Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Atmospheric Environment: X
journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/atmospheric-environment-x

Road dust load dynamics and influencing factors for six winter seasons in T
Stockholm, Sweden
Mats Gustafssona,∗, Göran Blomqvista, Ida Järlskoga, Joacim Lundberga, Sara Janhällb,
Max Elmgrenc, Christer Johanssonc,d, Michael Normanc, Sanna Silvergrenc
a
Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), Linköping, SE, 581 95, Sweden
b
Research Institutes of Sweden (RISE), Box 857, Borås, SE, 501 15, Sweden
c
SLB-analys, Box 8136, Stockholm, SE, 104 20, Sweden
d
Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES), Stockholm University, Stockholm, SE, 106 91, Sweden

H I GH L IG H T S

• There is a seasonal dependency in road dust loads in Stockholm.

• The lateral road dust load variation is high.
• Road dust load is depending on road surface properties.
• Repaving of a street resulted in markedly increased dust loads.
• The wet dust sampler (WDS) is a useful tool for total dust load follow-up studies.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Traffic related non-exhaust particulate sources and road dust are an increasingly important source for PM10 air
Non-exhaust pollution as exhaust sources are decreasing due to regulations. In the Nordic countries, the road dust problem is
sampling enhanced by use of studded tyres, causing increased road wear and winter road maintenance including gritting.
Spatial variation Efforts to reduce road dust emissions requires knowledge on temporal and spatial road dust load dynamics. The
Temporal variation
city of Stockholm, Sweden, has therefore financed seasonal (October to May) road dust sampling to be able to
Macro texture
optimize their winter and spring time street operation measures for reduced road dust emissions. This work
PM10
describes the outcome of six seasons (2011/2012–2016/2017) of road dust sampling in five central streets using
the VTI wet dust sampler (WDS).The results show that road dust load, expressed as DL180 (dust load smaller
than 180 μm) has a seasonal variation with the highest loads (up to 200 g/m2) in late winter and early spring and
a minimum (down to about 15 g/m2) in early autumn and late spring. The dust load varies between streets and is
depending on pavement surface properties. On a smaller scale the dust load has a high variability across streets
due to differences in rates of suspension from different parts of the road surface, with low amounts in wheel
tracks and higher in-between and outside the tracks. Between 2 and 30% of the DL180 is smaller than 10 μm and
could directly contribute to PM10 emissions. In general, higher road surface texture leads to higher dust loads,
but the condition of the pavement (e.g. cracks, aggregate loss) might also have an effect. A new, wear resistant
pavement accumulated markedly higher road dust amounts than a several years old pavement. This paper closes
with a discussion on the complex relation between road dust load and PM10 concentrations and a discussion on
the challenges and comparability of road dust sampling techniques and measures.

1. Background pavement wear, are subject to few international regulations (Amato

et al., 2014b; Denier van der Gon et al., 2012). Non-exhaust emissions
Non-exhaust particles from road traffic have been noticed as an will also be important in the future even if the vehicle fleet would be
increasingly important source to air pollution, since traffic globally is completely electrified (Timmers and Achten, 2016). Except from being
increasing and emissions from non-exhaust sources, like tyre, break and emitted directly to the air, non-exhaust particles deposit and

