iT Undamped Single Degree-of-Freedom 1 System The analysis and design of structures to resist the effect produced by ti motions requires conceptual ide These assumptions or simplifications include material properties such as a or isowophy and material behaviors such as linearity of elasticity 2 Loading assumptions Some common loading assumptions are to consider concentrated forces to be applied at a geometric point, o assume forces suddenly applied, orto assiime external forces to be constant orperiodic. + Geometie Assumplions. general assumption for beams, frames and trusses is to consider these structures irecti ients. Another common assumption is to assume that such as plates are two-dimensional systems with relatively small thicknesses. Of greater importance is to assume that continuous structures may be analyzed as discrete systems by specifying locations (nodes) and directions for displacements (nodal coordinates) in the structures «as described in the following section. 1.1. Degrees of Freedom In structural dynamics the number of independent coordinates necessary to specify the configuration or position of a system at any time is referred 10 as the number of degrees of freedom. In general, a Continuous structure has an infinite number of degrees of freedom. Nevertheless, the process of idealization or selection of an appropriate mathematical model permits the reduction to a discrete number of degrees of freedom, Figure 1.1 shows some examples of structures that may be represented {or dyramic analysis asnesdeesfseedom-syems thas, sutures modeled as 5)tems with single displacement coordinate. © springer Notre Switzerland AG 2019 3 M. Paz, YH. Km, Sractra Dynamics, psiion/101007978-3.31998743°3.11._Undamped Single Degree-of-Freedom System ne — 1o—> Auten (b) (e) Fig. 1.1. Examples of siructures modeled as one-degree-of-freedom systems These may be conveniently described by the analytical model shown in Fig, 1.2 which has the following elements: LA n representing the mass ani of the structure, 2A k representing th of the aA damping element c representing the frictional characteristies and energy dissipation of the structure. 4 gcasadomreieresenie gua apes acing orto mca. ‘The force F(i) is written this way to indicate that itis a function of time. In adopting the analytical ‘model shown in Fig. 1.2, itis assumed that each element in the system represents a single property; that is, the massimrepresents only the |property of inertia and not elasticity or energy dissipation, whereas the spring represents cxclsively elas and not inet or nergy isspaion Final the nopegsa! eee The reader certainly realizes that such “pure” elements do not exist in our physical world and that analytical models are only conceptual idealizations of real structures. As such, analytical models may provide complete and accurate knowledge of the behavior of the ‘model itself, but only limited or approximate information on the behavior ofthe real physical system. Nevertheless, from a practical point of view, the information acquired from the analysis of the analytical model may very well be sufficient for an adequate understanding of the dynamic behavior of the physical system, including design and safety requirements, | me TTT Fig, 1.2 Analytical model for one-degree-of freedom systems.2 & CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts 112 TYPES OF DYNAMIC LOADS ‘The response ofa structure to dynamic loads may be categorized as either deterministic or nondeterministc (3). If jonofthe 52> loading are completely known, the loading is said to be Geis Ske reee cite aera However, ifthe time variation and other characteristics of the loading are not com- - pletely known, but can be defined only in a statistical sense, the loading is referred to as © uy po tan the corresponding analysis of the structural response is term a ea ‘This text emphasizes the deterministic response of structures to preseri lynamic loading. “To expedite the dynamic agglysis of structures, itis convenient to classify dynamic loads as either periodics0r n i time intervals, A single time interval is called the period Ty. The simplest form of peri- ‘ale loading can be represented by@ sine functiophs shown in Figure Ita This type of periodic loading is referred to as iMustrated in Figure LelbeThis loading is termed, rio accurately repre au of harmonic ‘terms in a Fourier series. Any loading that cannot be characterized as periodic is non- periodic. Nonperiodic loads range from i types, such as a wind | { gust or a blast pressure (Figure 1-1e), to