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Although there is no single, universal definition of ICT, the term is generally accepted to mean all devices,
networking components, applications and systems that combined allow people and organizations (i.e., businesses,
nonprofit agencies, governments and criminal enterprises) to interact in the digital world.

ICT is sometimes used synonymously with IT (for information technology); however, ICT is generally used to
represent a broader, more comprehensive list of all components related to computer and digital technologies than
IT.

Computer
Computer is an electronic machine used to solve different problems according to a set of instructions given to it. A
computer can accept data, process data into useful information and store it for later use.

The word computer is derived from compute that means to calculate. Computer can be used as a calculating
machine to produce results at a very high speed. However, the calculation is not the only use of computer. It can be
used for different purposes. People use computers to solve different problems quickly and easily. It has changed the
way of life. Computers are available in different shapes and sizes.

Components of Computer Different components of a computer system are as follows:.

Input Devices
The data or instruction given to the computer is called input. A hardware component used to enter data and
instruction into computer is called input device Most commonly used input devices are keyboard, mouse,
microphone, scanner, digital camera and PC camera.

Keyboard: Keyboard is used to enter text. It contains alphabetic, numeric and other keys for entering different
type of data.

Mouse: Mouse is a pointing device. It controls the pointer on the screen. The user gives instructions to the
computer through the mouse. It contains different buttons.

Microphone: is used to enter voice into the computer.

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Scanner: It reads printed text and graphics and translates the results in digital form.

Digital Camera: Digital camera is used to take and store picture in digital form

PC camera: PC camera is used to create movie and take photos on the computer. It is also used to make a
video phone call.

The data processed into useful information is called output. A hardware component used to display information to
the user is called output device.

Most commonly used output devices are monitor, printer and speaker.
Monitor: is used to display text, graphics and video output. Monitor
Printer: is used to display printed output on paper.
Speaker: is used to hear sound, music and voice outputs.

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Data
A collection of raw facts and figures is called data, The word raw means that the facts have not been processed to
get their exact meaning. Data is given to the computer for processing. Data is collected from different sources. It is
collected for different purposes. Data may consist of numbers, characters, symbols or pictures etc.

Examples of Data
Some examples of data are as follows:

1 Students fill an admission form when they get admission in college. The form consists of raw facts about the
students. These raw facts are student's name, father name, address etc. The purpose of collecting this data is to
maintain the records of the students during their study period in the college.

2 Governments collect the data of all citizens of the country during the census. This data is stored permanently and is
used for different purposes at different times.

3 Different organizations conduct surveys to know the opinion of the people about their product. I. these surveys,
people express their ideas and opinions i different issues. These ideas and opinions of the people are stored as data.
The organizations use this data for the improvement of their products etc.

The processed data is called information. information is an organized and processed form of data. It is more
meaningful than data and is used for making decisions. Data is used as input for the processing and information is
the output of this processing. This information can be used again in some other processing and will be considered as
data in that processing

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Some examples of information are as follows:

1: In colleges and universities, the raw facts about students are stored on admission forms. If we want to find out a
list of all students who live in Faisalabad, we will apply some processing on this data. This processing will give us the
desired list. This list is a form of processed data and will be called information.

2: The data stored in census is used to generate different type of information. For example, Government can use it
to find the total number of graduates or literacy rate in the country etc. The information is obtained by processing
the data. Government can use the information in important decisions to improve literacy rate.

3: An organization can use the opinion of the people as data and process it to generate information of its interest.
For example, it can know that how many people of the country are satisfied with the quality of its product and how
many are unsatisfied. The organization can use this information for the improvement of its product.

Personal Computers/ Micro Computers

Personal computer is also called micro-computer. It was introduced in 1970. It is designed to be used by
one person at a time. It consist of a processor, memory and one or more input output and storage devices.
It also often contains a communication device. The price of personal computer is from several hundreds to
several thousand dollars.

Most commonly used personal computers are PC and Apple. PC and its compatible computers use
Windows operating systems. Apple computers use Macintosh operating system. PC and its compatible
computers follow the specifications of the original IBM personal computer. Some PC compatible
computers include Compag, Dell and Toshiba.

