional materials for
sensing applications, opening the electrical band gap, creating novel
composite materials, etc. By manipulating the doping charge type and
concentration, as well as surface functionalization utilizing diverse
nanoparticles like quantum dots, one can tailor the electrical charac­
teristics [43–46].
The publication trend of the literature can tell us how pressure
sensors based on graphene and its derivatives are developing. This will
help us better understand how future scientific research on graphene
and its derivatives pressure sensors will change. Fig. 1 shows the number
of articles on graphene and its derivatives pressure sensor research and
Fig. 1. The number of articles on graphene and its derivatives pressure sensor research and the trend line over time.
2
Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167
the trend line over time (green dashed line). As can be seen from the bar
chart, from 2014 to 2022, the relationship between the year of publi­
cation and the number of publications shows an increase year by year (Y
= 111.97× + 95.06, R2 = 0.97).
Thanks to downsizing the semiconductor sensor, it has become
possible to achieve a low-power and highly reliable pressure sensor
system. The chamber-type pressure sensor is suitable for dynamic
pressure monitoring in industrial fields, and the beam-type pressure
sensor is suitable for static force detection in industrial fields. The
flexible pressure sensor, due to its good flexibility, can adapt to a variety
of curved and twisted surfaces and is often used in wearable, medical
health, electronic skin, human-computer interaction and other fields,
involving motion detection, artificial throat, gesture recognition and so
on [4,47–50]. Pressure sensors of different structures will enhance the
intelligence and convenience of our work and life in different fields. In
the future, these sensors are expected to further evolve through minia­
turization, biochemical mimicry, low power consumption, integration,
intelligence augmentation, extensive deployment, and standardization.
In this paper, the latest research progress of pressure sensors based
on graphene and its derivatives materials is reviewed. The first part
highlights the excellent properties of the material and describes the
increasing trend of pressure sensors based on graphene and its de­
rivatives, illustrating the importance. In the second part, the key pa­
rameters for evaluating the performance of pressure sensors are
discussed in detail, which are divided into dynamic and static parame­
ters. In the third part, the current pressure sensors based on graphene
and its derivatives are summarized according to the classification of
application directions based on different substrate structures. Fig. 2
provides an overview of these sensors' structural aspects within this
paper. The structure-performance-application relationship is summa­
rized, and the structure selection according to different applications is
guided. In the fourth part, the development status of pressure sensor is
summarized, and its development direction is prospected.
Fig. 2. Pressure sensors based on graphene and graphene-based
materials [51–59].
2. Key Parameters of sensors
Pressure sensors, being a versatile sensors in industrial applications,
exhibit varying performance requirements and indicators across
different use cases. Evaluation criteria for pressure sensors include
range, sensitivity, linearity, response recovery time, and other factors.
Y. Guo et al.
Fig. 2. Pressure sensor based on graphene and graphene-based materials [70-78].
2.1. Static Indicators
The static characteristics of a sensor pertain to the unchanging
relationship between its output and input under constant conditions,
unaffected by external influences over time. These encompass the sen­
sor's range, sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis, and other performance
aspects.
(1) Range of measurements.
The range refers to the rated load of the pressure sensor or the span
between the minimum detectable pressure value and the maximum
pressure value within its typical operating boundary [60]. The small
detection limit signifies the sensor's optimal resolution for detecting
external pressures, which is crucial in various fields requiring sensitivity
to low pressures, such as structural inspection, environmental quality
assessment, and health monitoring. Conversely, the large detection limit
reflects the sensor's maximum allowable pressure value. Each material
employed in manufacturing these sensors possesses distinct mechanical
characteristics and varying limits on maximum pressure tolerance.
Additionally, both sensor design and temperature exert an influence on
their operational range.
(2) Sensitivity.
The sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change in output quantity
Δy to the change in input quantity Δx during the steady-state operation
of the sensor, shown as [61]:
Δy
S= (1)
Δx
The sensitivity S, or the slope of the output-input curve, remains
3
Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167
constant in a linear sensor. However, this sensitivity is influenced by
various factors such as environmental conditions (temperature, hu­
midity, etc.), material properties, and sensor structure. Certain micro­
structures can be employed to enhance the sensitivity.
(3) Linearity.
The line determined by the output value of the empty load and the
output value of the rated load is referred to as the fitting line, while the
measured curve obtained after increasing the load is termed the cali­
bration curve. Linearity pertains to the percentage deviation between
the pressure sensor's output calibration curve and its fitted line with
respect to its rated output value. Linearity is defined as [21]:
ΔLmax
ξL = ± × 100% (2)
yF.S
where ΔLmax is the maximum deviation between the output calibration
curve and the fitted straight line, and yF.S is the theoretical full-scale
output. As can be seen from the above equation, the choice of the
fitted curve varies with ΔLmax , resulting in a difference in linearity. The
term linearity, also referred to as nonlinearity or nonlinear error, de­
notes the disparity between the actual characteristic curve of a sensor
and the ideal linear relationship. As the real characteristic curve deviates
from a straight line for different magnitudes of measured instances, this
discrepancy is sometimes expressed as a ratio relative to the full-scale
value over the entire range.
(4) Hysteresis Error.
Hysteresis error refers to the discrepancy in sensor output when the
input undergoes a reverse change. Hysteresis can introduce measure­
Y. Guo et al.
ment errors and significantly impact the repeatability and accuracy of
the sensor. Hysteresis error is defined as:
ΔHmax
eH = × 100% (3)
yF.S
Where ΔHmax is the maximum output difference between forward
and reverse strokes, and yF.S is the full-scale output. A reduced lag error
typically indicates enhanced accuracy of the sensor. A lower hysteresis
value indicates enhanced repeatability and stability in the output of the
sensor, thereby ensuring superior performance. It is related to the elastic
properties of the material [62].
2.2. Dynamic Indicators
The dynamic characteristics of a sensor pertain to its output response
when subjected to varying input quantities over time, encompassing
aspects such as recovery time, stability and accuracy.
(1) Response and recovery time.
The response time, which quantifies the speed of a sensor's reaction
to input, is defined as the duration required for the output to stabilize at
90% [63]. This pertains to the pressure sensor's responsiveness towards
an electrical signal subsequent to the application of a specific force. The
recovery time of the sensor denotes the timeframe necessary for tran­
sitioning from the highest attainable state of the electrical signal back to
its initial point. The response time of the sensor is influenced by factors
such as device structure, material composition, and environmental
conditions. For instance, in cases where flexible sensors employ viscous
substrate materials, there may be a notable delay in response during
pressurization and depressurization processes, resulting in a signifi­
cantly prolonged recovery time compared to its response time.
(2) Stability.
The stability of the sensor refers to whether its measurement results
can remain stable over a long period of time, the stability of the sensor is
affected by purity, temperature change, mechanical stress and other
factors, and the sensor with better stability is usually able to maintain
the required accuracy and continuity in operation. Therefore, in
different applications, the stability of the sensor needs to be considered
according to different factors. Therefore, in different applications, the
stability of the sensor needs to be considered according to different
factors [64].
(3) Accuracy.
The accuracy of the sensor refers to the disparity between the mea­
surement results obtained from the sensor and their corresponding
actual values. This parameter is influenced by various factors, including
random errors within the sensor and system errors such as initial and
linear deviations. It should be noted that achieving accurate measure­
ments not only relies on the inherent precision of the sensor itself but
also hinges upon external environmental conditions during bench
testing methods, among other contributing factors. To ensure the utmost
measurement accuracy, effective calibration procedures and appro­
priate data processing techniques must be implemented [65].
(4) Drift.