∗
Corresponding author. , VTI, Linköping, SE, 581 95, Sweden.
E-mail address: mats.gustafsson@vti.se (M. Gustafsson).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2019.100014
Received 18 September 2018; Received in revised form 18 January 2019; Accepted 21 January 2019
Available online 30 January 2019
2590-1621/ © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/).
M. Gustafsson et al.
accumulate, together with dust from other sources, on road surfaces to
form road dust. The dust is suspended by traffic and/or wind and
contributes to air pollution. The sources to road dust differ widely both
geographically and temporally (Amato et al., 2012, 2014a, 2014b; Chen
et al., 2012; Etyemezian et al., 2003; Fujiwara et al., 2011; Kuhns et al.,
2005; Pirjola et al., 2010; Zhu et al., 2008). Common traffic generated
sources are, as mentioned, brake and tyre wear particles (Denier van
der Gon et al., 2012; Garg et al., 2000; Gietl et al., 2010; Grigoratos and
Martini, 2014; Hulskotte et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2013; Panko et al.,
2013; Sanders et al., 2003). Road operation measures (traction sanding,
salting) and pavement wear from studded tyres are also common
sources and in some Northern countries during the winter season
(Gustafsson et al., 2009; Kupiainen and Tervahattu, 2004; Kupiainen
et al., 2016; Kupiainen and Pirjola, 2011). . Traction sanding can
contribute both by containing and being ground into fine, suspendible
dust, but also through contribution to pavement wear through a
grinding effect on pavements. This is referred to as the sand paper effect
(Kupiainen et al., 2003). Dust from surrounding areas, like farm land,
deserts, building sites and gravel roads all differ widely depending on
geography, climate and time of year.
Since road dust accumulates on the road surface, the surface prop-
erties are important for subsequent emissions. Road dust accumulation
depends mainly on surface macro texture (commonly Mean Texture
Depth, MTD, or Mean Profile Depth, MPD) that affects both the amount
of dust accumulated and how available this dust is for suspension by
traffic. Studies by China and James (2012) and Blomqvist et al. (2013)
show that for the same dust load and suspension force, a coarser macro
texture (expressed as MTD) will emit lower amounts of suspended
particles. Studying the total amount of accumulated dust below 180 μm
(DL180) in the surface texture, Blomqvist et al. (2013), showed that, in
real city street environments (in Stockholm, Sweden), DL180 generally
increased with increasing macro texture. In a real road environment,
the volume, composition and speed of the traffic, as well as meteor-
ological factors, will influence the accumulation and suspension (Denby
et al., 2013a; Denby et al., 2013b; Norman et al., 2016). Simulta-
neously, these factors will also influence the source strength of non-
exhaust, as well as exhaust, particles, and the resulting dust load will be
the result from a balance between accumulation and suspension. A
crucial meteorological factor is road surface moisture, which has been
proven to strongly affect the emission of dust (Denby et al., 2013a;
Johansson et al., 2007). In Stockholm, Sweden, where PM10 levels are
strongly influenced by road dust emissions, an almost perfect anti-
correlation can be seen with road surface moisture (Norman and
Johansson, 2006). Suspension of dust is strongly reduced on moist
streets. In the NORTRIP (NOn-exhaust Road Traffic Induced Particle)
emission model, developed as a physically based non-exhaust particle
emission model, special efforts have therefore been made to describe
and account for road surface moisture (Denby et al., 2013a).
In Sweden, road dust related PM10 is an important cause for ex-
ceedances of the EU limit values (Areskoug et al., 2001). Mainly, con-
fined city streets with high traffic amounts have had problems reducing
the PM10 concentrations. As a result of these findings, research was
directed towards understanding the emission processes and how to
abate them. In laboratory experiments, Gustafsson et al. (2009) con-
cluded that studded tyres produced tens of times higher PM10 emis-
sions than non-studded winter tyres. In parallel, research in Norway
and Finland pointed out studded tyres and winter sanding as important
sources (Kupiainen, 2007; Snilsberg, 2008). As a result of this scientific
evidence, abatement measures in the Nordic countries have been
focussing on how to reduce PM10 emissions from road dust. These in-
clude e.g. reduced use of studded tyres, reduced speed, improved road
sweeping and dust binding.
Few studies have investigated the influence of road operational
measures on PM10 emissions. Amato et al. (2010) made a review of the
effects of sweeping and concluded that, even though literature was
scarse, road sweeping alone had not been shown to reduce PM10
2
Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014
concentrations in short term studies. Combined with water flushing,
sweeping has a better reduction potential. The few studies on using dust
binding agents on paved roads generally showed a high potential for
short term PM10 reduction. Especially in cool climates, dust binding
seems to be effective. For instance, Norman and Johansson (2006)
showed that PM10 in a Stockholm street could be decreased by up to
35% using CMA (calcium magnesium acetate). Gustafsson et al. (2010)
showed similar results also for MgCl2, CaCl2 and sugar solutions.
Amato et al. (2014c), on the other hand, showed that dust binding of
paved roads in warm climates, are not effective. In the study made in
Barcelona, neither CMA nor MgCl2, could be shown to have a sig-
nificant effect. The authors concluded that the rapid drying-up of che-
mical dust binders in high temperatures and the low amounts of road
dust accumulated were important factor influencing the results.
The city of Stockholm has the most abundant PM10 problems
among Swedish cities and there is epidemiological evidence that
especially the coarse fraction of PM10 is significantly associated with
both mortality and morbidity of the population (Meister et al., 2012). In
2005, an abatement plan to reach the EU limit values was adopted that
included specific abatement measures (Länsstyrelsen i Stockholms län,
2004) against road dust and its’ suspension. Use of CMA as dust binder
and extra sweeping with a special vacuum sweeper operating without
water application are the main road dust mitigation measures together
with a ban of studded tyres on certain streets (Norman and Johansson,
2006; Norman et al., 2016). To follow up the effects of the Stockholm
dust mitigation measures, the changes in road dust load during the
winter season have been studied. This paper summarises the results and
experiences during the first five seasons of this work.
2. Methodology
2.1. Site description
Stockholm is situated close to the Swedish Baltic coast where the
lake Mälaren connects to the Baltic sea (59°19′46″N 18°4′7″E). It has a
humid continental climate with distinct seasons, including cold, snowy
periods in winter. The number of inhabitants is about 950 000
(Stockholms stad, 2017).
Road dust load was sampled at, or in close proximity to air quality
monitoring stations in the Stockholm city centre (Fig. 1). The streets
have different characteristics (Table 1); Hornsgatan, Sveavägen, Folk-
ungagatan and Odengatan have four lanes (two in each direction),
Fleminggatan two lanes (one in each direction), Norrlandsgatan two
lanes in the same direction. The traffic amounts were 5467–23 800
vehicles per day and the pavements are stone mastic asphalts (SMA)
with generally wear resistant rocks such as quartzite, granite and por-
phyry, with varying maximum aggregate sizes (11–16 mm). Four sites
(Sveavägen 59, Hornsgatan, Folkungagatan and Norrlandsgatan) were
used during all years, Sveavägen 83 from spring 2013, Fleminggatan in
spring 2013 and from autumn 2015 to spring 2017 and finally Oden-
gatan from autumn 2013 to spring 2015. All sites have 4–5 story
buildings on both sides of the road but have different street canyon
widths.
2.2. Road dust load sampling and analyses
Road dust load was sampled using the VTI Wet Dust Sampler (WDS,
Fig. 2, Jonsson et al., 2008; Lundberg et al., 2019), which is a sampler
using high pressurized water to clean a small circular road surface area
during a specified time and compressed air to move the sample from the
washing unit to a sample bottle. Each washing is referred to as a “shot”.
The washing unit uses a spray nozzle with a filled cone spray pattern to
thoroughly clean the surface. Two sampling strategies were used: either
six “shots” were collected in one large bottle as one sample to even out
variation at short distances of the road, or each “shot” was collected
individually. The six-shot samples were collected three after one
M. Gustafsson et al. Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014

Fig. 1. Central Stockholm with investigated streets. White dots indicate positions of air quality monitoring stations.