Desktop Computers

Desktop computers are the most common type of personal computer. It is designed in a way that all its
components fit on a desk or table. In one model, the system unit is placed horizontally on the desktop or
table and monitor is placed on the system unit. In another model, called tower model, both monitor and
system unit are placed on the table. The system unit in tower model is placed vertically.

Tablet PC

Tablet PC was introduced in 2002. It is a special type of notebook that works with digital pen The user gives
instructions with digital pen. It can also use keyboard for input it also supports voice input. Many Tablet
PCs have built-in microphone. Tablet PC is used to take notes in lectures, meetings, conferences etc.

Mini Computers

Minicomputer is larger and more powerful than personal computer. It was introduced in 1960s. It generally
consists of two or more processors. It is more reliable than desktop computer. Mini computers are also
called mid-range servers. It is more costly than Micro-computers.

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Mainframe Computers

A mainframe computer is a large computer in terms of price, power and speed. It was introduced in 1975.
It is more powerful than Mini-computer. It consists of multiple processors. it is specially designed to
perform multiple tasks for multiple users simultaneously. It is designed for high reliability. It often runs
twenty four hours a day. It can be serviced and upgraded while it is running. It is also known as enterprise
server or high-ended server.

Supercomputers

Supercomputer is the fastest and the most powerful computer. It is the biggest in size and more expensive
in price than any other computer. It was first developed in early 1970s is used to perform complex tasks. It
has a very large storage capacity and can store several thousand times more data than an average desktop
computer. It also consumes so much energy. It can process trillions of instructions in one second.

Embedded Computers

An Embedded computer is designed for special purposes. It works as a component in a larger product.
These computers are very small and have limited hardware. They perform various functions according to
the requirements of the product in. which they are embedded. Embedded computers are used in
commonly used product such as
Electronics: PDAs, mobile, video recorders and DVD players etc.
Home Devices: Security monitoring systems & programmable microwave ovens etc. Automobiles: Car
engine controller, airbag controller etc.
Process Controllers and Robotics: Machine controllers, blood pressure monitors etc..

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Different types of computers are as follows:

Analog Computers
An analog computer recognizes the data as a continuous measurement of physical property. Voltage. pressure,
speed and temperature are some physical properties that can be measured in this way. Its output is usually
displayed on a meter or graph. It does not operate with digital signals. It has low memory and fewer functions. It is
difficult to operate and use It is usually built for special purposes. It is mainly used in engineering and medicine.
Examples
1. Speedometer is used to measure the speed of a car.
2. Analog clock measures time by the distance traveled by hands of clock around a dial.
3. Thermometer is an analog device that measures temperature.
Digital Computers
A digital computer processes data in numerical form using digital circuits. It performs arithmetic and logic operations
with discrete values. These values are O and 1. Everything described in two states of ON and OFF. The digit 1
represents ON and O represents OF state. The digital computers are very fast. These computers are manufactured in
a variety of sizes, speeds and capacities. Digital computers are commonly used at homes and in offices etc. Apple
Macintosh and IBM PC are two important digital computers.

Examples
Digital watch displays the time that does not vary continuously but changes from one discrete value to the other.
Digital scoreboard directly counts discrete values such as the time left to play and the score of each team.

Hybrid Computer
hybrid computer is a combination of both analog and digital computer. A hybrid computer combines the best
characteristics of both the analog and digital computer. It can accept data in analog and digital form.

Example
Hybrid computer devices may calculate patient's heart function, temperature, blood pressure and other signs. This
measurement may then be converted into numbers and display in digital form.

System Unit
System unit is a box that contains different electronic components of the computer used to process data. All
computer systems have a system unit. The electronic components in the system unit are connected to motherboard.
Motherboard is also known as system board or main board. System board is the communication medium for the
entire computer system.

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Motherboard
Motherboard is also called system board or main board. It is the important circuit board in system unit. It is a
communication medium for the entire computer system. All components and devices of the computer are
connected to the motherboard.

The motherboard contains different chips. A chip is a small Semi-Conductor that contains integrated circuits on it. An
integrated circuit (IC) is a microscopic path that carries electrical current. An IC may contain millions of transistors. A
transistors works as an electronic gate that opens or closes the circuit for electronic signals

CPU
The important components of system unit are as follows:
CPU stands for central processing unit. It is also called processor. It is the brain of the computer. It is the
most important component of a computer. It interprets and executes the instructions in the computer. A
computer cannot work without CPU. All computers must have a central processing unit.