Drift refers to the absence of any change in the sensor's output signal
over time, irrespective of applied pressure. This phenomenon can be
influenced by various environmental factors, including fluctuations in
temperature or natural wear and tear on the sensor material. The miti­
gation of drift assumes paramount importance in upholding the preci­
sion and dependability of pressure measurements [66].
3. Pressure sensors
Currently, the industry predominantly employs rigid substrate
pressure sensors. According to the survey findings, the structure of these
sensors primarily consists of cavity types (including open-back cavities
and closed pressure cavities) as well as beam types or their variations.
The chamber-type pressure sensor finds its primary application in
4
Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167
monitoring equipment and systems within industrial production pro­
cesses, such as pressure control systems, fluid conveying systems, and
gas cylinder pressure monitoring systems. On the other hand, the beam-
type pressure sensor is mainly utilized for static force measurement
purposes. For instance, electronic weighing, valuation scale, small scale,
and other related fields are encompassed. Furthermore, owing to the
escalating demand for a healthy and comfortable lifestyle, flexible
pressure sensors have found extensive applications in medical care,
sports equipment, industrial automation, automotive electronics, aero­
space technology as well as household appliances. Consequently, they
have emerged as a prominent research area within the domain of pres­
sure sensors. This section categorizes cavity-type sensors along with
beam-type and flexible pressure sensors based on their respective sub­
strate structures' application orientations.
3.1. Chamber structure
The chamber pressure sensor operates based on either the piezor­
esistive or piezoelectric effect. The stress-strain relationship of the ma­
terial is determined by measuring the central deflection as a function of
the applied pressure. Additionally, different chamber shapes and posi­
tions can result in varying performances, typically categorized as closed
pressure chambers or open back chambers. The primary structural
component in this type of pressure sensor, namely the sensitive material
part, usually exists in the form of a suspended membrane.
The linear piezoresistive effect of graphene has been utilized in the
development of several chamber pressure sensors, wherein strain-
induced changes in the bandgap width result in a significant reduction
in carrier mobility. Smith et al. [51] fabricated a closed pressure cavity
type suspended graphene pressure sensor for the first time by suspend­
ing monolayer graphene on the SiO2 layer cavity (see Fig. 2 (a)). The
upper limit of pressure detection was as high as 0.1 MPa and the
sensitivity (2.96 × 10− 5 kPa− 1) was about 20 to 100 times higher than
that of the traditional silicon piezoresistive pressure sensor. However, it
can be seen that the linearity of the sensor is poor, the test result is
unstable, and the range is small. In the same year, Hurst et al. [67]
fabricated a back-gate field effect transistor pressure sensor consisting of
a suspended graphene membrane array by suspending the graphene
membrane on a SiO2 dielectric layer with a diameter of 3 μm. The sensor
is >200 times smaller than conventional pressure sensors. The sensor
has a gate-controlled effect, where the distance between the back gate
and graphene decreases with increasing pressure, resulting in conduc­
tance modulation. However, the sensitivity of the sensor decreases by
0.8% when a back-gate voltage of 30 V is applied, which indicates that
the gate-controlled effect is very small. Kwon et al. [68] designed a
suspended graphene sensor based on a cylindrical cavity structure in
which the graphene film is subjected to pressure from the conduction of
the cylindrical contacts. This design greatly improves the sensitivity of
the sensor. The problem is that the manufacturing process is compli­
cated and the sensor is prone to mechanical failure behavior. Zhu et al.
[69] fabricated a suspended SiNx membrane-type graphene pressure
sensor by lithography graphene into a winding pattern (see Fig. 2 (b)).
The sensor has a high sensitivity of 8.5 × 10− 5 kPa− 1 and a specification
factor of about 1.6. Although it has high linearity and repeatability, it
can only detect pressure from 0 to 70 kPa. In 2016, Smith et al. [70]
studied the piezoresistive effects of uniaxial and biaxial strains in gra­
phene from both theoretical and experimental aspects. The results show
that the measurement factor is independent of the orientation and
doping concentration of graphene crystals. This study provides some
guidance for the theoretical research of graphene pressure sensors.
To adapt to some complex environments such as temperature and
pressure combined environment, Wang et al. [71] implemented a
through-hole graphene pressure sensor by transferring large areas of
graphene onto suspended silicon nitride films perforated by periodic
micro through-hole arrays, increasing the sensor sensitivity to 2.8 ×
10− 5 mbar− 1. Notably, graphene is tested in isolation from the external
Y. Guo et al. Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167

environment. When the temperature of the sensor was between 23 ◦ C
and 70 ◦ C, the resistance of the graphene increased with the increase in
temperature, and the change in temperature did not reduce the me­
chanical sensitivity. If not isolated, the sensor performance test is un­
stable. In 2017, Sanaeepour et al. [72] established a nanoscale graphene
pressure sensor model and studied the temperature-dependent behavior
of the sensor. The results show that the sensitivity of the sensor increases
with the increase of temperature between 150–250 K, and decreases
with the increase of temperature when the graphene pressure sensor is
placed above 300 K. These results provide new ideas and theoretical
guidance for the structural design of nanoscale graphene pressure sen­
sors. In the same year, Milovanovic et al. [73] simulated graphene
bubbles with radius R0 = 15 nm and EF = 0.2 eV, the resistance of
graphene pressure sensors showed a positive linear correlation with the
pressure, and the sensitivities of the sensors were much higher than the
test results of the actual sensor. The sensitivity of sensors at different
temperatures is also studied. The results showed that the slope of the
curve changed slightly under the influence of temperature. This further
proves that under ideal conditions, graphene has excellent material
properties and a wide range of applications. Davaji et al. [74] developed
a suspended graphene temperature-pressure sensor on SiNx with a
squared bossed diaphragm structure, which has the advantage of a
positive temperature coefficient of resistance. At room temperature,
sensor resistance decreases with the increase in pressure. However, this
paper focuses on the temperature characteristics of graphene on SiNx,
without relevant data such as the mechanical sensitivity of the sensor.
Li et al. [52] prepared a closed rectangular cavity pressure sensor
composed of a BN/graphene/BN nanofilm sandwich structure (see Fig. 2
(c)). The bottom BN layer is used as a substrate for graphene, while the
top BN layer is used as a protective layer. The pressure detection range of
the sensor is 100–200 kPa, and the maximum sensitivity is 24.85 μV/V/
mmHg. By increasing the top layer BN, the resistance change rate of the
sensor is reduced from 15.7% to 3.1% after seven days. It is proved that
the BN protective layer can significantly improve the performance sta­
bility of the graphene pressure sensor. The next year, the same structure
was utilized to study the influence of the presence of the cavity on its
temperature characteristics by Campbell et al. [75]. The results showed
that the temperature coefficient was up to 0.25%◦ C− 1 with micro-cavity
at 30–150 ◦ C based on the thermal expansion effect, while the temper­
ature coefficient of the sensor without micro-cavity was negative.
Moreover, the nonlinearity of graphene sensors with micro-cavity is
lower than that without micro-cavity, indicating that the presence of

Fig. 3. Chamber type pressure sensor: (a) Suspended graphene pressure sensor. Reprinted from [51] with permission from ACS; (b) Suspended SiNx membrane type
graphene pressure sensor. Reprinted from [69] with permission from AIP Publishing; (c) Closed rectangular cavity pressure sensor composed of BN/graphene/BN.
Reprinted from [52] with permission from AIP Publishing; (d) Polymer-assisted graphene pressure sensor [53]; (e) The graphene pressure sensor coated by a Si3N4
layer with a rectangular cavity. Reprinted from [80] with permission from IEEE.

