ATILIM UNIVERSITY

Civil Engineering
Department

Soil Mechanics

Chapter 5 Consolidation

1
Introduction
• When the vertical stresses in the soil are increased
(eg. due to construction of a structure) settlements
(vertical deformations) take place.

 These settlements are;

o Immediate settlements
o Time dependent settlements

2
Time Dependent Settlements
• When a soil deposit is subjected to an increase in
total stress, excess porewater pressures are set up in
the soil mass.

• Excess porewater pressures dissipate by water flowing

out of the soil.

• The rate at which this process can occur is controlled

principally by the permeability of the soil mass.

• The dissipation of excess porewater pressures by the

outflow of water from the soil is referred to as
consolidation.
3
 Consolidation is the gradual reduction in volume of a fully
saturated soil of low permeability due to change of effective
stress.

4
• The process of consolidation continues until all the excess pwp
in the soil has completely dissipated.
• In other words, consolidation process continues from
5
immediately after to long time after the application of pressure.
 Consider a site on clay soil with initial
steady-state groundwater conditions.

Initial Condition

An embankment is built, the loading is

undrained: the pore pressure in the soil
increases, seepage flow and therefore
volume changes begins.

Undrained Loading

As consolidation takes place, settlement

occurs, and continues at a decreasing rate
until steady-state conditions are regained.

After Consolidation
• Consolidation leads to a reduction in the volume of voids and hence to a
reduction in the total volume of the soil mass, which manifests itself in a
settlement of the ground surface and hence a settlement of the engineering
structure.

• As the excess porewater pressures dissipate, the effective stresses in the

soil increase and hence the shear strength of the soil mass increases.
Consolidation and shear strength are therefore interlinked processes.

• For granular soils such as sands, the permeability is relatively high so that
excess porewater pressures can dissipate virtually instantaneously.

• In contrast, clay soils generally have a very low permeability and therefore
the dissipation of excess porewater pressures is a very slow process.

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Questions!!!
• Consolidation is a time dependent process. How long
will it take to achieve complete settlement?
• It is important to have a mean of predicting the
amount of soil compression. How much will be the
total amount of consolidation settlement?

8
Compressibility Characteristics of a Soil
• The characteristics of a soil during 1-D consolidation
can be determined by oedometer test.
• In 1-D consolidation test (oedometer test),
«undisturbed soil samples» are used.
• The main purpose of consolidation test is to obtain
soil data which is used in predicting the rate and
amount of settlement of structures on clay.

9
 The Oedometer test
Characteristics of a soil
during 1D consolidation or
swelling can be determined
by means of the oedometer
test.

The test specimen is in the

form of a disc held inside a
metal ring and lying
between two porous stones.
The confining ring imposes
a condition of zero lateral
strain.
The initial pressure depends
on the soil type. Then a
sequence of pressures is
applied, each being double the
previous value. Each pressure
is maintained for 24 hours. The
void ratio at the end of each
increment is calculated.
• The initial pressure will depend on the type of soil, then a sequence of
pressures is applied to the specimen, each being double the previous value.
• Each pressure is normally maintained for a period of 24 h (in exceptional
cases a period of 48 h may be required), compression readings being
observed at suitable intervals during this period.
• At the end of the increment period, when the excess pore water pressure
has completely dissipated, the applied pressure equals the effective vertical
stress in the specimen.
• The results are presented by plotting the thickness or percentage change in
thickness of the specimen or the void ratio at the end of each increment
period against the corresponding effective stress. The effective stress may
be plotted to either a natural or a logarithmic scale.
• If desired, the expansion of the specimen can be measured under
successive decreases in applied pressure. However, even if the swelling
characteristics of the soil are not required, the expansion of the specimen
due to the removal of the final pressure should be measured.
The figures (for clay) show
that there is an initial
compression followed by
expansion and
recompression.

The shapes of the curves

are related to the stress
history of the specimen. If
e-log sigma relationship for
a normally consolidated
clay is linear and is called
the virgin compression line.