CPU is located on the motherboard. It carries out most of the work of a computer. CPU performs all
operation on data according to the given instructions. It executes instructions and tells other parts of
computer what to do. Most of the work consists of Calculations and data transfer. All functions of
processor usually are on a single chip in personal computers. The manufactures of processor chip are also
providing multi-core processors, A single chip that contains two or more separate processors is known as
multi-core processor.

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Two most common multi-core processors are as follows:

1. Dual-core Processor A dual-core processor chip contains two separate processors.

2. Ouad-core Processor A quad-core processor chip contains four separate processors.

3. Octa-core Processor A quad-core processor chip contains eight separate processors

CPU consists of two main units known as arithmetic & logical unit and control unit These components work together
to perform processing operations.

ALU is a part of CPU. Actual execution of instructions takes place in this part A arithmetic and logical operations are
performed in ALU. It consists of two following units.
Arithmetic Unit Arithmetic unit of ALU performs basic arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
Logic unit Logic unit of ALU performs logical operations like comparing two data items to find which data item is
greater than, equal to, or lass than the other.

Control Unit
Control unit is an important component of CPU. It acts like a supervisor of the computer. It does not execute
program instruction by itself. It controls and coordinates all activities of computer system. It performs this task by
issuing necessary commands to different components of computer. Control unit also provides clock pulses that are
used to regulate and control all operations in the computer system.
Important operations performed by control unit are as follows:
1 It fetches instructions from the main memory.
2 It interprets the instructions to find what operation is to be performed.
3 It controls the execution of instructions.

Memory
The hardware component that stores data and instructions temporarily is called memory. It is also called primary
memory or main memory. consists of electronic chips connected to the motherboard. It is used to store input data
before processing. It also stores processed data after processing until the data is sent to the output device. The main
memory is also called volatile memory because its contents are lost when the computer is turned off.

Data and instructions are stored in memory to be executed. It consists of one or more chips on the motherboard.
Memory stores the following three items:

1 Operating system and other system software to control the use of computer system.

2 Application programs to perform specific tasks

3 Data to be processed by application programs

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Types of Memory
There are two types of memory in Computer that are as follows:

Volatile Memory: Volatile memory loses its contents when the computer is turned off. RAM is the most
common type of volatile memory.

Non-volatile Memory: It does not lose its contents when the computer is turned off. ROM, flash memory and
CMOs are examples of Non-volatile memory.

3 RAM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is also called direct Random access means that each individual bye in
entire memory can be accessed directly RAM is used to store data and instructions temporarily. A program must be
loaded into RAM before execution.
RAM is a volatile memory. It means that its contents are lost when the power is turned off. RAM is a read/write
memory. CPU can read data from RAM and write data to RAM. It is used to store data and instruction while it is
being executed. RAM is also called main memory or primary storage.

DRAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used in most of the computers. it is the least expensive kind
of RAM. It requires an electric current to maintain electrical state. The electrical charge of DRAM decreases with
time that may result in lose data. DRAM is recharged or refreshed again and again to maintain its data. The
processor cannot access the data of DRAM when it is being refreshed. That is why it is slow.

SRAM

SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It can store data without any need of frequent recharging. CPU
does not need to wait to access data from SRAM during processing That is why it is faster than DRAM. It utilizes less
power than DRAM. SRAM is more expensive. It is normally used to build a very fast memory known as cache
memory.

MRAM
MRAM stands for Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory. It stores data magnetic using magnetic charges instead
of electrical charges. MRAM uses far less power than other RAM technologies so it is ideal for portable devices. It
also has greater storage capacity it has faster access times than RAM. It retains its contents when the power is
removed from computer.

ROM (Read-Only Memory)

ROM stands for read only memory. The instructions in ROM prepare the computer for use. instructions can only be
read but cannot be changed or deleted. It is not possible to write new information or instructions into the ROM.
ROM stores data and instructions permanently. When the power is switched off, the Functions stored in ROM are
not lost. Therefore, ROM is called Non-volatile memory.
PROM
PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is initially blank. The user or manufacturer
can write data and programs on it using special devices. The user can write data and instructions on it only once. If
there is any error in writing the instructions the error cannot be removed from PROM. The chip becomes unusable.