fai juration loads, such as an earth- wt quake ground motion (Figure Lid). “y ae te 413 SOURCES OF DYNAMIC LOADS Sources of dypamic loads on strictures are many and varied. However, the origin gore of the majority of significant dynamic loads can be attributed to one of the following fe rane (hy esvimnimanal\(2f machine induced, \fyehicular induced and (8) ast Kis< Grd. Trdoubedl, the single mex common Source of dynam Toads on seus ‘= environmental in nature, Some typical examples of environmentally induced dynamic loads 6n structures include wind loads, earthquake loads, and wave loads oh Sen wary Force Forse Pressure ‘Acceleration Time Time Time Time x L—n Te Non-fer' ec ees Oa © © Figure 1.1 ‘Types of dynamic loadings: simple harmon () pero, nonharmri: (©) none, shor duration (8 nongesioe tong duration\ 1.6 Types of Structural Vibration & 9 Figure 1.8 Isometric view of FEM model for bridge. carrying members, The structural system is typically tied together by a reinforced con- crete deck slab and transverse steel members, or diaphragms, that span transversely between the girders as shown in the bridge cross-section illustration (Figure 1.7b). To assess the effectiveness of the diaphragms in distributing truck traffic loads transversely among the girders, a detailed FEM model of the bridge is required. An isometric view of the FEM model for the bridge structure of Figure 1.7 is illustrated in Figure 1.8. This ‘model exhibits over 50,000 active DOF. 1.6 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL VIBRATION ‘There are several types of sry wbration, A autre can bbe caused to vibrate by imposing upon it some initial conditions, or disuftbances (8). Initial conditions gener- ally manifest themselves @ the structure ture ( at is ‘The resulting structural vibration 1, occurs in the absence of any externally applied forees, and is termes og Free vibration usually occurs atthe fundamental natural frequency (owestftequency) 7 \_ sit ee is no external excitation acting on the structure, the vibra- te Tons the energy inpot tothe structure from the initial conditions ‘pot, 59 eventually is dissipated, or damped out. ee \ Sy? ‘The vibrations of a structure under the influence of external excitation are called : If the source of the’ }, the vibration consists of a ‘The steady-state response transpires al ZB 2 f ‘When the excitation frequency coincides with one ol the natura frequencies of the stucur, a conition known as resonance os Aue 4 ‘nance, the amplitudes of the vibrations become exceedingly large and are Limited only ¢. My by the damping in the siroture, “we i. Y v40 & CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts | since steady-state the transient oscillations occur feof the transient response VaI- lowever, if as ablast, the subsequent response is1.2 Undamped System 7 1.2 Undamped System We start the study of structural dynamics with the analysis of a fundamental and simple system, the ‘one-degree-of-freedom system in which we disregard or “neglect” frictional forces or damping. In auddition, we consider the system, during its motion or vibration, to be free from external actions or forces. Under these conditions, the system is said to be inifree vibration and it is in motion governed only by the influence of the so-called initial" 6RIGRS, that is, the given displacement and velocity at lime 1 = O when the study of the system is initiated. This undamped, one-degree-of-freedom system is often referred to as the simple undamped oscillatof. It is usually represented as shown im Fig. 1.3a or Fig. 1.3b or any other similar arrangement. These two figures represent analytical models that are dynamically equivalent. Its only a matter of preference to adopt one or the other. In these models the ‘mass mis restrained by the spring k and is limited to rectilinear motion along one coordinate axis, designated in these figures by the letter w — k m m | u om 1 (a) Fig. 1.3 Altemate representations of analytical models for one-degree-of-freedom systems ‘(The mechanical characteristic of a spring is described by the relationship between the magnitude of the force F, applied to its free end and the resulting end displacement w as shown graphically in Fig. 1.4 for three different springs. es (a) fou pose te) oe u Fig. 1.4. Force-displacement relationship: (a)/Mard spring, (b) "Linear spring, (€) Soft spring * ‘The curve labeled (a) in Fig. 1.4 represents the behavior of a hard spring in which the force required to produce a given displacement becomes increasingly greater as the spring is