5
Y. Guo et al.
micro-cavities greatly affects the temperature characteristics of gra­
phene. Nag et al. [76] designed a new piezoresistive pressure sensor
based on graphene by integration of rod beams in a silicon diaphragm, in
which a cross beam sits beneath an elastic diaphragm. The sensor per­
formance was simulated at temperatures from − 10 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C and
pressures from 0 to 100 psi. The results show that the rod-beam structure
can improve sensitivity by generating local stiffness on the film. Liu et al.
[77] prepared a graphene pressure sensor with dimensions of 50 μm
thick and 1400 μm wide. After annealing at 300 ◦ C, the sensitivity and
response speed of the sensor are improved, mainly due to the desorption
of the hydroxyl group on the graphene surface during annealing. This
annealing method provides a new way to improve the performance of
graphene pressure sensors. Wang et al. [78] designed the BN/graphene/
BN sandwich structure on suspended SiNx membranes and completely
isolated graphene from the external environment through the protection
of BN and Cu–Sn solid-liquid interdiffusion bonding. After exposure to
85 ◦ C and 85% humidity for 70 h, the resistance of the sensor was
basically unchanged. Thereby the sensor has a high sensitivity (2.9 ×
10− 4 kPa− 1), minimal hysteresis, and good repeatability and stability in
the pressure range of − 80 to 0 kPa. But there are complications with the
manufacturing and gluing process (See Fig. 3).
On account of technological limitations, graphene is easily damaged
when monolayer graphene film is transferred to the cavity. To improve
the yield, Lin et al. [53] fabricated a polymer-assisted graphene pressure
sensor using a scalable polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), where the
graphene on the circular cavity is undamaged under the protection of
PMMA (see Fig. 2(d)). The pressure detection range of the sensor is 0–80
kPa, and the sensitivity is up to 2.87 × 10− 5 kPa− 1. The temperature
change of the sensor leads to the nonlinear problem of the sensor signal.
The voltage has a great influence on the resistance of the sensor, indi­
cating that a constant voltage is needed to apply to the sensor. The
performance of PMMA/graphene pressure sensors with finite depth
cavities and through-hole cavities was compared [79]. The experimental
results show that the stability, repeatability and sensitivity of the 285
nm deep-cavity sensor are much lower than those of the through-hole
sensor. This is because the depth of the cavity is nanometer, the sealed
gas in the cavity leads to the weakening of the electrical signal of the
sensor, and the sensitivity is seriously reduced at low pressure. In
addition, the response speed of sensors with through-holes is in the same
order as that of commercial pressure sensors, but through-hole sensors
are less stable. Zeng et al. [80] also designed a graphene pressure sensor
with a Si3N4 protective layer and a micro-cavity structure, as shown in
Fig. 2(e). The Piezoresistive and temperature characteristics were
investigated. When the external pressure is reduced from 100 kPa to 10
Pa, the sensitivity of the sensor is up to 5.32 × 10− 4 kPa− 1. Due to the
protection of Si3N4, the sensor has a high-temperature coefficient of
resistance (0.332% ◦ C− 1), and its tolerance temperature is increased
from 230 ◦ C to 420 ◦ C.
The closed chamber pressure sensor exhibits superior stability.
However, due to the graphene film's single-atom thickness, it is sus­
ceptible to damage. The repeatability and sensitivity of this sensor are
significantly lower compared to the open-back cavity pressure sensor.
This disparity arises from the sealed gas within the cavity weakening the
electrical signal and causing a substantial reduction in sensitivity under
low-pressure conditions. Furthermore, while open-back cavity pressure
sensors demonstrate higher response speeds comparable to commercial
counterparts, their stability remains subpar.
3.2. Beam structure
The cavity-type pressure sensor is limited to measuring pressure
solely in the vertical direction, and it operates within a stringent pres­
sure testing environment. Conversely, the beam-type pressure sensor
enables the measurement of both vertical and horizontal pressures. The
pressure sensing mechanism employed by the beam-structured sensor
primarily relies on the piezoresistive effect, offering notable advantages
6
Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167
such as heightened sensitivity, precise measurements, and robust dy­
namic characteristics. The beam structure exhibits remarkable sensi­
tivity towards variations in pressure, rendering it a highly versatile
sensor with a broad spectrum of applications owing to its distinctive
configuration. The fundamental configurations of the beam within the
pressure sensor are typically categorized into two types: simply sup­
ported beams and cantilever beams. Simply supported beams refer to
those that are supported at both ends by hinges or fixed supports, while
cantilever structures feature one end being firmly anchored while the
other end remains unrestricted.
By adopting a flexible material as a substrate to fully utilize the
benefits of graphene's high elastic strain. C. Bonavolontà et al. [81]
tested the piezoresistive effect of the material using a cantilever beam
structure (see Fig. 4(a)). This study offered a theoretical foundation for
the use of graphene in mechanics and electricity. The cantilever beam
structure was then explored by Wu et al. [82], who also developed an
isosceles trapezoidal beam membrane micro-pressure sensor and used
simulation to examine how the structure of the beam affected the sen­
sor's performance. This design included a silicon membrane under the
cantilever beam to resolve the conflict between sensitivity and linearity,
and the resulting sensor had a sensitivity of 9.64 mV/kPa in the range of
0–3 kPa and linearity of 0.09%FS. Numerous researchers have included
two-dimensional materials in the cantilever beam pressure sensor's
design in addition to theoretical studies, considerably enhancing the
sensor's performance by incorporating the benefits of two-dimensional
materials. Lamba et al. [83] improved the sensitivity and linearity of
the sensor by optimizing the geometric parameters of the sensor. In the
range of 0–106 μN, the sensitivity of the sensor is 3.93 mV/μN, and the
linearity is 0.0092%. In 2022, By combining graphene as the piezor­
esistor and PDMS as the substrate material to create a cantilever beam
structure with a flexible substrate, Lamba et al. [84] were able to
generate displacement changes and convert them into voltage signals.
The size of the piezoresistive material and the doping concentration are
revealed to be the main parameters impacting the sensitivity and line­
arity in this investigation. According to simulation, a high sensitivity of
3.93 mV/μN in an operating range from 0 to 106 μN with 0.0092% of
non-linearity is 3.93 mV/μN, and in the y- and z-directions is 0.57 mV/
nN and 0.63 mV/nN respectively, which realizes the biaxial sensing.
This study also discovered that the sensitivity of the gadget is influenced
by the cantilever beam's rigidity. In future investigations, the material
properties of the cantilever beam can be chosen and included in the
sensor design to improve sensor performance. Coutu et al. [85] modified
the sensor structure by lowering internal beam stresses to increase the
sensor's sensitivity by lowering the out-of-plane beam curvature and
improving the beam's damping.
In flow testing, the cantilever-type pressure sensor structure has
advantages over the traditional form of pressure sensor. In order to in­
crease the pressure exerted on the cantilever beam, greater displacement
is induced by reducing the surface area, thus increasing the sensitivity.
Shadmand et al. [54] developed a sensor for monitoring water flow
pressure utilizing graphene oxide as a piezoresistive material (see Fig. 4
(b)). The study was tested at water velocities between 0 and 0.7 m/s.