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EPROM
EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is initially blank. The user or
manufacturer can write data and programs on it using special devices. the data and programs written on it can be
erased with special devices using ultraviolet rays. the user then can write new program on it.

EEPROM:

EEPROM stands for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. In this memory, user can erase and
write instructions with the help of electrical pulses. If there is any error in writing the instructions, the user can erase
the contents electronically. The contents of EEPROM can be modified easily.

Storage is also known as secondary storage, auxiliary storage, or mass storage. It is used to store data, information
and programs permanently. Different storage media are used to store data, information and programs.

Magnetic Disk
Magnetic disk is the most widely used storage media. A magnetic disk is a thin, circular metal plate/ platter coated
with magnetic material. Information can be recorded on or read from the magnetic surface. A disk must be
formatted before it can be used The formatting process prepares the disk so that it can store data.

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Floppy Disk or Diskette
Floppy disk is also called diskette. It consists of a thin plastic disk coated with magnetic material. This disk is enclosed
in a plastic jacket. It was introduced by IBM in early 1970s. It is a portable storage medium and can be removed from
one computer and inserted into another computer easily. It is not very popular now a days.
Floppy disk can store 1.44 MB data and having a size of 3 1/2.

Flash Memory Storage

Flash memory is a type of nonvolatile memory that can be erased electronically. It is possible to write new data on it.
Flash memory chips are a type of solid state media. The consist of electronic components such as integrated circuits.
Flash memory storage is more durable and shock resistant because they contain no moving particle. Different types
of flash memory storage are memory cards, USB flash drives and Express-Card modules.

Hard Disk
Hard disk is a type of magnetic disk. It is also called fixed disk because it is fixed in the system unit. A hard disk
consists of several circular disks called platters sealed inside a container. The container contains a motor to rotate
the disk. It also contains an access arm and read/write head to read and write data to the disk. The platters are used
to store data. A platter in a hard disk is coated with a magnetic material.

Characteristics of Hard Disk

Some important characteristics of hard disk are as follows.
Hard disk provides large storage capacity. The capacity of personal computer hard disk is from 160 GB to 2 TB and
more.
It is much faster than floppy disk.
It is the primary media for storing data and programs.
It is more reliable than floppy disk.
Data stored on hard disk is safer than floppy disk.

Zip Disk
Zip disk is a portable disk. It has more storage capacity than floppy disk. Its storage capacity is up to 1000 MB. Zip
drive is used to read/ write on Zip Disk. It cannot be used in conventional floppy drive. It is used for taking the
backup of large data. Zip disk was introduced in 1995 by Iomega.

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a flexible plastic tape coated with magnetic material. It is widely used when a large amount ot data
is to be processed sequentially. An advantage of magnetic tape is that it is very cheap and economical storage
medium. Its major disadvantage is that it is very slow and it is only sequential.

Optical Disk
Optical disk uses laser technology to read and write data. The LASER stands for Light Amplification through
Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser beam writes on the surface by creating small pits (hole) in the disk.
Optical drive reads data by focusing laser beam on the surface of the disk. A laser detects the presence of a pit(hole).
The presence of pit indicates 1 and absence of pit indicates 0. Laser beams converts these pits into digital data.
The amount of space required to record an optical bit is much less than a magnetic bit Optical disk storage capacity is
from 650 MB to several GB.

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CD
CD stands for compact disk. It is mainly used to store audio/video and computer software. The contents of CD can be
read by CD drive.

CD-ROM
CD-ROM stands for compact disk read-only memory. The data stored on CD-R0M can only be read. It cannot be
deleted or changed. CD-ROM is a portable storage device Data can be transferred easily by using CD-ROM. It can
store from 650MB to 1 GB of data.

Digital Video Disk (DVD) and Blu-ray Disk

DVD stands for Digital Video Disk. It is similar to CD-ROM. It uses a laser beam with short wave length. "The short
wave length reads smaller holes on the disk. Data storage capacity of the disk is increased if the hole size is small. So
the storage capacity of DVD ROM is much greater than CD-ROM. It can store up to 17 GB of data.

Solid State Drives

The solid state drives (SSD) are storage devices that typically use flash memory to store data, instructions and
information. Solid state drives are portable and provide fast access to data. they are available in different sizes such
as 1.8 inches and 2.5 inches etc. They are used in all types of computers such as desktop computers, servers and
mobile computers etc. They use very little power. The storage capacity of SSD is from 16 GB to 256 GB or more.

