QUESTION WITH ANSWERS

DEPARTMENT: CIVIL-IV SEMESTER:VII

SUB.CODE/ NAME: CE 6012 / Ground Improvement Techniques

UNIT III INSITU TREATMENT OF COHESIONLESS AND COHESIVE SOILS

PART - A (2 marks)

1.    What do you understand from the term in-situ densification?

Densification is the most popular liquefaction resistance measure but its performance is poorly
understood. Therefore, evaluation of if and of how densification should be carried out in a
particular field situation is currently based on semi-empirical principles derived from post-failure
analysis of liquefaction effects.
2.    What are the various methods of in-situ densification?
rapid impact compaction
deep dynamic compaction
ibro compaction method
3. What are the merits and demerits of dynamic compaction?
Merits
a. Simplest and most basic method
b. Depth of compaction up to 20m
c.    All types of soil can be compacted
d. Produces equal settlements more quickly compared to surcharge loading
e. Can treat above and below water table
Demerits
Can cause loosening of soil on surface
Can cause distress to nearby structures
4.    What is dynamic consolidation? (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)

•The application of this method is same for cohesive soils but more time is required
•Several blows are applied to one location followed by one to four weeks of rest, the
b. process is then repeated
5.    What are the advantages of Rapid impact    compaction?
•Energy is delivered at a rate of 40 to 60 blows per minute
•The foot, measuring 5 feet in diameter, is maintained in contact with the ground to allow
b. efficient and safe transfer of energy
•The high degree of control allows the machine to be used in difficult locations, and for a
variety of applications

6.    What is vibro-flotation?

 •Vibro-compaction, sometimes referred to as
b. vibro-flotation is a deep compaction ground
c.    treatment technique for densifying granular soils in-situ by means of a vibrating probe, or
d. “vibroflot”
•It is mainly adopted to reduce settlements, reduceliquefactionhazardandpermit
e. construction on granular fills

7.    What are the applications of vibro-flotation?

Vibro-compaction increases both the moist and submerged unit weights of the soil and improves the angle
of internal friction. Consequently, bearingcapacity is increased
Anticipated foundation settlements are reduced due to increases in compressibility modulii, resulting from
pre-straining prior to loading
Resistance to liquefaction is improved since void ratios are decreased and confining pressures are
increased

8.        Differentiate top feed from bottom feed method.

•In this technique, jetting water is used to remove soft material, stabilize the probe hole, and
ensure that the stone backfill reaches the tip of the vibrator
•This is the most commonly used and most cost-efficient of the deep vibratory methods
•However, handling of the spoil generated by the process may make this method more
difficult to use in confined sites or in environmentally sensitive areas

•This technique uses the same vibrator probes as standard Vibro-Replacement Stone
Columns, butwith the addition of a hopper and supply tube to feed the stone backfill
directly to the tip of the vibrator
•Bottom Feed Vibro-Replacement is a completely dry operation where the vibrator remains in
the ground during the construction process
•The elimination of flushing water in turn eliminates the generation of spoil, extending the
range of sites that can be treated

9.        How is a rammed stone column installed?

The hammering causes the sand to fill the voids in the stones and hence full compaction is
achieved

The Length of the stone Column should be more than LcLc>= [P- Ac(9cpt)]/(pdc)
Where,
P= Total load on stone column
Ac= Cross-sectional area of stone column
D = Average diameter of stone column
c, cpt= Side and point cohesion

10.      What is a sand compaction pile?

a. Sand    compaction piling (SCP) also known as Vibro-composer method, is a
b. cost-effective
c.    method of ground improvement which is
d. commonly used to improve soft seabed soils
e. prior to land reclamation works.
•This method involves driving closely-spaced sand columns into the soft seabed to form
f.    a grid ofsand columns, which imparts higher strength and stiffness to the improved ground.
11.      Differentiate lime pile from sand compaction pile.
(AUC NOV /DEC 2012)

Lime piles are small diameter boreholes formed in the ground filled with lime
a. • It is different from lime columns which are large diame ter columns of lime stabilized material
b. which are mixed in place
•Sand    compaction piling (SCP) also known as Vibro-composer method, is a
c.    cost-effective method of ground improvement which is commonly used to improve soft seabed soils
d. prior to land reclamation works.