If clay is overconsolidated, During compression, permanent changes take

its state will be represented place and clay does not revert to the original
by a point on the expansion structure during expansion. The figures show that
or recompression parts of overconsolidated clay will be less compressible
the curve. than normally consolidated clay.

Compressibility of a clay can be represented by either ceofficient of volume

compressibility (mv) of compression index (Cc)
The soil properties determined by a consolidation test are:

•The pre-consolidation stress, 𝛔’p (Maximum stress that the soil has felt in the past.)

•The compression index, Cc

•The recompression index, Cr

•The coefficient of volume compressibility, mv

•The coefficient of consolidation, cv

13
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
Coefficient of volume
compressibility is defined as
the volume change per unit
volume per unit increase in
effective stress (m2/MN)
Calculation of One Dimensional Consolidation Ultimate
Settlement
The reduction in volume per unit volume of clay can be written in terms of void ratio

Since the lateral strain is zero, the reduction in volume per unit volume is equal to
the reduction in thickness per unit thickness, i.e. the settlement per unit depth.
Therefore, by proportion, the settlement of the layer of thickness dz will be given
by

The settlement of the layer of thickness H is given by

16
The variations of initial effective vertical stress and effective vertical stress
increment over the depth of the layer are represented in the Figure a.

The variation of mv (volume compressibility) is represented in Figure b.

The curve in Figure c represents the variation with depth of the dimensionless
product mvDs' and the area under this curve is the settlement of the layer.

Alternatively the layer can be divided into a suitable number of sublayers and the
product mvDs' evaluated at the centre of each sublayer: each product is then
multiplied by the appropriate sublayer thickness to give the sublayer settlement.
The settlement of the whole layer is equal to the sum of the sublayer settlements.
Typical Values of the Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv (after Carter 1983)

mv
Type of clay Description (x10-3m2/kN)
Lower Limit Upper Limit Average
Heavy over-consolidated boulder clays, stiff Very low
0.05
weathered rocks and hard clays compressibility
Boulder clays, marls, very stiff tropical red Low
0.05 0.1 0.075
clays compressibility
Firm clays, glacial outwash clays, lake
deposits, weathered marls, firm boulder Medium
0.1 0.3 0.2
clays, normally consolidated clays at depth compressibility
and firm tropical red clays
Normally consolidated alluvial clays such as
High
estuarine and delta deposits, and sensitive 0.3 1.5 0.9
compressibility
clays
Very high
Highly organic alluvial clays and peats 1.5
compressibility

Carter, M and Bentley, S. P., Correlations of Soil Properties, Pentech Press, London, 1991.
18
Compression Index
• Compression index is the slope of the linear portion of the curve and is
dimensionless:
Normally Consolidated Clay
• The relationship
between void ratio and Normally consolidated
effective stress depends
on the stress history of

e
the clay.
• If the present effective
stress is the maximum Non-linear
to which the clay has rebound when
ever been subjected, the Loglog
𝛔’ p load is remov
clay is said to be
normally consolidated.
20
Typical Values of Compressibility Index, Cc (after Holtz and Kovacs 1981)

Cc
Soil
Lower Limit Upper Limit Average
Normally consolidated medium sensitive clays 0.2 0.5 0.35
Chicago silty clay (CL) 0.15 0.3 0.225
Boston blue clay (CL) 0.3 0.5 0.4
Vicksburg Buckshot clay (CH) 0.5 0.6 0.55
Swedish medium sensitive clays (CL-CH) 1 3 2
Canadian Leda clays (CL-CH) 1 4 2.5
Mexico City clay (MH) 7 10 8.5
Organic clays (OH) 4
Peats (Pt) 10 15 12.5
Organic silt and clayey silts (ML-MH) 1.5 4 2.75
San Francisco Bay Mud (CL) 0.4 1.1 0.75
San Francisco Old Bay clays (CH) 0.7 0.9 0.8
Bangkok clay (CH) 0.4

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Carter, M and Bentley, S. P., Correlations of Soil Properties, Pentech Press, London, 1991.
 Normally Consolidated Clay and Overconsolidated
• If the effective stress at
some time in the past has
been greater than the
present value, the clay is
said to be
overconsolidated.
Normally consolidated Overconsolidated

Maximum
e
e
past load

Non-linear
rebound when
log p load is removed log𝛔’p 𝛔ppc’ 22
Log
Settlement in Normally Consolidated Clay

H=Thickness of the clay layer

23
24
 Preconsolidation Pressure
The maximum effective vertical stress that has
acted on the clay in the past, referred to as the
preconsolidation pressure.