USB Flash Drives

USB flash drive is a flash memory storage device that is connected to a USB port in computer or mobile device. It is
also called thumb drive, Key drives, or jump drives.

USB flash drive is very easy to use because it is light in weight and small in size. It can easily be placed in pocket or
attached to a keychain. It can be used to transfer documents, photos, music and videos from one computer to
another. It is available in different shapes, sizes and capacities. The storage capacity of USB drive is from 512 MB to
100 GB.

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Operating System
An operating system is a set of programs that manages all computer components and operations. A
computer can do nothing without an operating system. Operating system must be installed on every
computer. Users interact with the computer through Operating system When the computer is turned on,
the operating system runs and checks that all parts of the computer are functioning properly. Operating
system manages all operations on computer after loading.

An operating system is a set of program that acts as an interface between a user of a computer and
computer hardware.
Some important operating

Systems are as

Windows 7

Linux

Unix

Sun Solaris

Mac OS

Operating system performs the following functions:

Booting: Booting is a process of starting or restarting the computer. Operating system starts the
computer to work. It checks the computer and makes it ready to work.

There are two types of booting:

Cold Boot: When the computer is turned on after it has been powered off completely it is called cold
boot.

Warm Boot : When the computer is restarted, it is called warm boot.

When booting process takes place, the kernel and important instructions of operating are copied from
hard disk to main memory (RAM). Kernel is the most important part of operating system that manage
memory and devices, maintains computer clock, starts applications and assigns computer resources like
devices, programs, data and information Kernel remains in memory permanently while the computer is
turned on.

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Memory Management
Memory management is a process of optimizing the use of main memory. RAM is used to store data and
instructions temporarily during execution. Operating system allocates memory area to different programs.
The allocated memory area is deallocated when the program finishes .

Job Scheduling
Any operation managed by processor is called job. There may be many jobs to execute Such as executing
instructions, getting input or displaying result to the user etc. Operating system determines the order in
which these jobs are processed.

Device Controlling
Operating system controls all devices attached to the computer. The hardware devices are controlled with
the help of small software called device drivers. A device driver is a program that tells the operating system
how to communicate with a device.

Each device has its own set of commands and requires specific driver. The operating system loads the
drivers of all devices when the computer boots. The devices cannot function properly without device
drivers. In Windows, the extension of driver files is "drv".

Accessing the Web

Operating system provides the facility to connect to the Web. It guides the user to set up a connection
between computer and Internet Service Provider. Some operating systems also provide the facilities of
web browser and email program. Web browser is used to view websites on the Internet and email program
is used to send and retrieve emails on computer.

Monitoring Performance
Operating system also monitors the performance of the computer. A performance monitor is a program
that checks and reports information about different system resources and devices. For example, it
monitors the processor, disks, memory and network etc.

Housekeeping Services
Operating system performs different functions related to storage and file management by using a special
program known as file manager. These functions include the following.

Formatting and copying disks

Formatting is a process of preparing a disk for reading and writing.
Displaying a list of files on a storage medium
Checking the amount of used or free space on a storage medium.
Organizing, copying, renaming, deleting, moving and sorting files Creating shortcuts

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Controlling Network
Some operating systems are network operating systems called network OS or NOS These are the operating
systems that support network. A network operating system organizes how multiple users access and share
resources on the network. These resources include programs, files and hardware devices such as drives
and printers etc.

Administrating Security
operating system manages the security of computer system as well as data and programs stored on it.
Security is normally maintained by using user-ID and passwords. Each user has to enter his/her user-ID and
password to log on. The user ID and password identifies each user independently.

Providing user interface

User interface is used to interact with the computer. User Interface controls how you enter data and
instructions and how information is displayed on the screen. Different types of user interlaces are as
follows:

Command-Line:
In command-line user interface, the user enters data and instructions are as follows by typing keywords or
pressing special keys on the keyboard. A set of commands used to interact with the computer is called
command language. Command-line interface is difficult to use as it requires exact spelling and punctuation.
It generates an error if there is a slight mistake in the command.

Menu-Driven
In menu-driven interface, the user enters data and instructions by using menus. It is easier to use because
the user has not to remember the syntax of commands.