12.        What is the principle behind pre compression?

•Preloading increases the pore pressure in the soil
•The excess pore pressure developed is slowly
b. dissipated by expulsion of pore water resulting in consolidation of soil
•This increases the effective stress since
c. s’ = s – u
d. As u decreases, s’ increases

13.      Write the various methods of preloading.

a. Heaping of materials
•Embankment loading
•Time – 3-8 months
•Height – 1.5m (min) to 18m (max) commonly 3-8m
•Settlement – 0.3 to 1m, 2m in exceptional cases
•Final structure as preload
•Lowering of water table
•Hydro-compaction
•Vacuum preloading
•Jacking techniqueWith vertical drains

14.      What is the function of vertical drain?

•Vertical drains are installed under a surcharge load to accelerate the drainage of impervious
b. soils and thus speed up consolidation
c. • These drains provide a shorter path for the water to flow through to get away from the soil
•Time to drain clay layers can be reduced from years to a couple of months

15.      Write the various types of vertical drains used in ground improvement.
•Sand Drain
•Sand Wicks
•Plastic Drains
•Prefabricated Drain (Wick Drains)

16.      Compare sand drains and wick drains.

•These are ready- made small diameter sanddrains which are contained in long canvas
bags(approximately 10 cm in diameter)
•They are usually installed by close mandreltechnique
•They are relatively cheap
•Sand drains are basically boreholes filled with sand
 •For the displacement type of sand drains, a closed mandrel is driven or pushed into the
ground with resulting displacement in both vertical and horizontal directions

17.    What are the applications of sand pile. (AUC NOV /DEC 2010)

• Advantages:

i.    Economical for moderate depths upto 15m

ii.    Treated grounds generally has uniform properties
iii.    Soft clay strength is improved upto 50%
• Disadvantages :

i.    Soil at shallow depth may have less density and density decreases radially
ii.    Too close spacing may result in constructiondifficulties while too wide spacing may lead to
no effect ( 2.5 < (Spacing/diameter) < 4)

18. Define dynamic compaction . (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)

Simply put, densification consists of in-situ densification of loose sands

and gravels.Densification occurs through application of energy in various
forms including dropping weights, induced vibrations, jetting action

Part – B
1.    Explain in detail the method of dynamic compaction of cohesionless and dynamic
consolidation of cohesive soil. (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013) (AUC NOV /DEC 2012)

Simply put, densification consists of in-situ densification of loose sands

and gravels.
•Densification occurs through application of energy in various forms
including dropping
weights, induced vibrations, jetting action

Rapid Impact Compaction

Basic Compaction
Rapid Impact Function (RIC) provides controlled impact compaction to

reduce settlement and improve geotechnical properties including stiffness

and bearing capacity.

Advantages
More efficient use of energy to compact soil than deep dynamic
compaction
 High quality of compaction in terms of degree and uniformity

Can be used close to existing structures    Small

foundation areas can be treat ed

Description
RIC uses equipment mounted on an excavator that drops a weight to
densify soils to a depth dependent on the
groundwater, soil properties, and compaction energy.
This technique is generally used on granular soils to improve the
geotechnical properties and reduce
settlement.