Graphene oxide is waterproofed by coating polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF) to protect the piezoresistive material. The accuracy of the
complete system is evaluated to ±3.2% of full scale, and the sensor's
performance is assessed by the change in resistance at various water
velocities. The sensitivity of the sensor in the measurement range is
equal to 1.22 Ω / (m⋅s− 1) and the response time of the system is
measured to be <5 s. Dong et al. [86] created a flexible sensor for
monitoring airflow pressure using graphene as a pressure-sensitive
material and polyimide (PI) as a substrate. The cantilever beam struc­
ture of the sensor deforms as a result of fluid-solid interaction, changing
the resistance of graphene. A flat and a bent cantilever beam are the two
constructions that the design suggests, and comparative testing results
reveal that the bent structure is more responsive. With resolutions of
0.94 m/s and 0.23◦ , respectively, the sensor can detect a wide range of
Y. Guo et al. Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167

Fig. 4. Cantilever pressure sensors: (a) Piezoresistive effect of graphene. Reprinted from [81] with permission (Elsevier); (b) Flow pressure sensor. Reprinted from
[54] with permission (Elsevier); (c) Multi-layer suspended graphene beam structure pressure sensor. Reprinted from [55] with permission from IOP Publishing; (d)
Graphene pressure sensor with beam structure [56].

flow velocity (0–30 m/s) and incidence angle (0–25◦ ). The sensor also
has a great deal of application potential because it is a planar cantilever,
which increases the incidence angle's sensitivity to the flow field and
makes it less disruptive. Furthermore, a significant subset of pressure
checking called air pressure detection is also widely applied in industrial
settings. A pressure sensor with a beam structure based on graphene
material was created by Romijin et al. [55] (see Fig. 4(c)). In the study,
multilayer suspended graphene was used. Because of its superior me­
chanical and electrical capabilities compared to other materials. Allows
the sensor to be very sensitive while still having a small surface area and
low power consumption. The amount of non-suspended graphene was
decreased, and low-defect graphene materials were chosen to save
power while still increasing sensitivity. According to tests, the in­
strument's sensitivity is roughly 2.5%/dec, making it appropriate for
barometer measurements. The researchers also suggested a variety of
structural enhancement options to boost sensor performance. A series of
mechanical and other performance tests by Gablech et al. [87] demon­
strated the structure's potential as a high-performance pressure sensor.
The researchers also constructed a cantilevered beam field effect tran­
sistor structure that allows for the stretching of graphene. The potential
performance of graphene served as the inspiration for Wang et al. [56]
as they created and produced a beam structure graphene pressure sensor
(see Fig. 4(d)). The beam structure in this instance was cross-shaped,
and the graphene was positioned at the area of the sensor that
required the most force. The structure has the benefit of increased
sensitivity, according to experimental validation, and the study
increased sensor sensitivity by employing high-quality, defect-free gra­
phene. The design's sensitivity is in the 0–20 MPa range of 33.13 mV/V/

7
Y. Guo et al.
MPa. Moreover, Wei et al. [88] proposed a suspended piezoresistive
beam structure that could be used to increase the sensitivity of the sensor
without changing the mechanical parameters, making the structure
more adaptable in application. The study was put to the test, and results
revealed that the sensor has improved by 120% in comparison to the
prior one.
Based on the aforementioned studies on beam-based pressure sen­
sors, it is evident that optimizing parameters related to the beam
structure, size of the pressure-sensitive material, and quality thereof can
enhance sensor sensitivity. Moreover, due to the versatility of beam
structures, altering factors such as the quantity and shape of beams
along with substrate material offer diverse advantages for various
applications.
3.3. Flexible structure
In recent years, the rapid development of flexible electronic sensing
technology has sparked widespread interest among researchers in flex­
ible pressure sensors. There are two primary avenues for enhancing
flexible pressure sensors: structural and material advancements. By
optimizing the layout and design of the sensor through structural im­
provements, its sensitivity and stability can be significantly improved.
For instance, incorporating specific micro- and nano-structures or multi-
level structures can enhance the sensor's responsiveness and reliability.
Tian et al. [89] successfully fabricated a flexible graphene pressure
sensor exhibiting exceptional sensitivity (0.96 kPa− 1) and an extensive
pressure range (0–120 kPa) through the utilization of laser-induced
shaping techniques to create a V-shaped foam structure from gra­
phene. This sensor demonstrates remarkable responsiveness towards
pressing, bending, and twisting, rendering it highly suitable for the
Fig. 5. Flexible pressure sensors: (a) Graphene Porous Foams for Capacitive Pressure Sensing. Reprinted from [90] with permission from ACS; (b) Vertical graphene
flexible pressure sensor [57]; (c) Graphene/PDMS pressure sensor arrays. Reprinted from [58] with permission from John Wiley and Sons; (d) Graphene-based
pressure sensor. Reprinted from [59] with permission from John Wiley and Sons.
8
Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167
precise measurement of subtle signals. Kurup et al. [90] developed a
capacitive flexible pressure sensor utilizing graphene porous foams (see
Fig. 5(a)). Within the pressure range of 0–6 kPa, the sensor coated with
graphene foams exhibited remarkable sensitivity (0.137 kPa− 1) and
demonstrated a detection limit as low as 50 Pa. However, it should be
noted that this sensor primarily detects low pressures (<10 kPa). The
vertical graphene pressure sensors were fabricated by Cao et al. [57]
using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), exhibiting
exceptional properties including a wide pressure range of 0–120 kPa,
high sensitivity of 4.84 kPa− 1, and superior durability up to 5000 cycles.
The sensor utilizes cost-effective raw materials and operates at low
voltage, making it highly promising for future applications in electronic
skin and other related fields (see Fig. 5(b)). Wang et al. [91] have suc­
cessfully fabricated a multilayer piezoresistive flexible pressure sensor,
exhibiting an impressive sensitivity of 2.54 kPa− 1 and a linear pressure
range of 107 kPa. Due to the intricate hierarchical structure of the reed
leaf, this sensor demonstrates exceptional capability in detecting
tangential forces from various directions, making it highly promising for
applications in flexible human-computer interaction and other related
fields. The thermal reduction method was employed by Sheng et al. [92]
to fabricate a flexible pressure sensor based on bubble-decorated hon­
eycomb-like graphene film. The sensitivity of the sensor can reach up to
161.6 kPa− 1 when the applied pressure is below 560 Pa, while it de­
creases significantly to only 0.92 kPa− 1 within the pressure range of
2–10 kPa. Bae et al. [58] fabricated a novel piezoresistive pressure
sensor using layered graphene/PDMS arrays with a sensitivity of 8.5
kPa− 1 and a response time of 40 ms in the range of 1 Pa to 12 kPa.
Although the sensor has a good linear response, the pressure range is
narrow (see Fig. 5(c)). Tao et al. [93] demonstrated a graphene-based
pressure sensor by thermal reduction using GO solution and paper
Y. Guo et al. Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167

Table 1
Summary of materials and properties of sensors with different structures.