Graphical User Interface

Graphical user interface is a visual environment that is used to communicate with computer. It uses
windows, icons, menus and other graphical objects to issue commands. A menu is a set of commands. An
icon is a small picture that represents a program, instruction, file etc. Mouse is mostly-used input device in
graphical user interfaces. All windows based software use graphical user interface.

The Internet is a collection of millions of computers around the world that are connected to one another. It is a
global network of computers. These computes a connected through different telecommunications links like:

*Phone lines
*Fiber optics lines
*Satellites and wireless connections.

Internet is used to find information stored on computers called hosts or servers. These computers use a common
protocol called TCP/IP for communication. TCP/IP stands for transmission control protocol.

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Uses of Internet OR Applications of internet
Some uses of the Internet are as follows:

*To access information, news, research, and educational material.

*To conduct business.

*To access sources of entertainment such as online games, magazines etc.

*To shop for goods and services.

*To meet and talk with people around the world in discussion groups or chat rooms.

*To access other computers and exchange files.

*To send messages and receive messages from other connected users.

Services of Internet
Some important services of the Internet are as follows:.

World Wide Web (Www)

Www stands for World Wide Web. It is also called Web. It was launched in 1989 at European Particle Physics
Laboratory in Geneva. It provides the facility to publish information on the Internet. It is a collection of documents or
web pages stored on computer permanently connected with internet around the world.

A webpage is a document that is written in HTML. These web pages are connected to one another using hyperlinks.
The www uses hypertext transfer protocol (http) to link these web pages. Web pages are also known as hypertext
documents. A web page may contain simple text, images and hyperlinks. Anyone can view web pages through a web
browser.
A collection of related web pages is called website.

Email
Email stand for electronic mail. Email is the exchange of text messages and files through internet.. Message can be in
the form of graphics sound video clips or simple text.. It is a fast way of delivering messages any where in the world
in a very short time
Working of Email
An email program is used to create send and receive emails. It is also known as email client. When the user sends an
email message, the computer connects to an email server and transmits a copy of message to that server.
Email server is a host computer on Internet that sends and receives emails. Email server receives the message and
finds out the email server where the email is to be sent It connects to that server and transmits a copy of the
message.

Security is a system that is used to protect a computer system and data. It protects from intentional or accidental
damage or access by unauthorized persons. A computer can detect whether the user is authorized or not.

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Computer security is concern with the protection of information hardware and software. The computer must be
protected from unauthorized access and physical damage The following actions can be performed to ensure
commuter security.

User Rights
The users must be assigned proper rights to minimize security threats. Every authorized user should not be allowed
to change or delete data. The users with certain rights may be allowed to delete or modify data after following a
step-by-step process .

Firewall A firewall is a set combination of hardware and software that prevents unauthorized access to a
network. It works between an organization's internal network and the Internet. it protects data, information and
storage media From unauthorized access. It can also be used to stop internal users from accessing certain sites.

Backup
An additional copy of data or information stored on secondary storage media is called backup. the computer system
can be damaged due to many reasons the data store on the system may also be lost, deleted or altered. The backup
of data is used if the system crashes accidentally and the data stored in it is lost. It is very important to take the
backup of data regularly. It should be stored at a safe and protected place.

Passwords
Password is a secret word that is used to protect a computer system or program. The user has to type the password
to access the computer system. The purpose of password is to protect data stored on a computer. It protects data
from being lost, misused or deleted by any person. The system can be accessed by a person who knows the
password. An unauthorized person cannot access a computer system or program that is protected by a password So
the computer and the data stored on it will be safe and protected.

Encryption
Some strong encryption algorithm should be used. Encryption is a process of encode data so that only authorized
user may understand and use it. if an unauthorized person access to the data, he should not be able to understand
it.

Scanning

The data provided to the organization must be scanned before use. Proper virus scanning software should be used to
scan all data. The software can detect the infected data and indicate message to the user.

Lock
Computers and all backing storage devices should be placed in locked rooms. Only authorized users should be
allowed to access these resources.

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Secured Waste
An unauthorized person may use discarded print outs and other material to get data. This kind of waste must be
secured to avoid any data threat.

Internal Controls
Internal controls are used to avoid any threat to important data. For example, the transaction log file can be used to
store the record of all access to data.