Table 1 from streets including road dust and other non-exhaust particles, road
Description of the measurement sites. dust load is defined as road dust finer than 200 μm, i.e. close to the
Street Traffic # of Textureb Direction Pavement type
180 μm chosen for sample sieving. The samples were then filtered using
(ADT)a lanes (MTD, mm) (main) Buchner funnels with Munktell 00H filter paper. The filters were burned
at 550 °C and the inorganic amount of the sample determined. The dust
Hornsgatan 23 800 4 1.5/2 E-W SMA16 load is called DL180, being the inorganic fraction of dust smaller than
Sveavägen 59 23 400 4 1.3/1.1 NeS SMA11
180 μm. One of three bottles sampled between wheel tracks were used
Sveavägen 83 18 068 4 – NeS SMA11
Folkungagatan 15 100 4 1.7/1 E-W SMA11 for out-takes to size distribution analyses using a laser granulometer
Fleminggatan 19 100 2 – E-W SMA (Between, 2011 and 2014 a CILAS and between 2014 and 2017 a
Norrlandsgatan 7600 2 1.2/0.9 NeS SMA Malvern Mastersizer 2000). From the cumulative size distribution, the
Odengatan 5467 4 – E-W SMA
fraction of DL180 being smaller than 10 μm can be calculated (DL10).
a DL10 might be of closer interest when comparing dust load to PM10
Vehicles per day, Data from 2014.
b
Wheel track/between wheel tracks. concentrations.
Sampling in and between wheel tracks was performed at 6–8 oc-
another at two distances from the road side, in the left wheel track (WT) casions each winter season, normally between October and May, when
and between wheel tracks (BWT), see Fig. 3. This strategy was com- the extra PM10 road operations were in practise. Transects of single
bined with sampling individual “shots” to get a picture of the lateral shots was performed occasionally during the measurement period.
distribution of road dust, consisting of a transect of single shot samples
from the curb across the parking area or cycle path and across the
2.3. Macro texture – sand patch
rightmost driving lane (Fig. 3).
The WDS has been used in several Swedish national research pro-
The road surface macro texture, as an indication of the road surface
jects, mainly for investigating the influence on different street and road
ability to store dust, was measured using the volumetric, contact
operation measures against road dust emissions (Gustafsson et al.,
method commonly known as the sand patch method (EN
2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017; Janhäll et al., 2016; Järlskog
13036–1:2010). A pre-defined amount of fine glass beads (90% be-
et al., 2017), and has recently been exported to Finland and Norway
tween 180 and 250 μm according to ISO565) is placed in the middle of
which will increase the availability of comparative studies.
the surface of interest and spread out into a circle shape using a hard
Even though the WDS sampler has a theoretical maximum cut-off at
rubber puck until it cannot be further spread. The diameter of the circle
5 mm, which is the diameter of the outlet from the sampling chamber,
is measured in four equally spaced directions and a mean value cal-
particles of that size on the road surface are not directly relevant for air
culated and used to further calculate the mean texture depth (MTD).
quality. From standard sieving methods the mesh of 180 μm was chosen
The method is operator sensitive. For this reason, the same person
for analysis as it removes the larger particles from the sample reducing
performed all measurements.
variability due to few large particles that is large enough not to be
MTD was measured in left wheel track and between wheel tracks on
emitted to the air, but still include most particles that would affect air
the four streets Hornsgatan, Folkungagatan, Sveavägen and
quality even at shorter distances from the road. The NORTRIP-model
Norrlandsgatan in spring 2012. This is the period in Sweden when
(Denby et al., 2013a,b), developed to calculate the PM10 contribution
macro texture is normally highest, after the winter when studded tyres

3
M. Gustafsson et al.
Fig. 2. The VTI wet dust sampler (WDS II). Front view (left) and sampling in a city street (right).
Fig. 3. Used WDS sampling alternatives. Sampling three large bottles in left
wheel track (WT1–3) and in-between wheel tracks (BWT1–3) and a profile from
the kerb over the first driving lane (bottom line of dots).
are used. During summer and early autumn, texture decreases as non-
studded tyres polish the surface (Jacobson, 2005). Data is lacking from
Fleminggatan, Odengatan and from the new pavement laid on Folk-
ungagatan in 2016.
3. Results
3.1. Road dust annual cycle and variation between streets
Road dust load (DL180) is highly variable in time and space. In
Fig. 4, the mean values of seven locations in WT and BWT during six
winter seasons are shown. DL180 is generally highest from mid-winter
to early spring and lowest in early autumn and late spring. Separated
into street locations and seasons (Fig. 5), the highest dust loads were
measured between wheel tracks on Hornsgatan and in wheel track on
Folkungagatan during the first season of measurements (2011–2012).
Comparing the pavements revealed that these specific surfaces were
more damaged (mainly cracks and aggregate losses) than other sur-
faces. Therefore, the tests were moved to undamaged parts of the same
pavements the following seasons.
4
Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014
During each winter season (September–May) the pattern is similar
on all streets; low road dust loads in the beginning and at the end of the
season and obvious peaks from midwinter to early spring. Maximum
values of DL180 on different streets vary between 15 and around 200 g/
m2. The difference between WT and BWT differs between streets. On
Hornsgatan, Sveavägen and Fleminggatan, DL180 is generally lower in
WT than between, while Norrlandsgatan and Odengatan have very si-
milar dust loads in both surfaces. Folkungagatan has similar dust loads
some seasons and tendencies to higher dust load in WT in other seasons.
The difference in dust load in WT in Folkungagatan between the
first season and the following seasons is due to the above-mentioned
change in sampling area. Another feature at Folkungagatan is the
marked increase in DL180 during the last season (2016–2017). This is
due to repaving the street with a wear resistant stone mastic asphalt
containing porphyry rock aggregates, but also with a coarse macro
texture (determined by visual inspection) with high capacity to store
dust.
Long term trends in the data differ from street to street, but the
Sveavägen sites and Hornsgatan seem to have increasing dust amounts
since 2014. Both Sveavägen sites show increasing dust amounts in both
WT and BWT. In Hornsgatan, WT seems unaffected, while BWT in-
creases. In Norrlandsgatan, the trend is less obvious.
A statistical view of the data (Fig. 6) from each surface reveal that
WT of Fleminggatan, Norrlandsgatan and Sveavägen, together with
BWT on Norrlandsgatan have similarly low dust loads, with small
variation, while WT on Hornsgatan as well as BWT on Fleminggatan
and Hornsgatan stands out with high dust loads and large variability.
Folkungagatan DL180 data must be separated in time, since the sam-
pling site was changed, and a new pavement was built in summer 2016
on the site as mentioned above (Fig. 6).
3.2. Small scale spatial road dust variability
Not only does the dust load vary between streets and during the
season, the small-scale variation across a street can also be very high. In
Fig. 7, ten WDS transects, sampled 2 h and about 20 cm apart at Fle-
minggatan, have been used to illustrate the variation in dust load. In the
driving lane the wheel tracks are easily identified as even surfaces with
low dust load (below 50 g/m2). Between wheel tracks and between the
lanes are areas with higher dust loads, about 50–100 g/m2. Outside the
lane, towards the kerb, the gradient is steep to high dust loads in the
M. Gustafsson et al.
Fig. 4. Mean road dust load (DL180) in WT and BTW for seven locations in central Stockholm between 2011 and 2017. Error bars are standards deviations.
bicycle lane and parking area, up to about 300 g/m2. The large varia-
tion in the x direction outside the driving lane can both relate to tem-
poral variation and to small-scale differences between the transects.
Since WDS cleans each sampling surface, the exact same surface cannot
be re-used in the following transect but have been moved up-stream to
the traffic, not to be affected by water smearing by traffic.
3.3. Size distributions and amount of dust < 10 μm
The fraction of road dust being smaller than 10 μm (DL10) is of
interest since it can be expected to contribute directly to airborne PM10
through suspension. In Fig. 8, cumulative size distributions of DL180
sampled on 2017-02-02 is shown. These distributions are typical for the
high road dust load season and the shape is generally similar between
streets. Nevertheless, the percentage smaller than 10 μm can be quite
different. In Table 2, the percentage for the streets in Fig. 8 is shown
and range from 14 to 18% of DL180. In all BTW samples during the six
seasons, the percentage range from 2 to 30%, with a mean value of
14%. The percentage of DL10 is generally higher in winter and early
spring.
Mean values of DL10 in BWT between the seasons 2011–2017 is
shown in Fig. 9. Similar to the DL180 load, the DL10 fraction generally
5
Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014
has a seasonal pattern with lower amounts in early autumn and late
spring and a maximum in midwinter and early spring and range from
about 20 mg/m2 in the generally low dust load in September to almost
90 g/m2 during the dustiest period in March.
3.3.1. Macro texture influence on dust load
In Fig. 10, macro texture (MTD) in and between wheel tracks on
four streets have been plotted to road dust load (DL180) for six winter
seasons from 2011 to 2017. Even though other factors affect the dust
load, like traffic amount, speed and composition, meteorology and
different suspension in and between wheel tracks, there is a clear ten-
dency that coarser texture is related to higher dust load. Except for the
exceptionally coarse macro texture in the Folkungagatan wheel track
(over 2 mm), the macro texture in wheel tracks are lower than between
wheel tracks. Within each functional section (in and between wheel
tracks) there is also a trend with higher dust load at coarser macro
texture. The new pavement at Folkungagatan (from mid-2016) is not
included in the figure due to lack of macro texture data. Visually, it has
a high texture, which also is reflected in high dust loads (see Fig. 5).
One should keep in mind that texture was only measured once at each
site. Therefore, the variation along the MTD axis in Fig. 10 would likely
be higher if texture was available for each measurement occasion.
M. Gustafsson et al. Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014