Type Material Range Sensitivity Non-linearity Response time Reference
− 5 − 1
Graphene ≤0.1 MPa 2.96 × 10 kPa – – [51]
Graphene 0–70 kPa 8.5 × 10− 5 kPa− 1 – – [69]
Graphene – 2.8 × 10− 5 mbar− 1 – – [71]
Chamber Graphene 100–200 kPa 24.85 μV/V/mmHg – – [52]
Graphene 0–100 psi – – – [76]
Graphene − 80–0 kPa 2.9 × 10− 4 kPa− 1 – – [78]
Graphene 0–80 kPa 2.87 × 10− 5 kPa− 1 – – [53]
Graphene 0–3 kPa 9.64 mV/kPa 0.09%FS – [82]
Graphene 0–106 μN 3.93 mV/μN 0.0092% – [83]
Graphene – 0.63 mV/nN – – [84]
Beam GO 0–0.7 m/s 1.22 Ω/(m•s− 1) – 5s [54]
Graphene 0–30 m/s – – – [86]
Graphene – 2.5%/dec – – [55]
Graphene 0–20 MPa 33.13 × 10− 5 mV/V/MPa 3.3622% – [56]
Graphene 0–50 kPa 0.96 kPa− 1 – 0.4 ms [89]
Graphene 0–6 kPa 0.137 kPa− 1 – – [90]
Graphene 0–120 kPa 4.84 kPa− 1 – – [57]
<560 Pa 161.6 kPa− 1
Graphene – – [92]
2–10 kPa 0.92 kPa− 1
Graphene 1 Pa ~ 12 kPa 8.5 kPa− 1 – 40 ms [58]
Graphene 0–2 kPa 17.2 kPa− 1 – 60 ms [93]
Graphene / CNT 0–0.3 kPa 19.8 kPa− 1 – 16.7 ms [59]
<0.2 kPa 110 kPa− 1
Flexible
Graphene 0.2–15 kPa 3 kPa− 1 – 30 ms [94]
15–75 kPa 0.26 kPa− 1
rGO 100–200 Pa 178 kPa− 1 – – [95]
Graphene/rGO 0–255 kPa 72,568 kPa− 1 – 5 ms [96]
<75 kPa 0.0063 kPa− 1
Graphene – – [97]
>75 kPa 0.0136 kPa− 1
GO 0–30 kPa 0.13 kPa− 1 – – [98]
GO 0.6–200 kPa 2.53 kPa− 1 – 15.4 ms [99]
rGO 0.0013–353 kPa 47.7 kPa− 1 – 20 ms [100]

substrate and CNT/graphene as a conductive active film (see Fig. 5(d)).

Table 2
The sensor achieved a high sensitivity of 19.8 kPa− 1 at pressures ranging
Summary of structure-performance-application relationship.
from 0 to 0.3 kPa. Besides, the sensor also exhibits low power con­
Type Performance Application Reference sumption and high stability for over 35,000 cycles, but the device
[51] pressure range is narrow. Xia et al. [94] used chemical vapor deposition
• High sensitivity
• Industrial monitoring
[69] to grow 3D graphene films resembling fingertip skin and used layered
High accuracy [71]
•
• Gas pressure detection PDMS films modeled from natural leaves as support films to achieve an
Chamber • High stability [52]
• Wide range
• Liquid pressure detection
[76] ultra-sensitive pressure sensor that can detect pressure in the range of
• High response speed
• Solid pressure detection
[78] 0–75 kPa. The sensitivity is 110 kPa− 1 (pressure < 0.2 kPa), 3 kPa− 1
[53] (0.2 < pressure < 15 kPa) and 0.26 kPa− 1 (15 < pressure < 75 kPa).
[82] However, the sensitivity of the sensor at high pressure needs to be
High sensitivity [83]
improved. Jia et al. [95] demonstrated the rGO pressure sensor with a
•
• Weigh
• High accuracy [84]
• Load test hierarchical and gradient wrinkles structure by pre-stretching the VHB
Beam • High stability [54]
Receptor analysis
• Wide range
•
[86] tape substrate. The sensitivity of the pressure sensor was 178 kPa− 1 in a
• Mechanical property test
• High linearity [55] low-pressure range (100–200 Pa), which benefited from the skin-like
[56]
structure. The continuous gradient wrinkles pressure sensor array can
[4]
[47]
also realize the dynamic pressure monitoring of one-dimensional posi­
• High sensitivity tion and movement. Zhang et al. [96] utilized laser reduction technology
• Health care [48]
High accuracy
to propose an ultra-sensitive (72,568 kPa− 1) graphene sensor with a
•
• Electronic skin [49]
Flexible • High response speed
• Wearable device [50] conceptual micro-cliff design that can detect pressure over an ultra-wide
• High detection limit
Man-machine interface [94]
range of 0–255 kPa. The sensor has small hysteresis and fast response
•
• High flexibility
[95]
[96] time of <5 ms, and excellent stability over 5000 cycles. But it could be
difficult to prepare the sensor array with good consistency.
On the contrary, through material enhancement, adjustments can be
material. Under pressure, owing to the air gap between different gra­ made to the attributes and functionality of the sensor. For instance,
phene layers, the resistance of the graphene-based paper changes incorporating composite materials with exceptional elasticity and elec­
significantly. In the pressure range of 0–2 kPa, the sensor sensitivity can trical conductivity holds the potential for enhancing the sensitivity and
be up to 17.2 kPa− 1 and the response time is 60 ms. Furthermore, this durability of sensors while simultaneously reducing manufacturing ex­
new graphene paper-based sensor also has the advantages of environ­ penses. This meticulous selection and refinement of materials have the
mental protection, low cost, high flexibility, simple preparation process potential to broaden application prospects and confer performance ad­
and other outstanding advantages. The sensor can accurately detect vantages upon flexible pressure sensors. The study conducted by Sen­
multiple motion states, which is suitable for integration in wearable gupta et al. [97] involved the utilization of electrospinning polyvinyl
devices Jian et al. [59] proposed a high-performance pressure sensor acetate and graphene nanofibers for human body detection, resulting in
using PDMS film with biomimetic leaf microstructure as a flexible a sensor that exhibits two distinct linear states. However, despite its

9
Y. Guo et al.
wide pressure range, the sensitivity of the sensor is relatively low with
values of 0.0136 kPa− 1 (pressure > 75 kPa) and 0.0063 kPa− 1 (pressure
< 75 kPa). Gilanizadehdizaj et al. [98] have successfully developed a
piezoresistive flexible pressure sensor array using reduced graphene
oxide (rGO) and silicone elastomer. This sensor exhibits a sensitivity of
0.13 kPa− 1 within the range of 0–10 kPa. However, it should be noted
that the high sensitivity of this sensor is primarily observed under low-
pressure conditions, making its operation challenging in high-pressure
environments. Yang et al. [99] successfully fabricated a foam-based
flexible pressure sensor with an impressive pressure range spanning
from 0.6 to 200 kPa through the polymerization process involving
reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and high-internal-phase emulsion. This
sensor exhibits exceptional responsiveness, boasting a rapid response
time of <15.4 ms, which can be attributed to its hierarchical porous
structure. Moreover, the integration of pixel arrays enables efficient
identification of objects with varying geometries, making it highly
suitable for incorporation into wearable devices. Lee et al. [100]
designed a flexible ferroelectric sensor based on multilayer interlocked
micro-dome geometry using the ferroelectric properties of rGO and
PVDF composites. A sensitivity of 47.7 kPa− 1 in the range of
0.0013–353 kPa and a fast response time of 20 ms was observed in this
sensor. In addition, the sensor can be repeated for >5000 cycles. In
short, the device can monitor pressure from low pressure to a high-
pressure range, which illustrates great potential in electronic skin,
wearable devices and other fields.
In terms of the performance of flexible pressure sensors, researchers
have proposed various novel designs primarily focused on structural and
material enhancements. For instance, incorporating micro- and nano-
structures into traditional thin-film pressure sensors can significantly
enhance their sensitivity and stability. Furthermore, employing a
multilevel structure can improve their adaptability to diverse environ­
mental conditions. Material selection improvements also play a crucial
role in this regard. Currently, commonly used materials for flexible
pressure sensors include polymers and metal films. However, these
materials may exhibit limitations such as poor durability and other is­
sues. Henceforth, leveraging the exceptional mechanical properties and
other advantages offered by graphene and its derivatives becomes
highly advantageous in overcoming these challenges.