Software Security
Software security means that ownership of custom-made software must be specified It should also specify whether
the programmer can take the copy of the software or not. The common practice is that if custom-made software
belongs to the company if the programmer belong to an employee of the company. The ownership of the software
must be specified in the contract if the programmer is a consultant.

Worms
A worm is a program that copies itself repeatedly in memory or on disk drive until there is no space on disk. The
computer stops working in this situation. Worm spreads from one computer to another through networks. An
important example of a worm is Code Red. It attacked thousands of computers including the computers of Microsoft
and Federal Express. It replicated itself on hard disk the first 19 days of each month. Another example of worm is
Love Bug. It arrived in email as an attachment. The subject of the email was "I love you"

Computer Virus
A computer virus is a program that may disturb the normal working of a computer system. Virus attaches itself to
files stored on floppy disks, email attachments and hard disks. A file containing a virus is called infected file. if this file
is copied to a computer, virus is also copied to the computer.

Typical Viruses and Worms

Some typical viruses and worms are as follows:

CodeRed
It is a worm that infects a computer running Microsoft IIs Server. It launched Dos attack on the website of White
House. It allows the hacker to access the infected computer remotely.

Nimda
It is a worm that spreads itself using different methods. It damages computer in different ways. It modifies files,
alters security settings and degrades performance.

SirCam
It is distributed as an email attachment. It may delete files, degrade performance and send the files to anyone.

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  Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires,
wireless links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.
 The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
 In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that vary
from simple to complex level.

NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network
interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to
identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.

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There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection is made
using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When computer
requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this
request to all the interconnected computers.

Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to
another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the
network, i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that
switch sends the message directly from source to the destination.

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types of
cables:

o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more expensive
than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
o Fiber optic cable: Fiber optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light beams.
It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive as
compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect the
distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.

Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on
the motherboard.

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 o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data
among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the resource
and user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a central
computer used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the
machines used to access the information stored in the server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the
users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the
employees use for daily communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the
internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their
business over the internet.

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications. A computer
network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:

 LAN(Local Area Network)

 PAN(Personal Area Network)
 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN(Wide Area Network)

 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet
cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.

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 Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range of
10 meters.
 Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
 Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
 Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
 Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

 Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a
mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and then
creates a connection with another device to share the information.
 Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as a home
network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television
but they are not connected to the internet.
 Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate
network using a VPN

 A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

 MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

 It can be used in an Airline Reservation.

 It can be used in a college within a city.
 It can also be used for communication in the military.

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  A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

 Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

 Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in hundreds
of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
 Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is
made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

 Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch
of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet
provides a leased line through which we can connect with another branch.
 Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the
emails, files or back up servers.
 Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get the
updated files within seconds.
 Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like
Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
 Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other
resources like a hard drive, RAM.
 Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
 High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth.
The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our
company.

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The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

 Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN network as
all the technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
 Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be changed
or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus in our
system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
 High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the purchasing of
routers, switches.
 Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Database

Database is an organized collection of related data that is stored in an efficient and compact manner. The word
organized means that data is stored in such a way that the user can use this data easily. The word related means that
a database is normally created to store the data about a particular topic.

For example if a database is created for students, it will contain data about the students such as roll no, name,
address etc. Similarly, if the database is about the employees of an organization, it will contain the data of
employees such as employee ID, grade and salary etc. All data in database is arranged in tables.

The word efficient means that the user can search the required data quickly. The word compact means that the
stored data occupies as little space as possible in computer.
Relational Database In a relational database, data is stored in relations. Relation is another term used for a
table. A table in a database has a unique name that identifies its contents. Each table can be called an intersection of
rows and columns. An important property of a table is that the rows are an unordered. A row cannot be identified by
its position in the table. Every table must have column that uniquely identifies each row in the table.

Rows: In a relational database, every relation or table consists of many tuples. tuples are also called records or
row.

Attributes: An attribute is a named column of a relation. Attributes are also called characteristics. The
characteristics of the tuple are represented by attributes or fields.

Domain: A domain is a collection of all possible values of one or more attributes. For example the value in the
field Class can be the name of any taught classes. It Is known as class domain Similarly, Registration domain is a
collection of all possible Registration numbers.

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Degree: The number of attributes is called the degree of that relation.

Cardinality The number of rows is called the cardinality of that relation

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