Geologic Applicability
Technique    is    suited    for    a    wide    variet y    of    granular    soils,    collapsible
soils,    and    fills    such    as    ash fills,    waste    fills and
building wastes
Not    recommended    for    weak,    low    permeability    soils    with    a high    moisture
content,    for    clayey    soils    and    fills,    or    soils
with high fines contents
Effectiveness    is    dependent    on    soil    properties    such    as degree of
saturation, moisture content, and plasticity
Groun dwater    may    reduce    densification    if    soil    cannot drain. Groundwater
level is recommended to be at least 3 feet (1
meter) below surface. Sump pump may be needed

Construction Methods
• A 5 to 9 ton weight (4.5 to 8 tonne) is mounted on excavator equipment
and is dropped about 4 feet (1.2
meters) on a 5-foot (1.5-meter) diameter tamper capable
of imparting 40 to 60 blows per minute.
• The resulting force of this RIC process densifies soils to    depths of 10 to 20+
feet (3 to 6 meters).
•Depth of compaction is dependent on compaction energy level, soil
properties, and groundwater conditions. The
higher the energy level, the greater the depth of
compaction.
• Approximately 9,000 to 30,000 SF (800 to 2500 m2) can be covered in an
average single-shift day.

Potential Disadvantages
The depth of compaction cannot be controlled    Vibrations

No current FHWA design guidance.

•Design is based on direct measurements of
compaction improvement depths.    Conduct pre- and post-
improvement in-situ tests, compact until desired level of
 Densification
obtained.
•Design method is not proprietary.

Deep Dynamic Compaction

Basic Function
Deep Dynamic Compaction (DDC) densifies marginal materials using
high levels of impact energy at the surface

Advantages
Suitable for many types of soils with less than 15% fines    Low cost for
large area of improvement
Ability to measure improvement during densification    Many
available contractors
Simple equipment
Produces relatively uniform compressibility    Probing
and correcting tool
Works below water table
Can proceed in bad weather

Description
DDC applies energy by raising and dropping a tamper (weight)
repeatedly from a height of 30 to 120 feet.
The energy densifies the soil to depths that increase with the magnitude of
the energy.
The ground surface is then compacted with a smaller, broader
tamper or conventional compaction equipment.

Geologic Applicability
Loose pervious and semi-pervious    soils with    fines contents less than 15%
Materials containing large voids
Soil    improvement    to    a    maximum    depth    of    about    30    to    35 feet
Not recommended for silty or clayey soils
Effective    in    soils    above    or    below    the    groundwater    table    (Note:    Water
table    should be    6 feet    below    grade; fill    can
be    placed    above    a    high    groundwater    site    to    achieve    this distance.)

Construction Methods
• A tamper with a weight of 5 to 40 tons is dropped using a crane from a height
of 30 to 120 feet.
• The tamper is dropped in a systematically controlled pattern on a
coordinate grid layout.
• The impacts are spaced at a distance depending on the depth of the
compressible layer, the depth to the
groundwater, and grain size distribution.
 • Five to 15 blows per grid point are applied. The first phase is the high-energy
phase to    improve the deeper layers.
This is followed by a low-energy phase to densify    the upper
layers.
• Backfilling the craters and additional passes may be required.
Potential Disadvantages
Mobilization costs
Large ground vibrations and lateral displacements    Limited
effective treatment depth
Some safety concerns
Water table should be 2 m below surface    May need
working platform

VibrocompactionBasic Function
densifies deep cohesionless soils to increase
bearing capacity, increase shear strength, reduce settlement, and
increase liquefaction resistance.

Advantages
More economical and faster construction than deep foundations
Many case histories in United States    Effective above
and below water table

Description
Vibro compaction uses specially designed probe-type, depth vibrators for in-situ
densification of loose sands and
gravels
Vibrocompaction is a method of deep densification

Geologic Applicability
Cohesionless soils.
Applicable soils include clean sands with less than 15% silts and/or less
than 2% clay.
Typical    depths    range    from    10    to    50    feet    (3    to    15 meters).
Range may be as low as 3 feet (1 meter) and as deep at 120 feet
(37meters).

Construction Methods
• Vibrocompaction is performed using the penetration and vibration of a probe
to rearrange soil particles into a
denser state. Sand can be backfilled into the craters to maximize the
densification, but in many instances, is not. During insertion and extraction of the
probe, the    frequency of vibration should be greater than 30 Hz to decrease shaft
resistance. During the compaction phase, the frequency is generally between 15
and 20 Hz. The probe should be inserted to the required depth as quickly as
possible at a high frequency. Then, the soil is compacted at the resonance
frequency, followed by removing the probe quickly at a high frequency.