4. Conclusion and outlook
Pressure sensors have gained significant attention due to their
extensive utilization in industrial automatic control environments and
daily life. This paper provides a comprehensive review of pressure
sensors based on graphene and its derivatives over the past decade. By
categorizing corresponding pressure sensor structures for different sce­
narios, their performance can be compared to facilitate mutual learning
and integration, ultimately leading to enhanced functionality for
broader applications. Based on the finding that the sensitivity of the
pressure sensor diminishes as the thickness of the pressure sensitive film
increases, it can be inferred that graphene thin film pressure sensors
hold immense potential for high precision and high sensitivity applica­
tions. Consequently, a pressure sensor with a chamber-like structure is
proposed, enabling extensive range detection of pressures. The canti­
lever beam type is capable of measuring both vertical and horizontal
pressures by utilizing graphene and its derivatives as sensitive materials,
which are combined with the structural characteristics of the sensor.
This particular pressure sensor exhibits high sensitivity. However, its
application scenario remains limited. In recent years, flexible pressure
sensors have emerged as a prominent research area due to the increasing
demand for wearable devices and other rapidly developing technologies.
These sensors demonstrate excellent sensitivity through the utilization
of diverse microstructures and sensitive materials to enhance device
performance.
Compared to other materials, graphene and its derivatives possess
numerous advantages including high strength, exceptional stiffness,
10
Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167
excellent electrical conductivity, superior thermal conductivity,
remarkable transparency, favorable biocompatibility, commendable
chemical stability, and lightweight properties. These inherent advan­
tages endow graphene with extensive application prospects across
various fields. Table 1 presents an overview of the performance pa­
rameters of pressure sensors based on different structures of graphene
and its derivative materials. The structure-performance-application
relationship is established in Table 2, which provides guidance for the
structure selection of different applications.
Despite significant advancements in this field, numerous obstacles
continue to impede their practical application. For instance, the exten­
sive adoption of flexible sensors derived from graphene has been hin­
dered by intricate and costly manufacturing procedures. Consequently,
it is imperative to develop cost-effective and simplified manufacturing
technologies in order to propel their practical implementation forward.
Furthermore, the presence of doping and impurities in gas molecules,
such as oxygen and water molecules, can significantly compromise the
material properties, particularly in the case of graphene. Henceforth, it
becomes imperative to enhance the stability of this material. Addition­
ally, temperature assumes a pivotal role since elevated temperatures
lead to the disintegration of graphene oxide. Moreover, one cannot
overlook the profound impact exerted by high-precision pressure
sensors.
In general, graphene and its derivatives materials still have a very
broad application prospect and market potential, which is worthy of our
vigorous research and promotion in the application of pressure sensors.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Tao Deng reports was provided by National Natural Science Foun­
dation of China. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no
known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported in part by the Fundamental Research Funds
for the Central Universities under Grant 2023JBMC039, in part by the
project under Grant 22TQ0403ZT07001, in part by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China under Grant 61604009 and Grant
61901028.
References
[1] S. Lee, et al., Nanomesh pressure sensor for monitoring finger manipulation
without sensory interference, Science 370 (6519) (2020) 966–970.
[2] X.-M. Wang, et al., Sea urchin-like microstructure pressure sensors with an ultra-
broad range and high sensitivity, Nat. Commun. 12 (1) (2021) 1776.
[3] H. Tian, et al., Scalable fabrication of high-performance and flexible graphene
strain sensors, Nanoscale 6 (2) (2014) 699–705.
[4] P. Lv, et al., Ultrathin encapsulated rGO strain sensor for gesture recognition,
Microelectron. Eng. 259 (2022) 111779.
[5] Q. Yang, N. Liu, J. Yin, H. Tian, Y. Yang, T.-l. Ren, Understanding the Origin of
Tensile Response in a Graphene Textile Strain Sensor with Negative Differential
Resistance, ACS nano, 2022.
[6] M. Lin, et al., A high-performance, sensitive, wearable multifunctional sensor
based on rubber/CNT for human motion and skin temperature detection, Adv.
Mater. 34 (1) (2022) 2107309.
[7] X. Zhao, Y. Long, T. Yang, J. Li, H. Zhu, Simultaneous high sensitivity sensing of
temperature and humidity with graphene woven fabrics, ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces 9 (35) (2017) 30171–30176.
[8] J. Yang, et al., Wearable temperature sensor based on graphene nanowalls, RSC
Adv. 5 (32) (2015) 25609–25615.
Y. Guo et al.
[9] B. Li, G. Xiao, F. Liu, Y. Qiao, C.M. Li, Z. Lu, A flexible humidity sensor based on
silk fabrics for human respiration monitoring, J. Mater. Chem. C 6 (2018)
4549–4554.
[10] T. Li, et al., Porous ionic membrane based flexible humidity sensor and its
multifunctional applications, Advanced Science 4 (2017).
[11] B.I. Armitage, K. Murugappan, M.J. Lefferts, A. Cowsik, M.R. Castell, Conducting
polymer percolation gas sensor on a flexible substrate, J. Mater. Chem. C 8 (2020)
12669–12676.
[12] B. Cho, et al., Graphene-based gas sensor: metal decoration effect and application
to a flexible device, J. Mater. Chem. C 2 (2014) 5280–5285.
[13] J.W. Kim, Y. Porte, K.Y. Ko, H. Kim, J.M. Myoung, Micropatternable double-faced
ZnO Nanoflowers for flexible gas sensor, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (38)
(2017) 32876–32886.
[14] M. Esashi, Revolution of sensors in Micro-electromechanical systems, Jpn. J.
Appl. Phys. 51 (2012) 080001.
[15] S. Pyo, J. Lee, W. Kim, E. Jo, J. Kim, Multi-layered, hierarchical fabric-based
tactile sensors with high sensitivity and linearity in Ultrawide pressure range,
Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 (2019).
[16] Q. Wu, et al., Triode-Mimicking Graphene Pressure Sensor with Positive
Resistance Variation for Physiology and Motion Monitoring, ACS nano, 2020.
[17] N. Bai, et al., Graded intrafillable architecture-based iontronic pressure sensor
with ultra-broad-range high sensitivity, Nat. Commun. 11 (2020).
[18] S. Yu, et al., Light-boosting highly sensitive pressure sensors based on bioinspired
multiscale surface structures, Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 (2020).
[19] X. Wang, et al., Sea urchin-like microstructure pressure sensors with an ultra-
broad range and high sensitivity, Nat. Commun. 12 (2021).
[20] M. Cao, M. Wang, L. Li, H. Qiu, M.A. Padhiar, Z. Yang, Wearable rGO-ag NW@
cotton Fiber Piezoresistive Sensor Based on the Fast Charge Transport Channel
Provided by Ag Nanowire, Nano Energy, 2018.
[21] K.S. Novoselov, et al., Two-dimensional atomic crystals, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA 102 (30) (2005) 10451–10453.
[22] K.I. Bolotin, et al., Ultrahigh electron mobility in suspended graphene, Solid State
Commun. 146 (2008) 351–355.
[23] J.S. Bunch, et al., Impermeable atomic membranes from graphene sheets, Nano
Lett. 8 (8) (2008) 2458–2462.
[24] A. King, et al., Observations of intergranular stress corrosion cracking in a grain-
mapped Polycrystal, Science 321 (2008) 382–385.
[25] K.S. Novoselov, et al., Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films, Science
306 (2004) 666–669.
[26] S. Duttasinha, Graphene: status and prospects, Science 324 (2009) 1530–1534.
[27] X. Du, I. Skachko, A. Barker, E.Y. Andrei, Approaching ballistic transport in
suspended graphene, Nat. Nanotechnol. 3 (8) (2008) 491–495.
[28] A. Mahmood, T. Muhmood, F. Ahmad, Carbon nanotubes heterojunction with
graphene like carbon nitride for the enhancement of electrochemical and
photocatalytic activity, Mater. Chem. Phys. 278 (2022) 125640. /02/15/ 2022,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2021.125640.