The construction for estimating the

preconsolidation pressure consists of the following
steps:
Example: (Craig’s Soil Mechanics, 7th Edition, Example 7.1 )
The following compression readings were obtained in an
oedometer test on a specimen of saturated clay (Gs=2.73).
The initial thickness of the specimen was 19.0mm and at the
end of the test the water content was 19.8%. Plot the e-logs‘
curve and determine the preconsolidation pressure. Determine
the values of mv for the stress increments 100–200 and 1000–
1500 kN/m2. What is the value of Cc for the latter increment?
=e0-Δe
TERZAGHI’S THEORY OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL
CONSOLIDATION
The assumptions made in the theory are:
1. The soil is homogeneous.
2. The soil is fully saturated.
3. The solid particles and water are incompressible.
4. Compression and flow are one-dimensional
(vertical).
5. Strains are small.
6. Darcy’s law is valid at all hydraulic gradients.
7. The coefficient of permeability and the coefficient
of volume compressibility remain constant
throughout the process.
8. There is a unique relationship, independent of time,
between void ratio and effective stress. 35
• At time t=0, after Δ𝛔 is applied (immediately after loading) Δu=Δ𝛔
(No change in effective stress)
• As time passes, excess pwp drains out and 𝛔’ increases.
• This process take place according to the following equation.

𝜕𝑢𝑒 𝑘 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑒
=
𝜕𝑡 𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣 𝜕𝑧 2

𝝏𝒖𝒆 𝝏𝟐 𝒖𝒆
= 𝑪𝒗 𝟐 (Consolidation equation)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒛

where,
𝒖𝒆 =excess pore water pressure, 𝒖𝒆 = f(z,t)
And 𝑪𝒗 is the coefficient of conslidation

𝑘
𝑪𝒗 =
𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣
37
38
 Isochorones
The progress of consolidation can be
shown by plotting a series of curves
showing excess pore water pressure
(ue) with depth (z) for different values
of time t.
These curves are called as.
isochorones

Δu=0 uie ue

Δu=f(z,t)

Δu=0 39
Degree of Consolidation , Uz

Degree of consolidation at a
particular instant of time (t)
and depth (z)

𝑢𝑖𝑒 − 𝑢𝑒
𝑈𝑧 =
𝑢𝑖𝑒
Where,
𝑢𝑖𝑒 = initial excess pwp
immediately after loading,
𝑢𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑤𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Degree of consolidation, Uz
 • Average Degree of consolidation, U
ue
Δu=0 uie ue

Δu=f(z,t)

𝑢𝑖𝑒 −𝑢𝑒
• 𝑈𝑧 =
𝑢𝑖𝑒
• For layer thickness, H
𝐻 𝐻 𝑢𝑖𝑒 −𝑢𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
• U= ‫׬‬0 𝑈𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑧 =
𝑢
𝑖𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Why are we inretested in average degree of
consolidation of the whole layer?
• To calculate the settlement of the whole layer at a given time,
Sat a given time=U% x Sfinal
𝐶𝑣 𝑡
Average degree of consolidation is related to Time Factor, Tv. (𝑇𝑣 = 2 )
𝑑
Tv can be found from graph /table
𝛱 2
U<60% 𝑇𝑣 = 𝑈
4
U>60% 𝑇𝑣 = −0.933 log 1 − 𝑈 − 0.085

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Average Degree of consolidation, U

𝜕𝑢𝑒 𝑘 𝜕2 𝑢𝑒
Solutions have been found to =
𝜕𝑡 𝛾𝑤 𝑚𝑣 𝜕𝑧 2

for different drainage conditions and initial

excess pore water pressure distributions and are
given in the text books in the form of charts
correlating the average degree of consolidation
U with time factor 𝑇𝑣.