Fig. 5. Road dust load (DL180) variation during September to May between 2011 and 2017 in seven locations on Stockholm streets.

Measurements in wheel track on roads with similar pavement but Dry road dust sampling methods have shown an inverse relationship
higher speeds indicate that macro texture might vary with about 10% between macro texture (MTD) and suspendible dust load (Blomqvist
over a year, with the highest values after the studded tyre season and et al., 2013; China and James, 2012; Panko et al., 2013; Padoan et al.,
the lowest just before (Lundberg, 2012). Pavements at the measurement 2018) which is a result of a higher capacity to store and retain dust at
sites were not changed during these years, though, why texture values coarser macro textures. Even though only visual observations are
are likely to be representative. available for the texture of the new pavement on Folkungagatan, the
obvious increase in dust load has been followed by a likewise obvious
drop in PM10 concentrations at the site. This indicates a reduced sus-
4. Discussion
pendible road dust emission, even though traffic increased during the
same period. On the other hand, the mean speed in the lane decreased
Based on available literature, the data set on both annual cycles of
by 7 km/h due to a new bus stop (Elmgren, 2018). A high dust load can
road dust load and the road dust cross-sections presented in this work
reflect strong sources, which is likely not the case with the wear re-
are unique data sets. The annual cycle is a result of growing dust
sistant porphyry pavement on Folkungagatan, but also low suspension,
sources as well as increasing dust retention processes during autumn
which is promoted by coarse texture and low suspension forces. In
and winter. In spring the opposite circumstances reduce the dust load.
Folkungagatan, dust sources should be comparably weak, while texture
Generally, dust load is higher between wheel tracks, than in wheel
is deep and the suspension likely to be lower due to lower traffic speed
track, which is a result of the suspension caused by passing wheels. This
than before the traffic shift. Weak sources causing slow accumulation in
difference is especially obvious in Fleminggatan, due to track bound
a rough texture with low suspension from traffic could therefore be
traffic in one single narrow lane with a no-crossing line to the left and a
hypothesized to explain the combination of high dust load and low
bicycle lane to the right. Remaining streets have two lanes in each di-
PM10 on Folkungagatan. Of the total dust load sampled, the fixed dust
rection, resulting in more lane shifting that will affect the distribution
load is high, while the suspendible load is low.
of dust across the street. Norrlandsgatan is the street with least differ-
The WDS sampling in this study samples both suspendible and fixed
ences in and between wheel tracks, probably resulting from being a
dust load, i.e. the total dust load. At a certain location with a site-
short link were cars often shift lanes at low speeds before a crossing
specific pavement surface macro texture and traffic conditions, the
with traffic lights. The size distribution of DL180 is generally rather
fixed load is likely to have a small variation, which was shown by China
similar between streets. Therefore, DL180 dust load is reflected in the
and James (2012). The results of this study, showing that the total dust
DL10 dust load.
load increases with coarser macro texture, could be explained by as-
The influence of macro texture of the pavement on road dust load is
suming that of the dust supplied to the surface, a higher proportion will
obvious, with generally higher dust loads with coarser macro texture.

6
M. Gustafsson et al. Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014

Fig. 6. Statistics for each surface 2011–2017. Plots show median, lower quartile, upper quartile, maximum and minimum values. The three rightmost bars in each
figure show statistics for surfaces on Folkungagatan, where the sampling site and the pavement have been changed. In 2011–2012, the WT site was damaged with lost
aggregates and cracks, in 2012–2016 both surfaces were in good condition and in 2016–2017 the street got a new pavement with higher macro texture.

become fixed with increasing texture depth. The suspendible dust load
is influenced by direct action and turbulence from wheels and vehicles.
The traffic characteristics (speed, amount, composition) in a street is
therefore governing the maximum suspension depth. The fixed load is
influenced by deposition and compaction and its upper level de-
termined by the suspension depth. Since turbulent forces decrease ra-
pidly from the surface, the assumption that the proportion of dust that
is fixed will increase faster is reasonable, but still a speculation. A hy-
pothetic model of this reasoning is described in Fig. 11.
The cross-street dust load variability described in this work shows
that wheels, also at rather low speeds (30–50 km/h) in the central city,
are effective dust suspenders. Wheel tracks generally have low dust
loads. It can be argued that the emission from these surfaces during dry
conditions is mostly direct wear from pavement and tyres. Dust accu-
mulation will occur when wheel tracks are humid (Amato et al., 2012)
and will result in suspension of dust at dry-up. In-between wheel tracks
suspension from vehicle turbulence will be the dominant emission
process. The traffic intensity and speed in the street will affect the
amount remaining on the surface. Amato et al. (2017) showed that the
suspendible dust load will decrease with increasing traffic intensity and
that the relationship levelled out already at 1500 vehicles per lane and
day. This relation might well be site specific, though, depending on
road surface and traffic properties.
The dust load is expressed as DL180, meaning the surface con-
centration of dust smaller than 180 μm. The only directly comparable
results are from the similar Chinese version of the WDS. This WDS is