deformed. The second spring (b) is designated a linear spring because the deformation is directly proportional to the2 1 Undamped Single Degree-of-Freedom System force and the graphical representation of its characteristic is @ straight line, The constant of proportionality between the force and displacement {slope of the ine (b)] of a linear spring is referred to as the stiffness or the spring constant, usually designated by the letter A. Consequently, we may write the relationship between force and displacement for a linear spring as Fake () A spring with characteristics shown by curve (c) in Fig 4 is known as a soft spring, For such 2 spring the ineremental force requited to produce additional deformation decreases as the spring deformation increases. Undoubtedly, the reader is aware from his or her previous exposure {0 analytical modeling of physical systems that the linear spring is the simplest type to manage mathematically. It should not come as a surprise to learn that most of the technical literature on structural dynamics deals with models using linear springs. In other words, either because the elastic charactetistis of the structural system are, in fac, essentially linear, or simply because of analytical expediency, itis usually assumed that the force-deformation properties ofthe system are linear. support of this practice, it should be noted that in many cases the displacements produced in the structure by the action of external forces or disturbances are small in magnitude (Zone E in Fig. 14), thus rendering the linear approximation close to the actual structural behavior. 1.3 Springs in Parallel or in Series ‘Sometimes it is necessary to determine the equivalent spring constant for a system in which 0Wo oF ‘more springs are arranged in parallel as shown in Fig, 1.Sa or in series as in Fig. 1.Sb. a Ka fa ee ee | bu = Au + due, =the ame a at P Rok ke meee ky = ky thy © ig. 1.5 Combination of rings: (2) Springs in pri (0) Speingsin sees Fortwo springs in parallel the total force required to produce relative displacement of ther ends of one unit is equal tothe sum oftheir spring constants. This total force is by definition the equivalent spring constant k, and is given by qhahth ) ‘In general for m springs in parallel” For two springs assembled in series as shown in Fig, 1.5, the force P produces the relative displacements in the springs1.4 Newton's Law of Motion and aw age ‘Then, the total displacement w of the free end of the spring assembly is equal tou = Au, + Atta, OF substituting Au, and Au (14) Consequently, the force k, necessary to produce one unit displacement (equivalent spring constant) is given by ‘Substituting 1 from this last relation into Eq. (1.4), we may conveniently express the reciprocal value of the equivalent spring constant as In general for i Springs in seriésithe equivalent spring constant may be obtained fromEe f, a Figures8 ‘System with springs in 3.3. Equivalent stiffness & 57 tobe A, as shown in Figure 3.7c, then the deflec~ falso be A, as shown in Figure 3.74. Thus, from ‘the condition for equivalence can be stated as aay acceleration due to gravity) is assumed tion in the equivalent spring, ky rust consideration of these free-body diagrams, kA = (kt ho from which 3.45) ky the Im this case, the equivalent stiffness is equal to the sum of the constants of the two Springs ofthe original system, For any system where the deformation of any elastic cle aeent is the same as all other elastic elements ofthe system, the elastic elements are said to be in parallel, and the equivalent stiffness is the sum of the individual elastic con Stants. The general expression for the equivalent stiffness form springs in paral is ‘A system with springs in series is shown in Figure 3.8. From consideration of the static equilibrium of the system, it is apparent that the force in each spring must be equal to the weight of the mass (W = mg). Furthermore, the displacement of the mass Ais given by A=A+ Gan where A, and Ap are the elongations of springs 1 and 2, respectively. Therefore, for an equivalent spring having a constant k, it follows from Eq. (3.47) that WWW. Erate G48) from which tlaiyl c"ee G49) In general, the reciprocal of the equivalent spring constant for n springs in series is ‘equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the elastic constants of the individual springs and is given by é (3.50) Expressed in terms of k, directly, Eq, (3.50) becomes G51)58 & CHAPTER 3 Undamped Free Vibration Figure 59 Cnieer beam wit load. e TABLES. yuan Spring Contents 9 Case 