Settlement of a Soil Layer

• The settlement is defined as the compression of a

soil layer due to the loading applied at or near its
top surface.
• The total settlement of a soil layer consists of three
One-
One-dimensional Consolidation and parts:
Oedometer Test – Immediate or Elastic Compression
– Compression due to Primary Consolidation
– Compression due to Secondary Consolidation
Lecture No. 12
• The immediate or elastic compression can be
October 24, 2002 calculated using the elastic theory if the elastic
modulus of the soil layer is known.
• In this topic, we will learn the consolidation
theory that is used to estimate the compression
due to primary and secondary consolidation.
2

What is Consolidation? What is Consolidation? (Continued..)

• The process of consolidation is often confused with • Compaction increases the density of an
the process of compaction. unsaturated soil by reducing the volume of air in
• The difference between consolidation and the voids.
compaction can be appreciated using three-phase • Consolidation is a time-related process of
diagrams as shown below: increasing the density of a saturated soil by
Reduction in the Reduction in the draining some of the water out of the voids.
volume of the air volume of the water
• Consolidation is generally related to fine-grained
Air
Air
soils such as silts and clays.
Water
Water Water Water • Coarse-grained soils (sands and gravels) also
undergo consolidation but at a much faster rate
due to their high permeability.
Solids Solids Solids Solids
• Saturated clays consolidate at a much slower
rate due to their low permeability.
Compaction Consolidation 3 4
 The Need for Consolidation Theory One-
One-dimensional Consolidation
• Consolidation theory is required
• Since water can flow out of a saturated soil
for the prediction of both the
sample in any direction, the process of
magnitude and the rate of
consolidation is essentially three-dimensional.
consolidation settlements to
ensure the serviceability of • However, in most field situations, water will not
structures founded on a be able to flow out of the soil by flowing
compressible soil layer. horizontally because of the vast expanse of the
soil in horizontal direction.
• Differential settlements that
can lead to structural failures • Therefore, the direction of flow of water is
due to tilting should be primarily vertical or one-dimensional.
avoided. Otherwise, you’ll need • As a result, the soil layer undergoes one-
extreme measures to save your dimensional or 1-D consolidation settlement
structure ! in the vertical direction.

5 6

1-D Consolidation – The Spring Analogy The Spring Analogy (Continued..)

• The spring is analogous to the soil skeleton. The
stiffer the spring, the less it will compress.
• Therefore, a stiff soil will undergo less
compression than a soft soil.
• The stiffness of a soil influences the magnitude of
its consolidation settlement.
Initial Condition Time t = 0 Time t = t1 Time t = tfinal • The valve opening size is analogous to the
Valve Closed Valve Closed
permeability of the soil. The smaller the opening,
Valve Open Valve Open
the longer it will take for the water to flow out and
No loading on Loading on
Water flows out No water flow
the piston the piston dissipate its pressure.
Pressure reading Pressure gauge
drops at zero • Therefore, consolidation of a fine-grained soil
Pressure gauge Pressure gauge
at zero at maximum Spring takes Spring takes all takes longer to complete than that of a coarse-
some load and the load; grained soil.
compresses; maximum • Permeability of a soil influences the rate of its
piston sinks compression consolidation.
7 8
 The Oedometer Test
Vertical Load
Water Bath
Confining Ring
Soil Sample
• The oedometer test is used to investigate the 1-D
consolidation behaviour of fine-grained soils.
• An undisturbed soil sample 20 mm in height and 75 mm in
diameter is confined in a steel confining ring and immersed in
a water bath.
• It is subjected to a compressive stress by applying a vertical
load, which is assumed to act uniformly over the area of the
soil sample.
• Two-way drainage is permitted through porous disks at
the top and bottom as shown in the figure above.
9 10
The Oedometer Test (Continued..)
• The vertical compression of the soil sample is
recorded using highly accurate dial gauges.
• Initially, 100 % of the vertical load is taken by
pore water because, due to low permeability of
the soil sample, the pore water is unable to flow
out of the voids quickly.
• Therefore, there is very little compression of
the soil sample immediately after placing the
vertical load.
• The compression of soil is possible only when
there is an increase in effective stress which in
turn requires that the void ratio of the soil be
reduced by the expulsion of pore water.

The Oedometer Test (Continued..) The Oedometer Test (Continued..)