𝐶𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 =
𝑑2

wℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,

𝑪𝒗 is the coefficient of conslidation, 𝑪𝒗= 𝛾 𝑘𝑚

𝑤 𝑣

d= max. Drainage distance (m)

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 Time Factor, Tv
𝐶𝑣 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 = 2
𝑑
where,
𝐶𝑣 = coefficient of consolidation(m2/years)
𝑡 = time after starting of consolidaiton (year)
d= max. drainage distance
permeable permeable

Open Layer clay H Half Closed Layer clay H

ue

t=0
permeable impermeable
d=H/2 d=H
For a given geological profile and loading conditions,
• You may need to calculate the settlement after given period of time. (example 6 months
after)
1. Calculate total settlement
2. Calculate Tv for t=6 months
3. Find average degree of consolidation U from the table/graphs
4. Find settlement Sat 6 months=U% x Sfinal
• If the settlement value (for example Sat 2 years) after a period of time (for example 2 years)
is given, you can calculate the total settlement.
𝐶 𝑡
1. Find Tv, 𝑇𝑣 = 𝑑𝑣2
2. Find U from the table/graphs
3. Find final settlement, Sat 2 years=U% x Sfinal

• You may need to calculate the total time for completion of consolidation settlement.
1. Sfinal=S95%
2. Determine Tv for U=95%
𝐶 𝑡
3. Find t, 𝑇𝑣 = 𝑑𝑣2
Determination of coefficient of consolidation
Cv, in the laboratory

• To determine Cv for a particular pressure increment in oedometer

test, there
1. Casagrande’s d-log time method
2. Taylor’s d- 𝑡 method
Casagrande’s d-log time method
1. Immediate settlement, which is caused by the
elastic deformation of dry soil and of moist and
saturated soils without any change in the
moisture content. Immediate settlement
calculations are generally based on equations
derived from the theory of elasticity.
2. Primary consolidation settlement, which is the
result of a volume change in saturated cohesive
soils because of the expulsion of water that
occupies the void spaces.
3. Secondary consolidation settlement, which is
observed in saturated cohesive soils and is the
result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It
follows the primary consolidation settlement
under a constant effective stress.
 Casagrande’s d-log time method

Curve:Time-deformation curve from data points

F a0 : Deformation at time =0 minutes
E C:Extension of final linear portion of curve
D: Extension of steepest linear portion of curve
a100 : deformation at intersection of lines C and D,
(U=100%)
A: t1 , selected point in time
B: t2, time at four times t1(deformation at time t2
should be less than 50% of the total deformation
C for load increment)
E: Increment of deformation between times t1 and
D t2.
F: Increment of deformation equal to H
as : calculated initial deformation
a50 : mean of as and a100
For U= 50% , 𝑇𝑣 = 0.197 t50 : t50 time at a50.
Oedometer test can be defined as open layer so d=H/2
t50 is obtained from the graph
0.197𝑑 2
So; 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑡50
 Taylor’s d- 𝒕 method
Curve: Time-deformation curve from data
points
D: d0, extension of initial linear portion of
curve to time =0 minutes.
D: Construction line with slope =1.15
times initial linear portion of curve.
D
a90 :deformation at point where curve
crosses line D
E: t90, time at where curve crosses line D
For U= 90% , 𝑇𝑣 = 0.848
Oedometer test can be defined as open layer so d=H/2
t50 is obtained from the graph
0.848𝑑 2
So; 𝐶𝑣 = 50
𝑡90
References
• Das, B., Sobhan, K., Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th
edition, Cengage Learning, Stamford.
• Craig, R.F., Craig’s Soil Mechanics, 7th edition, Taylor and Francis
Group, London and New York.
• Berry, P.L., Reid, D., An Introduction to Soil Mechanics , McGrawhill
Book Company, London.
• Budhu, M., 2007, “Foundations and Earth Retaining Structures,” John
Wiley & Sons.
• Budhu, M., 2015, “Soil Mechanics Fundamentals”, John Wiley & Sons
• CE363 Lecture Notes (METU)

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