1, m axial springs in parallel, ‘As a more practical example of the equivalent spring constant for an elastic ele- ‘ment, consider the cantilever beam loaded at its free end as shown in Figure 3.9. The deflection ofthe beam at the point of application of the force F is given by where E is Young's modulus for the beam material and /is the moment of inertia of the bbeam’s cross-sectional area about the neutral axis. is the ratio of the applied load to the deflection at the point of application of the load. ‘Thus, from Eq. (3.52) the equivalent stiffness is ‘The equivalent spring constants for beams with various other types of loading and/or boundary conditions can be obtained in a similar manner. Some of the more commonly encountered cases of equivalent stiffness are summarized in Table 3.1 ‘Equivalent Spring Constant ky thy thy ton thy 2. axial springs in series 24 4 eA AEE (continued)3.3 Equivalent Stiffness a 59 Case Equivalent Spring Constant 3. Springs in parallel and in series yhy + bah hy + haky ae Bid ky + hy thy NWA r , 1 [bain iN 4. Tnetned axial spring A k cos" Frictioness Aan surface at Koa O19 = Je costa oth ue’ 7“ ? od 5. Rotating bar with spring suppor 4kky K+ a/LP +e + a/ LP 3k 3a/bP 1+ 5(a/Ly AE L A = cross-sectional area elastic modulus (continued)60 CHAPTER 3 Undamped Free Vibration Case 9. Axially loaded tapered bar bf Tesh 1. Torsion of a uniform shaft a 12. Torsion of tapered circular shaft 13. Spiral torsional spring 14, Cantilever beam, end load Equivalent Spring Constant ED.D, aL Gat Gan? active number of turns = elastic shear modulus G GI iE J = torsional constant of cross section (md'/32) 3m Dic 32 L{D,/D, + (Dy/D,)* + (D,/D,) EL L E = Young's modulus 1 = moment of inertia of cross-sectional area L = total length of spiral 3él D Flexible (continued)3.3 Equivalent stiffness a 67 Case Equivalent Spring Constant 15. Simply supported beam, load at midspan 4861 DP 192E1 3EI(a + bY f oe 19. Propped cantilever, load at midspan . 68EI K | 7 20. Propped cantilever with overtang, load at free end 2461 @(3L + 8a) (continued)62 & CHAPTER 3 Undamped Free Vibration ase Equivalent Spring Constant 21, Simple beam with overhang, load at free end _3EI (L+ aja? 23. Shear frame, pinned base 3EL Be For systems that have spring elements both in parallel and in series, the equiva- lent stiffness is determined by calculating the equivalent spring constant for the elastic elements in parallel (k,),, and for the elastic elements in series (k,),, and then appropri- ately combining the two. An example of a system having spring elements in parallel and in series is illustrated in Figure 3.10. The equivalent stiffness for the system is cal- culated by ke = (kp + (ky 654) or RT) 3.55) Ok) +O edd where pall ane (key = ki te 3.56) and = ————_. 7) (tds = 7h) + 7k) enZn, z, a Npiga Figure 3.11 System of Example 3.3. 3.3 Equivalent Stiffness a 63 At this point it should be recognized that (k,), and (k,), are in series; therefore, k, is determined by Eq. (3.55) as follows: (3.58) SS EXAMPLE 3.3 7 For the system shown in Figure 3.11, determine (a) the differential equation of the motion of the mass m and (b) the natural circular frequency of vibration of the mass m, Solution Springs k; and k, are in parallel with one another, and spring fy is in series with k, and kp. Let k’ = k, + ky; then from Eq. (3.49), 1 k (ly . — ‘ilk + he) MTT tht sad (a) The equation of motion is expressed as ke E+ =0 8) and substitution of Bq. (2) into Eq. (3) yields (ky + ka) ¥* nk, ++ &) 0 4 (b) The natural circular frequency is calculated as Wa ks(hy +) . _ E- [tee] -_ a a [EXAMPIES A spherical container of weight W is supported at the tip of a cantilever beam hav ing flexural rigidity £7 and length L as shown in Figure 3.12. The container is als:64k CHAPTER 3 Undamped Free Vibration Figure 3.12 Cantilever beam of Example 3.4 ‘supported by a spring of stiffness k Determine (a) the equivalent spring stiffness for this system and (b) the natural frequency of vibration. Neglect the mass of the ‘beam and the spring. Solution (a). The spring having stiffness & and the cantilever beam represent two springs in parallel. Let ky represent the stiffness for the beam. From Table 3.1 D a and thus, SEI _ kL? +3EI ke = kt ky = k +p = @ (b) The natural frequency is expressed as = ke o=|F ® where maa «@ and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Thus substituting Eqs. (2) and (4) into Eq, (3) yields the expression for natural circular frequency, ua KL? + 3ET = || rads e (are seo © EXAMPLE 3.5. v For the steel shear frame