7
M. Gustafsson et al. Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014

Fig. 7. Road dust load from kerb across parking area and driving lane during 21 h. Built from 10 transects with about 2 h apart.

inspired by the VTI WDS used in this paper but differs in some technical Table 2
dimensions and specifications. In Huang et al. (2017), DL180 of Beijing Percentage of DL180 smaller than 10 μm from sampling
streets vary between 28 and 117 g/m2, which is within the range of the 2017-02-02.
dust loads found in Stockholm. The dust sources are partly different in Street < 10 μm (%)
Beijing and Stockholm and there is no information on the pavement and
traffic properties from the Beijing data. Therefore, further comparison Fleminggatan 17
Folkungagatan 18
is not possible.
Hornsgatan 17
The most commonly used dust load unit for similar studies is silt Norrlandsgatan 13
load (sL), based on the method used in the US EPA emission model AP- Sveavägen 83 15
42 (EPA, 2002). Silt load is defined as particles smaller than 75 μm on Sveavägen 59 14
the road surface. Using the cumulative size distributions of DL180, the

Fig. 8. Examples of cumulative (left) and frequency based (right) mass size distributions in DL180 samples from Stockholm streets in 2017–02-02. Percentage used
for DL10 calculation marked with grey.

8
M. Gustafsson et al.
Fig. 9. Mean road dust load (DL10) in BWT for seven locations in central Stockholm between 2011 and 2017. Error bars are standard deviations.
fraction closest to silt load (< 76 μm) can be calculated. Silt load for all
streets was calculated from DL180 for the season 2015–2016 and ranges
from 2.5 to about 250 g/m2, which can be compared to the re-
commended default silt loading values for public paved roads of AP-42
of 0.1–3 g/m2. At industrial facilities, AP-42 suggests silt load up to
400 g/m2 (EPA, 2006). It should be noted though, that the silt load
estimation technique used in the AP-42 method, is based on dry
brushing and vacuuming of the road surface. This technique might not
be as efficient in removing dust from the surface as the high-pressure
water cleaning used in WDS Therefore, silt loads could be expected to
be lower. Also, a part of the explanation for the large differences, is that
the US streets that AP-42 is developed for are very different from
Swedish streets in winter and spring, where dust sources are likely to be
much stronger.
A similar dry sampling technique as used in AP-42, which has been
used rather extensively, is the technique developed by Amato et al.
(2009). The dust amount sampled by a dry vacuum cleaning method
Fig. 10. Influence of road surface texture (MTD) on road dust load (DL180) between 2011 and 2017. Note that the new pavement on Folkungagatan is not included,
due to lack of texture data (see text).
9
Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014
will sample the mobile dust that is available for the suction force ap-
plied, which depends on effect of the vacuum cleaner, the nozzle design
and how the nozzle is operated. It will also be affected by the humidity
of the road surface, which is one of the main reasons why the WDS is
operating with water. In Sweden, humid, wet or even snowy or icy road
surfaces are common, and a dry method would be hard to apply in
many situations. On the other hand, suspending road dust in water will
dissolve some particles that might contribute to airborne PM10 and
affect the size distribution of the dust.
If assuming the dry sampler of Amato et al. (2009) collects all
available road dust PM10, the dust load smaller than 10 μm (DL10)
calculated in this work can be compared to the PM10 dust load. Amato
et al. (2013) found that the PM10 dust load was 2–22 mg/m2 de-
pending on location. In our data, DL10 range from 21 to 9000 mg/m2,
indicating that the dustiest street in the study by Amato et al. (2013) is
similar in dust load to the cleanest street in the current study. Even
though streets in Nordic conditions are likely to be much dustier due to
M. Gustafsson et al.
Fig. 11. Hypothetical model of relation between texture, suspendible and fixed dust load.
studded tyres and winter sanding, this comparison should be made with
caution, since the aerosol PM10 cut-off is likely not directly comparable
to the below 10 μm fraction in a cumulative size distribution in water.
Also, it is likely that this difference is partly a result of the difference in
sampling the suspendible fraction (dry method), and the total dust load
(wet method). A factor complicating the comparison between the
DL180 dust load value and dry vacuuming samplers is that the WDS is
used in the Nordic countries Sweden, Norway and Finland, with high
dust loads, while the dry vacuuming samplers are used in mid and
southern Europe, where the dust load is generally lower. An inter-
comparison of different samplers in the same streets should be bene-
ficial to better understand the differences.
In Stockholm, PM10 is monitored in several places using mainly
TEOM (for details see website of SLB-analys: http://www.slb.nu). One
might expect PM10 concentrations in the city to be directly depending
on the dust load, but a number of other factors affect this relationship,
as described in Fig. 12. Two main sources contribute to road dust
emissions: direct emissions from road surface wear and suspension of
accumulated dust. The strength of the dust sources increases in late
autumn, as studded tyre frequency increases as do occasions when sand
and salt is used for traction control. Simultaneously, the frequency of
wet or humid road surfaces, binding dust to the surface, increases. The
local contribution to PM10 starts to rise in the autumn but is dampened
by the more frequent wet surfaces. Road dust accumulates during these
conditions but as the frequency of wet road surfaces decrease in spring,
the accumulated dust starts to be suspended by traffic, causing high
PM10 peaks. As the dust sources decrease and the road dust load is
depleted, its contribution to PM10 decreases.
Fig. 12. Six seasons in Hornsgatan, Stockholm showing dust load (DL180), local contribution to PM10, studded tyre frequency and road surface wetness.
10
Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014
As obvious in the discussion above, there is a need for harmoniza-
tion in road dust sampling techniques, what parameters to study and
more knowledge on their influence on air quality and the road dust
system. Road dust load has an obvious influence on air quality, but the
processes involved are many and the system complex. The currently
most comprehensive road dust emission model, NORTRIP (Denby and
Sundvor, 2012), describes many of these processes in detail and has