[29] A.T. Smith, A.M. LaChance, S. Zeng, B. Liu, L. Sun, “synthesis, properties, and
applications of graphene oxide/reduced graphene oxide and their
nanocomposites,” Nano, Mater. Sci. 1 (1) (2019) 31–47. /03/01/ 2019, https
://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoms.2019.02.004.
[30] R. Neffati, J.C.M. Brokken-Zijp, Electric conductivity in silicone-carbon black
nanocomposites: percolation and variable range hopping on a fractal, Materials
Research Express 6 (2019).
[31] D. Yang, et al., Improved Mechanical and Electrochemical Properties of XNBR
Dielectric Elastomer Actuator by Poly(dopamine) Functionalized Graphene Nano-
Sheets, Polymers 11 (2019).
[32] Z. Wang, K. Zhang, Y. Liu, H. Zhao, C. Gao, Y. Wu, Modified MXene-doped
conductive organosilicon elastomer with high-stretchable, toughness, and self-
healable for strain sensors, Compos. Struct. 282 (2021) 115071.
[33] H. Kang, et al., Bio-Based Eucommia ulmoides Gum Composites with High
Electromagnetic Interference Shielding Performance, Polymers 14 (2022).
[34] M. Coroş, F. Pogacean, L. Măgeruşan, C. Socaci, S.M. Pruneanu, A brief overview
on synthesis and applications of graphene and graphene-based nanomaterials,
Front. Mater. Sci. 13 (2019) 23–32.
[35] I.S. Kim, et al., Influence of stoichiometry on the optical and electrical properties
of chemical vapor deposition derived MoS2, ACS Nano 8 (2014) 10551–10558.
[36] V.K. Sangwan, et al., Gate-tunable memristive phenomena mediated by grain
boundaries in single-layer MoS2, Nat. Nanotechnol. 10 (5) (2015) 403–406.
[37] I. Bilgin, et al., Chemical vapor deposition synthesized atomically thin
molybdenum disulfide with optoelectronic-grade crystalline quality, ACS Nano 9
(9) (2015) 8822–8832.
[38] H. Ago, et al., Controlled van der Waals epitaxy of monolayer MoS2 triangular
domains on graphene, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7 (9) (2015) 5265–5273.
[39] Y. Shi, et al., Van der Waals epitaxy of MoS₂ layers using graphene as growth
templates, Nano Lett. 12 (6) (2012) 2784–2791.
[40] Y.C. Lin, et al., Atomically thin resonant tunnel diodes built from synthetic van
der Waals heterostructures, Nat. Commun. 6 (2015).
[41] A. Azizi, et al., Freestanding van der Waals heterostructures of graphene and
transition metal dichalcogenides, ACS Nano 9 (5) (2015) 4882–4890.
[42] Y.C. Lin, et al., Direct synthesis of van der Waals solids, ACS Nano 8 (4) (2014)
3715–3723.
[43] S. Mouri, Y. Miyauchi, K. Matsuda, Tunable photoluminescence of monolayer
MoS₂ via chemical doping, Nano Lett. 13 (12) (2013) 5944–5948.
[44] J. Lin, et al., Electron-doping-enhanced Trion formation in monolayer
molybdenum disulfide functionalized with cesium carbonate, ACS Nano 8 (5)
(2014) 5323–5329.
11
Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167
[45] S. Tongay, et al., Broad-range modulation of light emission in two-dimensional
semiconductors by molecular physisorption gating, Nano Lett. 13 (6) (2013)
2831–2836.
[46] H. Fang, S. Chuang, T.C. Chang, K. Takei, T. Takahashi, A. Javey, High-
performance single layered WSe₂ p-FETs with chemically doped contacts, Nano
Lett. 12 (7) (2012) 3788–3792.
[47] H. Tian, et al., Bioinspired Dual-Channel Speech Recognition Using Graphene-
Based Electromyographic and Mechanical Sensors, Cell Reports Physical Science,
2022.
[48] L.-Q. Tao, et al., An intelligent artificial throat with sound-sensing ability based
on laser induced graphene, Nat. Commun. 8 (2017).
[49] Q. Yang, et al., "mixed-modality speech recognition and interaction using a
wearable artificial throat," nature, Machine Intelligence 5 (2) (2023) 169–180,
https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-023-00616-6. /02/01 2023.
[50] G.-Y. Gou, et al., "two-stage amplification of an ultrasensitive MXene-based
intelligent artificial eardrum," science, Advances 8, no. 13 (2022) eabn2156,
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn2156.
[51] A.D. Smith, et al., Electromechanical piezoresistive sensing in suspended
graphene membranes, Nano Lett. 13 (7) (2013) 3237–3242.
[52] M. Li, et al., Pressure sensing element based on the BN-graphene-BN
heterostructure, Appl. Phys. Lett. 112 (2018) 143502.
[53] X. Lin, et al., Polymer-assisted pressure sensor with Piezoresistive suspended
graphene and its temperature characteristics, Nano 14 (10) (2019) 1950130.
[54] Z. Shadmand, J.R. Shahrouzi, H.H. Chaboki, Design and fabrication of a
graphene-based microcantilever flow sensor for liquid flow measurement, Sensors
and Actuators A-physical 317 (2021) 112438.
[55] J. Romijn, et al., Multi-layer graphene pirani pressure sensors, Nanotechnology
32 (2021).
[56] J. Wang, Z. Zhu, Y. Qi, M. Li, A Novel Crossbeam Structure with Graphene
Sensing Element for N/MEMS Mechanical Sensors, Nanomaterials 12 (2022).
[57] X. Cao, K. Zhang, G. Feng, Q. Wang, P.-G. Fu, F.-Y. Li, Preparation of a Vertical
Graphene-Based Pressure Sensor Using PECVD at a Low Temperature,
Micromachines 13 (2022).
[58] G.Y. Bae, et al., Linearly and highly pressure-sensitive electronic skin based on a
bioinspired hierarchical structural Array, Adv. Mater. 28 (2016).
[59] M. Jian, et al., Flexible and highly sensitive pressure sensors based on bionic
hierarchical structures, Adv. Funct. Mater. 27 (2017).
[60] G. Tai, D. Wei, M. Su, P. Li, L. Xie, J. Yang, Force-Sensitive Interface Engineering
in Flexible Pressure Sensors: A Review, Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) vol. 22,
2022.
[61] X. Tang, et al., Controllable Graphene Wrinkle for a High-Performance Flexible
Pressure Sensor, ACS applied materials & interfaces, 2021.
[62] C. Liang, et al., Wide range strain distributions on the electrode for highly
sensitive flexible tactile sensor with low hysteresis, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces
15 (12) (2023) 15096–15107, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c21241. /03/29
2023.
[63] A.D. Santos, E. Fortunato, R. Martins, H. Águas, R. Igreja, Transduction
mechanisms, Micro-structuring techniques, and applications of electronic skin
pressure sensors: A review of recent advances, Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) vol.
20 (2020).
[64] P. Zhang, et al., Flexible Piezoresistive sensor with the microarray structure based
on self-assembly of multi-walled carbon nanotubes, Sensors 19 (22) (2019) 4985
[Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/19/22/4985.
[65] B. Fan, S. Chen, J. Gao, X. Guo, Accurate recognition of lightweight objects with
low resolution pressure sensor Array, IEEE Sensors J. 20 (6) (2020) 3280–3284,
https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2019.2958688.
[66] N.A. Choudhry, et al., Fabrication and characterization of single-layer textile-
based flexible pressure sensors for smart wearable electronics applications, Adv.
Eng. Mater. 25 (11) (2023) 2201736. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202201736.