Potential Disadvantages
Mobilization costs
 Narrow range of soils that the method can be improved.    Noise and
vibration.
Contractor experience is critical.
Quality control should be carefully monitored.

2.    Write in detail the principle, operation and applications of vibro-compaction method of
ground improvement. (AUC NOV /DEC 2010)

Vibro - Compaction

• Vibro -compaction, sometimes referred to as

vibro-flotation is a deep compaction ground
treatment technique for densifying granular soils in-situ by means of a vibrating probe, or
“vibroflot”
• It is mainly adopted to reduce settlements, reduceliquefactionhazardandpermit
construction on granular fills
• Equipment
i.    Vibroflot
ii.    Power supply
iii.    Water supply
iv.    Crane
v.    Front end loader
• A vibroflot is a long, slender, hollow tube of cylindrical shape, consisting of two parts
• The lower part, termed the vibrator, is connected by means of a special elastic energy coupling to the
upper follow tubes

• The vibrator houses two components, including a 150 kW electric motor in the upper part, to drive an
eccentric weight in the lower compartment

• Capable of 1,500 to 1,800 revolutions per

minute, the vibrator develops an unbalanced

(centrifugal) force of 30 to 50 tonnes, creating vibrations in a horizontal plane

• The device is provided with water flow from jets at a rate of 225 to 300 lit/min at a pressure of 400 to 600
kPa

• The front end loader is used to supply backfill material

 • Follow tubes are custom made to length to suit the required penetration depth

• In compaction operation, the vib roflot is freely suspended from the crane and the vibrato gyrates about
the vertical axis with a maximum(peak-to-peak) displacement of

23 to 32mm

• Under the influence of simultaneous vibration and saturation, loose particles are

Rearranged into a more compact state, improving the

Engineering properties of the treated profile

• Vibro -compaction is suitable for granular soils with silt contents up to 10 %

• The vibroflot first penetrates under its own

weight and vibrations, with the jetting action of water or compressed air

• Water is switched from lower to top jets and

pressure is reduced, causing water to return to surface, eliminating arching and

continuous feed of backfill

• After reaching the desired treatment depth, the vibroflot is extracted at 0.5m intervals    whilemaintaining
vibration energy at each incrementuntil the power consumption rises to then specified maximum

• Benefits

Vibro-compaction increases both the moist and submerged unit weights of the soil and improves
the angle of internal friction. Consequently, bearingcapacity is increased
Anticipated foundation settlements are reduced due to increases in compressibility modulii,
resulting from pre-straining prior to loading
Resistance to liquefaction is improved since void ratios are decreased and confining pressures are
increased

3.    How does a sand compaction pile improve the soil? Write a detailed note on its instal lation
and functioning.
Sand Compaction Piles

• Sand    compaction piling (SCP) also known as Vibro-composer method, is a

cost-effective

method of ground improvement which is

commonly used to improve soft seabed soils

prior to land reclamation works.

• This method involves driving closely -spaced sand columns into the soft seabed to form

a grid ofsand columns, which imparts higher strength and stiffness to the improved      ground.

• Equipment Used

i.    Impact Hammer or Vibratory Driver

ii.    Hopper
iii.    Casing Pipe
• Installation procedure

i.    This method involves the driving of a hollow steel pipe with a detachable bottom to the
desired depth
 4.    Write in briefii. about
  The driving
the following.
can be done by either vibratory driver or impact hammer
(a) Sand drainsi.    Sand is introduced in lifts with each lift compacted concurrently with the withdrawal of the
•Sand drains are casing
basically
pipe
boreholes filled with sand
ii.    Compressed air is driven down the pipe to hold sand down in place
• For the displacement type of
iii.    The in-situ sand
soil drains, a while the pipe is driven down
is densified
iv.    The compacted sand pile prevents the collapse of surrounding soil while the casing is
closed mandrel is driven withdrawn
or pushed into the
v.    During compaction, compacted column expandslaterally below the pipe to form a caisson
ground with resulting displacement
pile in both

vertical and horizontal directions

• The installation therefore causes disturbances, which reduces the shear strength and      horizontal
permeability