been shown to describe PM10 emission and concentration with rea-
sonable to high accuracy (e.g. Denby et al., 2013a,b; Kauhaniemi et al.,
2014), taking account for meteorology, traffic, surface moisture, pa-
vement wear and road operation measures.
All road dust sampling methods have pros and cons and could
possibly complete each other. Being a young research area, these issues
will hopefully be addressed in coming years. Road dust is certainly in
many environments an important source for PM10 with a complex
dependence on source contributions and meteorology as well as road
surface and traffic properties, resulting in an array of mitigation pos-
sibilities in need of a scientific basis for optimal performance.
5. Conclusions
From this work is concluded that:
• There is a seasonal dependency in road dust loads in Stockholm,
with a build-up in autumn, maximum loads in mid-winter to early
spring and low values in late spring and autumn.
• The road dust load, expressed as DL180, varies from about 15 to
200 g/m2.
M. Gustafsson et al.
• The lateral variation is high with typically large dust loads in be-
tween and outside wheel tracks and low in wheel tracks.
• The percentage of DL180 which is below 10 μm (DL10) and there-
fore directly, through suspension, could contribute to PM10, varies
from 2 to 30%, with a mean value of 14%.
• In average, DL10 follows the same seasonal cycle as DL180 with
high loads in mid-winter to early spring and low values in late spring
and autumn. The DL10 percentage of DL180 is generally highest in
midwinter and early spring and lower in autumn and late spring.
• Road dust load is depending on road surface properties, where
higher macro texture increases dust loads.
• Repaving of one of the streets resulted in markedly increased dust
loads, but also reduced PM10 concentrations, indicating a growth of
the fixed dust load but a reduction in suspendible dust load due to
high macro texture.
•
A comparison between DL180 and silt load results in that the
Stockholm streets have silt loads comparable to values suggested for
industrial sites in AP-42, which is likely a result of more effective
sampling using the WDS technique compared to the whisk broom
and dustpan used for silt load sampling as well as a result of large
differences between Swedish and north American dust sources and
road conditions.
• Road dust load is an important source for high PM10 concentrations,
but the relation is affected by many factors, the main one being road
surface humidity. The highest PM10 concentrations appear at high
dust loads and dry roads in late winter and early spring.
• The wet dust sampler (WDS) is a useful tool for total dust load
follow-up studies in most climates and weather conditions and
opens up for a range of sample analyses connected to sources and
road operation activities. Sampling of the suspendible fraction re-
quires other techniques, though.
Declaration of interests
None.
Acknowledgements
This work was financed by the Traffic Office of the city of
Stockholm. Development of the WDS was financed by the Swedish
Transport Administration and Sweden's innovation agency (VINNOVA).
The authors would like to acknowledge the PM10-group in Stockholm
(Peter Ringkrans, Susanne Pettersson, Tomas Nitzelius and Emma
Nordling) for fruitful discussions and support. We would also like to
thank Håkan Wilhelmsson, Håkan Arvidsson and Tomas Halldin at VTI
and Billy Sjövall at SLB-analys for technical and laboratory support as
well as the PEAB staff keeping us safe in the night-time streets of
Stockholm.
References
Amato, F., Pandolfi, M., Viana, M., Querol, X., Alastuey, A., Moreno, T., 2009. Spatial and
chemical patterns of PM10 in road dust deposited in urban environment. Atmos.
Environ. 43, 1650–1659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.12.009.
Amato, F., Querol, X., Johansson, C., Nagl, C., Alastuey, A., 2010. A review on the ef-
fectiveness of street sweeping, washing and dust suppressants as urban PM control
methods. Sci. Total Environ. 408, 3070–3084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.
2010.04.025.
Amato, F., Schaap, M., Denier van der Gon, H.A.C., Pandolfi, M., Alastuey, A., Keuken,
M., Querol, X., 2012. Effect of rain events on the mobility of road dust load in two
Dutch and Spanish roads. Atmos. Environ. 62, 352–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
atmosenv.2012.08.042.
Amato, F., Schaap, M., Denier van der Gon, H.A.C., Pandolfi, M., Alastuey, A., Keuken,
M., Querol, X., 2013. Short-term variability of mineral dust, metals and carbon
emission from road dust resuspension. Atmospheric Environment 74, 134–140.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.03.037.
Amato, F., Alastuey, A., de la Rosa, J., Gonzalez Castanedo, Y., Sánchez de la Campa,
A.M., Pandolfi, M., Lozano, A., Contreras González, J., Querol, X., 2014a. Trends of
road dust emissions contributions on ambient air particulate levels at rural, urban
and industrial sites in southern Spain. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 14, 3533–3544. https://
11
Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014
doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-3533-2014.
Amato, F., Cassee, F.R., Denier van der Gon, H.A.C., Gehrig, R., Gustafsson, M., Hafner,
W., Harrison, R.M., Jozwicka, M., Kelly, F.J., Moreno, T., Prevot, A.S.H., Schaap, M.,
Sunyer, J., Querol, X., 2014b. Urban air quality: the challenge of traffic non-exhaust
emissions. J. Hazard Mater. 275, 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.04.
053.
Amato, F., Karanasiou, A., Cordoba, P., Alastuey, A., Moreno, T., Lucarelli, F., Nava, S.,
Calzolai, G., Querol, X., 2014c. Effects of road dust suppressants on PM levels in a
mediterranean urban area. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 8069–8077. https://doi.org/10.
1021/es502496s.
Amato, F., Bedogni, M., Padoan, E., Querol, X., Ealo, M., Rivas, I., 2017. Characterization
of road dust emissions in Milan: impact of vehicle fleet speed. Aerosol and Air Quality
Research 17, 2438–2449. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2017.01.0017.
Areskoug, H., Alesand, T., Hansson, H.-C., Hedberg, E., Johansson, C., Vesely, V.,
Widequist, U., Ekengren, T., 2001. Kartläggning av inandningsbara partiklar i
svenska tätorter och identifikation av de viktigaste källorna, ITM, Luftlaboratoriet.
Stockholm University (in Swedish).
Blomqvist, G., Gustafsson, M., Lundberg, T., 2013. Road surface dust load is dependent on
road surface macro texture. In: European Aerosol Conference, Prague, Czech
Republic.
Chen, J., Wang, W., Liu, H., Ren, L., 2012. Determination of road dust loadings and
chemical characteristics using resuspension. Environ. Monit. Assess. 184, 1693–1709.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2071-1.