[67] A.M. Hurst, S. Lee, N. Petrone, J. VanDeWeert, A.M. van der Zande, J.C. Hone,
A Transconductive Graphene Pressure Sensor, 2013 Transducers & Eurosensors
XXVII: The 17th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and
Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS & EUROSENSORS XXVII), 2013, pp. 586–589.
[68] O.K. Kwon, J.H. Lee, K.-S. Kim, J.W. Kang, Developing ultrasensitive pressure
sensor based on graphene nanoribbon: molecular dynamics simulation, Physica E-
low-dimensional Systems & Nanostructures 47 (2013) 6–11.
[69] S.-E. Zhu, M.K. Ghatkesar, C. Zhang, G.C.A.M. Janssen, Graphene based
piezoresistive pressure sensor, Appl. Phys. Lett. 102 (2013) 161904.
[70] A.D. Smith, et al., Piezoresistive properties of suspended graphene membranes
under uniaxial and biaxial strain in nanoelectromechanical pressure sensors, ACS
Nano 10 (2016) 9879–9886.
[71] Q. Wang, W. Hong, L. Dong, Graphene “microdrums” on a freestanding
perforated thin membrane for high sensitivity MEMS pressure sensors, Nanoscale
8 (14) (2016) 7663–7671.
[72] M. Sanaeepour, A. Abedi, M.J. Sharifi, Performance analysis of nanoscale single
layer graphene pressure sensors, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 64 (2017)
1300–1304.
[73] S.P. Milovanović, M.Z. Tadic, F.M. Peeters, graphene membrane as a pressure
gauge,” arXiv: mesoscale and nanoscale, Physics 111 (4) (2017) 043101.
[74] B. Davaji, et al., A patterned single layer graphene resistance temperature sensor,
Sci. Rep. 7 (2017).
[75] M.L. Campbell, T. Zhang, P. Wang, M. Li, J. Wang, Z. Liu, Temperature
characteristics of a pressure sensor based on BN/graphene/BN Heterostructure,
Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) vol. 19 (2019).
Y. Guo et al.
[76] M. Nag, J. Singh, A. Kumar, K. Singh, A high sensitive graphene piezoresistive
MEMS pressure sensor by integration of rod beams in silicon diaphragm for low
pressure measurement application, Microsyst. Technol. (2020) 1–6.
[77] D. Liu, S. Wei, D. Wang, Improving the sensing properties of graphene MEMS
pressure sensor by low-temperature annealing in atmosphere, Sensors (Basel,
Switzerland) vol. 22 (2022).
[78] J. Wang, C. Xie, M. Li, J. Bai, Highly Sensitive Pressure Sensor Based on h-BN/
Graphene/h-BN Heterojunction and Cu–Sn Solid–Liquid Interdiffusion Bonding,
IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 69 (2022) 4521–4526.
[79] Y. Liu, et al., Improved High-Yield PMMA/Graphene Pressure Sensor and Sealed
Gas Effect Analysis, Micromachines 11 (2020).
[80] S. Zeng, et al., A novel high-temperature pressure sensor based on graphene
coated by Si3N4, IEEE Sensors J. 23 (2023) 2008–2013.
[81] C. Bonavolontà, et al., Characterization of piezoresistive properties of graphene-
supported polymer coating for strain sensor applications, Sensors and Actuators
A-physical 252 (2016) 26–34.
[82] J. Wu, X.F. Zhao, Y. Liu, D. Wen, The Simulation, Fabrication Technology and
Characteristic Research of micro-Pressure Sensor with isosceles Trapezoidal
Beam-Membrane, Applied Physics, arXiv, 2020.
[83] M. Lamba, H. Chaudhary, K. Singh, Optimized analysis of sensitivity and non-
linearity for PDMS–graphene MEMS force sensor, IETE J. Res. 68 (2020)
4453–4467.
[84] M. Lamba, H. Chaudhary, K. Singh, P. Keshyep, V. Kumar, Graphene
piezoresistive flexible MEMS force sensor for bi-axial micromanipulation
applications, Microsyst. Technol. 28 (2022) 1687–1699.
[85] R.A. Coutu, I.R. Medvedev, D.T. Petkie, Improved sensitivity MEMS cantilever
sensor for terahertz photoacoustic spectroscopy, Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) vol.
16 (2016).
[86] Z. Dong, D. Shen, Z. Gong, D. Zhang, Y. Jiang, A flexible flow sensor for detecting
airflow velocity and incident angle, IEEE Sensors J. 22 (2022) 15884–15892.
[87] I. Gablech, J. Brodský, P. Vyroubal, J. Piastek, M. Bartošík, J. Pekárek,
Mechanical strain and electric-field modulation of graphene transistors integrated
on MEMS cantilevers, J. Mater. Sci. 57 (2022) 1923–1935.
[88] J. Wei, S. Magnani, P.M. Sarro, Suspended submicron silicon-beam for high
sensitivity piezoresistive force sensing cantilevers, Sensors and Actuators A-
physical 186 (2012) 80–85.
12
Microelectronic Engineering 288 (2024) 112167
[89] H. Tian, et al., A Graphene-Based Resistive Pressure Sensor with Record-High
Sensitivity in a Wide Pressure Range, Sci. Rep. 5 (2015).
[90] L.A. Kurup, C.M. Cole, J.N. Arthur, S.D. Yambem, Graphene Porous Foams for
Capacitive Pressure Sensing, ACS Applied Nano Materials, 2021.
[91] M. Wang, et al., High-performance multilayer flexible Piezoresistive pressure
sensor with bionic hierarchical and anisotropic structure, J. Bionic Eng. 19 (2022)
1439–1448.
[92] L. Sheng, et al., Bubble-decorated honeycomb-like graphene film as ultrahigh
sensitivity pressure sensors, Adv. Funct. Mater. 25 (2015).
[93] L.-Q. Tao, et al., Graphene-paper pressure sensor for detecting human motions,
ACS Nano 11 (9) (2017) 8790–8795.
[94] K. Xia, C. Wang, M. Jian, Q. Wang, Y. Zhang, CVD growth of fingerprint-like
patterned 3D graphene film for an ultrasensitive pressure sensor, Nano Res. 11
(2018) 1124–1134.
[95] J. Jia, G. Huang, J. Deng, K. Pan, Skin-inspired flexible and high-sensitivity
pressure sensors based on rGO films with continuous-gradient wrinkles,
Nanoscale 11 (10) (2019) 4258–4266.
[96] Y. Zhang, et al., An ultrahigh sensitivity micro-cliff graphene wearable pressure
sensor made by instant flash light exposure, Nanoscale 13 (36) (2021)
15380–15393.
[97] D. Sengupta, L. Lu, Y. Pei, A.G.P. Kottapalli, Fabric-Like Pvac-Graphene
Nanofiber Capacitive Pressure Sensors For Next-Generation Wearables, in: 2022
IEEE 35th International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems
Conference (MEMS), 2022, pp. 341–344.
[98] G. Gilanizadehdizaj, K.C. Aw, J. Stringer, D. Bhattacharyya, Facile Fabrication of
Flexible Piezo-Resistive Pressure Sensor Array Using Reduced Graphene Oxide
Foam and Silicone Elastomer, Physical, Sensors and Actuators A, 2022.
[99] L. Yang, et al., Development of a highly sensitive, broad-range hierarchically
structured reduced graphene oxide/PolyHIPE foam for pressure sensing, ACS
Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11 (4) (2019) 4318–4327.
[100] Y. Lee, et al., Flexible ferroelectric sensors with ultrahigh pressure sensitivity and
linear response over exceptionally broad pressure range, ACS Nano 12 (4) (2018)
4045–4054.