• Diameter ranges from 180 – 450 mm

• Methods of sand drain construction

1.    High pressure water jetting

2.    Displacement of natural ground
3.    Wash boring
•In all methods, steel pipes are inserted and sand is filled in the hole as it is withdrawn

• Spacing of drains – 2.5 to 5m

Limitations of Sand Drain

• To receive adequate drainage properties, sand has to be carefully chosen which might seldombe found
close to the construction site

•• Advantages
Drains might become discontinuous because ofcarelessinstallationorhorizontalsoil

displacement duringiv. 
the  consolidation
Economical forprocess
moderate depths upto 15m
v.    Treated grounds generally has uniform properties
• During filling,
vi.    bulking
Soft clayofstrength
the sandismight appear
improved which
upto 50%could lead to cavitie s and    subsequentlylead to
collapse •due to flooding
Disadvantages

• The disturbance of the

iii.    Soil soil surrounding
at shallow depth may eachdrain
have lesscaused byand
density installation may reduce
density decreases radially thepermeability,
the flow of water to iv. 
the  drain
Too close
and thus
spacing
the efficiency
may resultofinthe
constructiondifficulties
system while too wide spacing may lead to
no effect ( 2.5 < (Spacing/diameter) < 4)
• Constructionproblemsand/orb udgetaryburdens might arise due to the large diameter      of sand drains

• The reinforcing
Spacing of Sandeffect of sand Pile
Compaction drains may reduce the effectiveness of preloading the subsoil

S= {p(1+eo)/eo - e}1/2 x d pattern

(b) Wick drains
S=1.08 {p(1+eo)/eo - e}1/2 x d pattern

Prefabricated Vertical Drains

 Cardboard Drains

• They were first tried in 1937 and 1948 byKjellman

• Dynamic and static methods of installationavailable

• Cardboard drains are driven into the ground by purpose -made mandrel which is then      removed

• Cardboard wick drains visually con sist of a core plastic and filter sleeve of paper,      fibrous material or
porous plastic

Advantages

• They are easy to install

• They can be spaced closely

• They have long life

• They have the ability to resist large deformation

5.    Explain    in    detail    about    the    method    of    pre-loading.    How    do    vertical    drains    improve    the
functioning of pre-loading technique?
Preloading and Surcharge Fills

• Preloadin g of a soil is merely applying an external loading for a long duration to cause      desirable
changes in the soil
• Conventionally used before construction, but can be used during and after construction as well
• If the thickness of the fill placed for pr eloading is greater than the final ground surface,    it is called as
surcharge fills

Principle of Precompression
• Preloading increases the pore pressure in the soil
• The excess pore pressure developed is slowly
dissipated by expulsion of pore water resulting in consolidation of soil
• This increases the effective stress since
s’ = s – u
 As u decreases, s’ increases

Preloading
• Simply place a surcharge fill on top of the soil that requires consolidation
• Once sufficient consolidation has taken place, the fill can be removed and construction    takesplace
• Surcharge fills are typically 10 -25 feet thick and generally produces settlement of 1 to 3      feet.
• Most effective in clay soil

Preloading
Equipment Used
• Surcharge
• Earthmoving Equipment

Methods of Preloading
• Heaping of materials
• Embankment loading
i.    Time – 3-8 months
ii.    Height – 1.5m (min) to 18m (max) commonly 3-8m
iii.    Settlement – 0.3 to 1m, 2m in exceptional cases
• Final structure as preload
• Lowering of water table
• Hydro -compaction
• Vacuum preloading
• Jacking techniqueWith vertical drains
Advantages
• Requires only conventional earthmoving equipment
• Any grading contractor can perform the work
•Long track record of success
• Cost Involved is comparatively less
• Cost of monitoring is cheap
• Installation time is only 2 -3 weeks
• Provides uniform improved soil
• Especially advantageous if surcharge is to be used further in the project as fil l material