China, S., James, D.E., 2012. Influence of pavement macrotexture on PM 10 emissions
from paved roads: a controlled study. Atmos. Environ. 63, 313–326. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.09.018.
Denby, B.R., Sundvor, I., 2012. NORTRIP Model Development and Documentation, NILU
Scientific Report OR23.
Denby, B.R., Sundvor, I., Johansson, C., Pirjola, L., Ketzel, M., Norman, M., Kupiainen, K.,
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Kauhaniemi, M., Omstedt, G., 2013a. A coupled road
dust and surface moisture model to predict non-exhaust road traffic induced particle
emissions (NORTRIP). Part 2: surface moisture and salt impact modelling. Atmos.
Environ. 81, 485–503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.09.003.
Denby, B.R., Sundvor, I., Johansson, C., Pirjola, L., Ketzel, M., Norman, M., Kupiainen, K.,
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Omstedt, G., 2013b. A coupled road dust and surface
moisture model to predict non-exhaust road traffic induced particle emissions
(NORTRIP). Part 1: road dust loading and suspension modelling. Atmos. Environ. 77,
283–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.04.069.
Denier van der Gon, H., Gerlofs-Nijland, M.E., Gehrig, R., Gustafsson, M., Janssen, N.,
Harrison, R.M., Hulskotte, J., Johansson, C., Jozwicka, M., Keuken, M., Krijgsheld, K.,
Ntziachristos, L., Riediker, M., Cassee, F.R., 2012. The policy relevance of wear
emissions from road Transport, now and in the future - an international workshop
report and consensus statement. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 63, 136–149. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10962247.2012.741055.
Elmgren, M., 2018. Trafikomläggning Och Ny Hårdare Asfalt På Folkungagatan,
Stockholm Mätningar Och Beräkningar Av NO2 Och PM10, SLB 4:2018, SLB-Analys.
http://slb.nu/slb/rapporter/pdf8/slb2018_004.pdf (in Swedish).
EPA, 2002. AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume I, Chapter 13: Miscellaneous Sources.
EPA, 2006. AP42 Section 13.2.1 Paved Roads - Update November 2006.
Etyemezian, V., Kuhns, H., Gillies, J., Chow, J., Hendrickson, K., McGown, M., Pitchford,
M., 2003. Vehicle-based road dust emission measurement (III): effect of speed, traffic
volume, location, and season on PM10 road dust emissions in the Treasure Valley, ID.
Atmos. Environ. 37, 4583–4593. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00530-2.
Fujiwara, F., Rebagliati, R.J., Dawidowski, L., Gómez, D., Polla, G., Pereyra, V.,
Smichowski, P., 2011. Spatial and chemical patterns of size fractionated road dust
collected in a megacitiy. Atmos. Environ. 45, 1497–1505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
atmosenv.2010.12.053.
Garg, B.D., Cadle, S.H., Mulawa, P.A., Groblicki, P.J., Laroo, C., Parr, G.A., 2000. Brake
wear particulate matter emissions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34, 4463–4469. https://doi.
org/10.1021/es001108h.
Gietl, J.K., Lawrence, R., Thorpe, A.J., Harrison, R.M., 2010. Identification of brake wear
particles and derivation of a quantitative tracer for brake dust at a major road. Atmos.
Environ. 44, 141–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.10.016.
Grigoratos, T., Martini, G., 2014. Non - Exhaust Traffic Related Emissions. Brake and Tyre
Wear PM. Literature Survey. JRC Science and Policy Reports.
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Gudmundsson, A., Dahl, A., Jonsson, P., Swietlicki, E.,
2009. Factors influencing PM10 emissions from road pavement wear. Atmos.
Environ. 43, 4699–4702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.04.028.
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Jonsson, P., Ferm, M., 2010. Effekter Av Dammbindning
Av Belagda Vägar, VTI Rapport 666. Swedish National Road and Transport Research
Institute (in Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-6527.
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Jonsson, P., 2011. Damningsminimerad Vinter- Och
Barmarksdrift. Mått, Medel Och Strategier, VTI Rapport 701. Swedish National Road
and Transport Research Institute (in Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=
urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-1785.
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Johansson, C., Norman, M., 2012. Driftåtgärder Mot PM10
På Hornsgatan Och Sveavägen I Stockholm - Utvärdering Av Vintersäsongen 2011-
2012, VTI Rapport 767. Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (in
Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-1847.
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Janhäll, S., Johansson, C., Norman, M., 2014. Driftåtgärder
Mot PM10 I Stockholm: Utvärdering Av Vintersäsongen 2012–2013, 0347-6030, VTI.
(in Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-6858.
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Janhäll, S., Johansson, C., Norman, M., 2015. Driftåtgärder
Mot PM10 I Stockholm: Utvärdering Av Vintersäsongen 2013–2014, 847. Swedish
National Road and Transport Research Institute (in Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/
resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-7799.
M. Gustafsson et al.
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Janhäll, S., Johansson, C., Norman, M., Silvergren, S.,
2016. Driftåtgärder Mot PM10 I Stockholm: Utvärdering Av Vintersäsongen 2014-
2015, VTI Rapport 897. Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (in
Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-10735.
Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Janhäll, S., Johansson, C., Järlskog, I., Lundberg, J.,
Norman, M., Silvergren, S., 2017. Driftåtgärder Mot PM10 I Stockholm: Utvärdering
Av Vintersäsongen 2015–2016, 03476030 (ISSN). Swedish National Road and
Transport Research Institute (in Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=
urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-11889.
Huang, Y., Han, K., Li, D., Chen, L., Ren, B., Qin, J., 2017. Characteristic of remaining dust
and wet road dust on city roads in Beijing. Chinese J. Environ. Eng. 11, 4149–4154.
https://doi.org/10.12030/j.cjee.201605171.
Hulskotte, J.H.J., van der Gon, H.A.C.D., Visschedijk, A.J.H., Schaap, M., 2007. Brake
wear from vehicles as an important source of diffuse copper pollution. In: Tanik, A.,
Ozturk, I., Yazgan, M.S., Heath, R. (Eds.), Water Science Technology, pp. 223–231.
Jacobson, T., 2005. Polering Av Asfaltbeläggning, VTI Notat 12. Swedish National Road
and Transport Research Institute (in Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=
urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-1537.