Time after application of load
• After a few seconds, 0 • Several increments of vertical stress are applied
Settlement

the pore water begins in an oedometer test usually by doubling the

to flow out of the previous increment.
voids. • For example, after the completion of
• This results in a consolidation for the first increment under a
End of Consolidation
decrease in pore vertical stress of 50 kPa, another 50 kPa of
Total Vertical Stress
water pressure and ∆σ vertical stress is applied so that the vertical
void ratio of the soil stress during the second increment is 100 kPa.
sample and an Effective Vertical
• For the third increment, another 100 kPa of
Stress

Stress
increase in effective vertical stress is applied so that the vertical
∆σ’
stress. Excess Pore Water stress during the third increment is 200 kPa.
∆u Pressure
• As a result, the soil • For each increment, the final settlement of the
sample settles as 0 Time after application of load soil sample as well as the time taken to reach
shown in the figure. the final settlement is recorded.
∆σ = ∆σ’ + ∆u 11 12
 The Oedometer Test (Continued..) The Oedometer Test (Continued..)
• The end points from a Vertical Effective Stress (kPa
(kPa)) • Since the settlement of ∆h ∆e
50 kPa
number of loading and the soil is only due to Water

Vertical Strain (%)

unloading increments change in void ratio, Water
100
h
of an oedometer test the vertical strain ∆εv 1+eo 0
200
may be plotted as a can be expressed in Solids Solids
conventional stress- 100 400 terms of the void ratio
strain curve as shown 225
350
of the soil sample at
in the figure on the different stages of the ∆h ∆e
∆ε v = =
right. test. h0 1 + e0
• The increment of vertical strain ∆εv for each loading
increment is given by: ∆ε = ∆s h • In the above equation, ∆e is the change in void ratio
v ult 0 due to the loading increment and e0 is the void ratio
of the soil sample before the application of the
where ∆sult is the final settlement for the loading
loading increment.
increment (i.e. the change in sample height) and h0
is the initial sample height. 13 14

The Oedometer Test (Continued..) The Coefficient of Volume Compressibility

• The coefficient of volume e
• Since the void ratio of e
compressibility mv is ∆σ’
∆σ’v
the soil sample at 1.2
different stages of an defined as the ratio of ∆e
oedometer test can be volumetric strain over 0.8
estimated using the change in effective stress:
equation on Page 14, it ∆ε v ∆e
mv = =
is customary to plot the ∆σ ′v (1 + e0 )∆σ ′v 100 200 σ’v (kPa)
results in terms of σ’v (kPa)
• The units for mv are the inverse of pressure, i.e.
vertical effective stress
• The nature of the graph m2/kN and its value depends on the stress range
σ’v and void ratio e as
is not affected by the over which it is calculated.
shown in the figure on
the right. change in the vertical • For the second loading increment shown in the
axis. figure above:
mv =
(1.2 - 0.8) = 0.00182 m2 /kN
15 (1 + 1.2)(200 − 100) 16
 Compression and Expansion Indices Overconsolidation Ratio (OCR)
• The e-σ’v curve becomes
e Ice Present Ground Level
almost linear if σ’v is plotted Maximum Past Ground Level
on a log scale as shown in Cc Past Vertical
Erosion
Present
the figure on the right. Effective Vertical
Stress is Effective
• The slope of the loading curve σ’vmax Stress is σ’v
is called the Compression Ce
Index Cc and is Clay Clay σ ′vmax
OCR =
dimensionless. It is defined log(σ’v) Several million years ago At present σ ′v
as: • The slope of the
e1 − e0
Cc = − unloading curve is • OCR is defined as the ratio of maximum past
log(σ ′v1 σ ′v0 ) vertical effective stress (σ’vmax) over present
called the Expansion
• The negative sign is used Index Ce and is vertical effective stress (σ’v).
because the void ratio calculated using the • The maximum past vertical effective stress is also
decreases when the effective same procedure. called the preconsolidation pressure (σ’c).
stress is increased. 17 18

Normally Consolidated (NC) and Preconsolidation Pressure

Overconsolidated (OC) Soils
• A soil that has never experienced a vertical
effective stress that was greater than its present
vertical effective stress is called a normally
consolidated (NC) soil.
• The OCR for an NC soil is equal to 1.
• Most NC soils have fairly low shear strength.
• A soil that has experienced a vertical effective
stress that was greater than its present vertical
• An oedometer test of an undisturbed Start of the test
sample of an OC soil shows an e- σ’c
e
log(σ’v) curve as shown in the figure on
the right.
• The slope of the e-log(σ’v) curve is
fairly flat until a vertical effective
stress equal to the preconsolidation
pressure (σ’c) is reached.
• Beyond this point, the slope of the e- log(σ’v)
log(σ’v) curve becomes steeper, i.e.
the soil becomes more compressible.

log(σ’v)
effective stress is called an overconsolidated
• The preconsolidation pressure is like a
(OC) soil. yield stress for soil. σ’c
• The OCR for an OC soil is greater than 1. • This fact can be appreciated by rotating
• Most OC soils have fairly high shear strength. the curve by 90° in anti-clockwise
direction. Doesn’t this curve resemble a
• The OCR cannot have a value less than 1. load-extension curve for a metal rod?
19 20
e