Disadvantages
 • Surcharge fill must extend horizontally at least 10 m beyond the perimeter of the planned
construction, which may not be possible at confined sites
• Transport of large quantities of soil required
• Surcharge must remain in place for months or years, thus delaying construction
• Sometimes in soft soils, base failure of the surcharge embankment may occur

6.    How is a stone column installed by vibro-displacement method? (AUC NOV /DEC 2010)

• Vibro -Displacement

2. It is the process of stone column formation which involves forming a stone

column in the void formed by displacement of soil using a vibrating              mandrill
a. Equipment Required
3. Crane
4. Vibrating Mandrill
5. Front End Loader
6. Granular Fill Material (Stones)
• Method of Formation

1.    The construction process involves introducing a vibrating poker or driving a vibrating mandrill to penetrate
to a designed depth
2.    The resulting cavity is filled with layers of inert stone or recycled material
3.    The vibrator is reintroduced to the cavity, forcing each layer of stone into the surrounding ground creating
confining pressure and densified columns of support
4.    In granular material this densification creates an improvement in settlement control and bearingcapacity
5.    In cohesive materials the overall effect is one of reinforcement and settlement control
6.    The stone column layout can be arranged to suit varying combinations of load, soil type andsettlement
requirement
7.    This forms a raft of stiffened material creating an integrated foundation support
8.      Typically column spacing range between 1.0m and 2.5m under load bearing foundations and up to 3.0m
beneath floor slabs

7.    Explain in brief about the installation and working of a vibro-replacement stone column.

(AUC NOV /DEC 2012)

• Vibro -Replacement

1. It is the process of stone column formation which involves forming a stone column by

replacement of soil using a vibrating probe

• Equipment Used

i.    Crane
ii.    Vibrating Probe
iii.    Front End Loader
iv.    Granular Fill Material

• Method of Formation
 i.    Vibro-Replacement is the process of constructing stone columns using a vibratory probe
(vibroflot)
ii.    After the vibroflot penetrates to the desired depth of treatment, stone fill is deposited into the
hole from the ground surface or through feed tubes to the tip of the vibroflot as it is
withdrawn
iii.    Repeated raising and lowering ("plunging") of the vibroflot into the stone during withdrawal
results in columns of stone measuring 30-42" (750-1100mm) in diameter
• Types of Method of Formation

i.    Wet, Top Feed Method

ii.    Dry, Bottom Feed Method
• Wet, Top Feed Method (Displacement andReplacement)

i.    In this technique, jetting water is used to remove soft material, stabilize the probe hole, and
ensure that the stone backfill reaches the tip of the vibrator
ii.    This is the most commonly used and most cost-efficient of the deep vibratory methods
iii.    However, handling of the spoil generated by the process may make this method more
difficult to use in confined sites or in environmentally sensitive areas

• Dry, Bottom Feed Method

i.    This technique uses the same vibrator probes as standard Vibro-Replacement Stone
Columns, butwith the addition of a hopper and supply tube to feed the stone backfill directly
to the tip of the vibrator
ii.    Bottom Feed Vibro-Replacement is a completely dry operation where the vibrator remains in
the ground during the construction process
iii.    The elimination of flushing water in turn eliminates the generation of spoil, extending the
range of sites that can be treated

• Boring and Hammering Method

1. Treatment is possible up to a depth of 80 feet and is not inhibited by the presence of groundwater

2. In this method, a bore is pre-drilled and stone aggregates are filled into the hole in stages
3. The stone charge is compacted by means of raising and dropping a hammer of weight 15 to 20 kN
falling through a height of 1 to 1.5m
4. The stone column thus formed is called as rammed stone column
5. In another method of rammed stone column
6. formation, bore hole is made by augering
7. In the cleaned bore hole stone aggregate of size 20-30mm and 20 to 25% of sand of Cu = 2 is
placed
8. alternatively in depths of 300-500mm and 50-100mm respectively
9. The charge is then rammed by a hammer of weight 1250kN falling over 750mm
10. The hammering causes the sand to fill the voids in the stones and hence full compaction is
achieved