Janhäll, S., Gustafsson, M., Andersson, K., Järlskog, I., Lindström, T., 2016. Utvärdering
Av Städmaskiners Förmåga Att Reducera Vägdammsförrådet I Gatu- Och
Tunnelmiljöer I Trondheim, VTI Rapport 883. Swedish National Road and Transport
Research Institute (in Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-
8292.
Järlskog, I., Blomqvist, G., Gustafsson, M., Janhäll, S., 2017. Utvärdering Av
Städmaskiners Förmåga Att Reducera Vägdammsförrådet I Gatu- Och Tunnelmiljöer -
En Fältstudie I Trondheim 2016. Swedish National Road and Transport Research
Institute (in Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-8292.
Johansson, C., Norman, M., Gidhagen, L., 2007. Spatial & temporal variations of PM10
and particle number concentrations in urban air. Environ. Monit. Assess. 127,
477–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-006-9296-4.
Jonsson, P., Blomqvist, G., Gustafsson, M., 2008. Wet Dust Sampler: Technological
Innovation for Sampling Particles and Salt on Road Surface. Seventh International
Symposium on Snow Removal and Ice Control Technology. Transportation Research
Circular E-C126, pp. 102–111.
Kauhaniemi, M., Stojiljkovic, A., Pirjola, L., Karppinen, A., Härkönen, J., Kupiainen, K.,
Kangas, L., Aarnio, M.A., Omstedt, G., Denby, B.R., Kukkonen, J., 2014. Comparison
of the predictions of two road dust emission models with the measurements of a
mobile van. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 14, 9155–9169. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-
9155-2014.
Kuhns, H., Gillies, J., Etyemezian, V., Dubois, D., Ahonen, S., Nikolic, D., Durham, C.,
2005. Spatial variability of unpaved road dust PM10 emission factors near El Paso,
Texas. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 55, 3–12.
Kupiainen, K., 2007. Road Dust from Pavement Wear and Traction Sanding. Department
of Biological and Environmental Sciences. University of Helsinki, Faculty of
Biosciences, Helsinki, pp. 50.
Kupiainen, K.J., Pirjola, L., 2011. Vehicle non-exhaust emissions from the tyre-road in-
terface - effect of stud properties, traction sanding and resuspension. Atmos. Environ.
45, 4141–4146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.05.027.
Kupiainen, K., Tervahattu, H., 2004. The effect of traction sanding on urban suspended
particles in Finland. Environ. Monit. Assess. 93, 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1023/
B:EMAS.0000016799.19441.0e.
Kupiainen, K., Tervahattu, H., Räisänen, M., 2003. Experimental studies about the impact
of traction sand on urban road dust composition. Sci. Total Environ. 308, 175–184.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00674-5.
Kupiainen, K., Ritola, R., Stojiljkovic, A., Pirjola, L., Malinen, A., Niemi, J., 2016.
12
Atmospheric Environment: X 2 (2019) 100014
Contribution of mineral dust sources to street side ambient and suspension PM10
samples. Atmos. Environ. 147, 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.
09.059.
Länsstyrelsen i Stockholms län, 2004. Åtgärdsprogram För Att Klara Miljökvalitetsnormen
För Partiklar I Stockholms Län: Offprint from Stockholm County Administration's
Report to the Swedish Government. Regeringsuppdrag Redovisat 2004-01-19, Dnr
1842-02-87078. Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (in
Swedish). http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-5134.
Lee, S., Kwak, J., Kim, H., Lee, J., 2013. Properties of roadway particles from interaction
between the tire and road pavement. Int. J. Automot. Technol. 14, 163–173. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s12239-013-0018-y.
Lundberg, T., 2012. Kontrollmetod För Nya Vägbeläggningar; Makrotextur, VTI-Notat 35.
VTI- Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (in Swedish). http://
urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:vti:diva-597.
Lundberg, J., Blomqvist, G., Gustafsson, M., Janhäll, S., Järlskog, I., 2019. Wet Dust
Sampler – a Sampling Method for Road Dust Quantification and Analyses.
(Manuscript).
Meister, K., Johansson, C., Forsberg, B., 2012. Estimated short-term effects of coarse
particles on daily mortality in Stockholm, Sweden. Environ. Health Perspect. 120,
431–436. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1103995.
Norman, M., Johansson, C., 2006. Studies of some measures to reduce road dust emissions
from paved roads in Scandinavia. Atmos. Environ. 40, 6154–6164. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.05.022.
Norman, M., Sundvor, I., Denby, B.R., Johansson, C., Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G.,
Janhäll, S., 2016. Modelling road dust emission abatement measures using the
NORTRIP model: vehicle speed and studded tyre reduction. Atmos. Environ. 134,
96–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.035.
Padoan, E., Ajmone-Marsan, F., Querol, X., Amato, F., 2018. An empirical model to
predict road dust emissions based on pavement and traffic characteristics. Environ.
Pollut. 237, 713–720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.115.
Panko, J.M., Chu, J., Kreider, M.L., Unice, K.M., 2013. Measurement of airborne con-
centrations of tire and road wear particles in urban and rural areas of France, Japan,
and the United States. Atmos. Environ. 72, 192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.
2013.01.040.
Pirjola, L., Johansson, C., Kupiainen, K., Stojiljkovic, A., Karlsson, H., Hussein, T., 2010.
Road dust emissions from paved roads measured using different mobile systems. J.
Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 60, 1422–1433. https://doi.org/10.3155/1047-3289.60.12.
1422.
Sanders, P.G., Xu, N., Dalka, T.M., Maricq, M.M., 2003. Airborne brake wear debris: size
distributions, composition, and a comparison of dynamometer and vehicle tests.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 4060–4069. https://doi.org/10.1021/es034145s.
Snilsberg, B., 2008. Pavement Wear and Airborne Dust Pollution in Norway;
Characterization of the Physical and Chemical Properties of Dust Particles. Doctoral
Thesis 2008:133. Dept. of Geology and Mineral Resources Engineering. NTNU,
Trondheim, pp. 110.
Stockholms stad, 2017. Statistik Om Stockholm, Befolkningsöversikt 2017, Årsrapport.
accessed in August, 2018 (in Swedish). https://statistik.stockholm.se/attachments/
article/188/BefolkningsÃversikt%202017.pdf.
Timmers, V.R.J.H., Achten, P.A.J., 2016. Non-exhaust PM emissions from electric ve-
hicles. Atmos. Environ. 134, 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.
017.
Zhu, D., Kuhns, H.D., Brown, S., Gillies, J.A., Etyemezian, V., Gertler, A.W., 2008. Spatial
and seasonal emissions of road dust in the Lake Tahoe Basin. In: Proceedings of the
Air and Waste Management Association's Annual Conference and Exhibition, AWMA,
pp. 3149–3163.