The Length of the stone Column should be more than LcLc>= [P- Ac(9cpt)]/(pdc)

Where,

P= Total load on stone column

Ac= Cross-sectional area of stone column

D = Average diameter of stone column

c, cpt= Side and point cohesion

Allowable bearing capacity of stone column

qa = [kp(4c + s’r)]/FOS

Where

k = tan2(45 + f/2)

F’ = drained angle of friction of stone

c = either drained cohesion or undrained shear strength

s’r = Effective radial stress (or taken as 2c when data not available)

9.    What are the various stages of operation in installation and action of a lime pile?
(AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)

• Lime piles are small diameter boreholes formed in the ground filled with lime
•It is different from lime columns which are large diameter columns of lime stabilized      material
which are mixed in place
• Installation Procedure
i.    The method of ground improvement using chemical lime piles consists of placing
columns of specially prepared quicklime into the soft soils without mixing
ii.    The procedure involves screwing a hollow casing to the desired depth in the soil
iii.    The direction of rotation is then reversed and the casing is withdrawn progressively
as the quick lime is injected, by compressed air, through the opening located at the
bottom end of the casing.
iv.    This method has been used in Japan for stabilization of soft soils up to 45m deep
• This method produces both consolidation and

strength gain effect on the treated soil, without additional loading, via lateral expansion of the lime piles as
they absorb water from the soft soil

• These lime piles have the following effects on the adjacent soil:

Consolidation / dewatering effect

• Quick lime, CaO, absorbs water from the surrounding ground, causing the lime to swell and form slaked
lime Ca(OH)2 as per the following chemical reaction: CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + 15.6 Kcal/mol

Ion exchange effect

• As the surface of fine particles of clay is negatively charged, calcium ions (Ca 2+) from the slaked lime are
absorbed by the surface of clay particles

• As a result, clay particles are bonded with each other and the weak clay is improved with a resultant
increase in shear strength
 Pozzolanic effect
•Calcium ions continue to react with SiO2 and Al2O3 in the clay for a long time thereafter, forming
compounds that cause the clay strength to be improved. This reaction is termed a pozzolanic reaction

• The lime piles themselves have considerable strength and therefore act to reinforce the soil as well as
alter its properties

• Advantages

i.    Improves the strength of almost all types of soils

ii.    Improves field handling of soft clays
iii.    Reduces plasticity of soils
iv.    Reduces swell shrink characteristics
• Disadvantages

i.    Cannot be used in sulphate rich soil

ii.    May increase plasticity of low plastic soils
iii.    Increases OMC and reduces maximum dry density

9.    Compare and contrast the various methods of in-situ densification techniques. (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)

Method Suitability to Soil Treatment Economical Achieved

Depth Area of Treatment

Treatment

Dynamic Cohesion less soils, 15 – 20 m > 5000 m2 Can obtain

but    other soils can
Compaction also be improved high relative density
and reasonable level
of uniformity

Vibroflotation/ Vibro- Cohesionless Can obtain high

compaction relative densities
soils with less > 1500 m2 and
than 10% fines 30 m good uniformity

Stone Columns    Soft clays and 20 m > 1500m2 Increased bearing

alluvial deposits
 capacity and

reduced    settlements

Sand compaction Loose sandy Small to moderate

piles soils, partly 20 m High density and

good uniformity
saturated

clayey soils,

All soft or Solidified soil

Lime Piles loose inorganic soils > 20 m Small piles with

high strength

Preloading Normally > 1000m2 Reduced water

with vertical consolidated soft content, voids

drains clays, silts or organic ratio and

deposits,
compressibility
sanitary landfills
completed and
increased strength