structure shown in Figure 3.13, determine the natural cir- cular frequency of vibration for oscillations in the horizontal direction. The hor zontal girder is assumed {o be infinitely rigid with respect to the columns, and itFigure 3.13 Steel shear frame structure of Example 3.5, 3.3 Equivalent Stiffness A 65 isn |wax2e wi0x33 waxas ss a a 20. — 201 Supports a total dead weight W of 30 kips uniformly distributed along its length. ‘Neglect the mass of the columns that bend about their strong axis. Solution The three columns represent springs in parallel. For the W824 columns, ly, 82.8 in’, and for the W10X33, J,, = 170 in‘; E = 29,000 ksi for steel. For the W8X24s the transverse stiffness is (6)(29,000)(82:8) (C15 &)(12 in)? ky = 3ElQy = 235 kips/in L and for the W10x33, IQEI _ (12)(29,000)(170) ae =D = [@omaziny = 428 Mpsin ‘Thus, the equivalent stiffness is calculated from Eq. (3.50) as : lel ke Doky = 6.75 kipsin hee iS and the natural circular frequency is expressed e w we where wh ’ ' Ww 30 ki : a Ww mae = Grahams 396-4 be . a = 0.0776 kip-sec?/in grnae ye ‘Therefore ' 1 6275 kipsin__)" _ 93 agnec 0776 kip-sec*/inExample 1.2 6 by 10 min plan, is shown in Fig. E1.2 with moment frames in ‘A small one-story industrial building, the north-south direction and braced frames in the east-west direction. The mass ofthe structure can be idealized as 150 kg/m? lumped at the roof level. The horizontal cross bracing is atthe bottom chord of ‘Two or more equations in the same line with the same equation number will be refered 1 as equations a, by ¢ te from left to right.a why > € 16 Equations of Motion, Problem Statement, and Solution Methods we ee ae tle I I SE ‘i | ; | sagem Sh J} SG). ‘ wy i . at Y phy ek ; Chap. 1 I—~} ees om, (a) (b) (ey (dy Fite EL2 (3) ln: () cs and wet sean son and sou lations on brace. seen tues. All columns ate HE-A 200 sections; their second moments of cross-sectional area The aan and y axes are J,=2510 em and J,=925 em, respectively er va E = 200.000 MPa. ARE Yerticalcross-bracings are made of 25-mm diameter rode Fesmwlow we equation governing free ‘~ibration in (a) the nonh-south direction and (b) the east-west dresuons Solution The mass lumped at the roof is ‘m= 150 x 10 x 6 =9000 kg Because ofthe horizontal eress-bracng, the roof can be teated as argid diaphragm. (a) North-south direction. B ‘ eaute ofthe roof tus, each colin behaves a8 clamped pt 2 clamped coum and te aera si 88 ofthe two moment frames (Fig. El,2b) is al foes (HE) = RR OO IAsIO« 19°) =3.675 x 10° N/m= 3675 kN/m nd the equation of motion is mii + (ky.s)u=0 @ (©) East-west direction. Braced frames, such as those shown in Fig. El 2c, ae usually designed vere ease states: an ordinary rigid frame that suppors vertical (dead and live) oad plus toe ay racing system, generally regarded as a pin-connected truss that resists lateral fase Thus the lateral stiffness of a braced frame can be estimated as the im ividual Draces. The sifness ofa brace (Fig. E.24) is lye = (AE/L) 0088, This oon eee follows, ‘We start with the axial force-deformation relation fora brace: ) By statics fz = pcos, and by kinem: gives *4=5/ 050. Substituting p=; cos@ and 5 = ucosd in Eq, (b) ©‘Sec. 1.5 Equation of Motion: External Force 7 For the brace in Fig. El.2c, cos = 6/ /@ $6 =0.8321, A= 4.909 cm’, L=7.21 m, and (4.909 x 10-*(200,000 x 10%) Ie = oH (0.8321)! =9.425 x 10" N/m=9425 kN/m Although each frame has two eross-braces, only the one in tension will provide lateral resistances the Caan Compression will buckle at small axial force and will contribute litle to the lateral stiffness Considering the two frames, Kgow =2 x 9425 = 18,850 kN/m and the equation of motion is mit+ (ew) u=0 @ Qoserve thatthe error in neglecting the stiffness of columns is small: kay = 2 12E1,/h = 604 kN/m SSBUS Tagg = 925m ET = OO AN Example 1.3 A 120-m-long concrete, box-girder bridge on four supports—two abutments and two symmetrically located bents—is shown in Fig. E1.3. The cross-sectional area of the bridge deck is 12 m*, The mass of the bridge is idealized as lumped at the deck level; the unit mass of concrete is 2400 kg/mm’. The mass Of the bents may be neglected. Each bent consists of three 8-m-tall columns of circular cross section with Jy =I, =0.15 m* (Fig. E1.3b). Formulate the equation of motion governing free vibration in the longitudinal direction. The elastic modulus of concrete is E = 20,000 MPa. Solution The mass per unit length lumy ped at the deck level is (12\(2400) = 28,800 kg/m. The total ‘mass lumped at the deck level is. m= 28,800 x 120 =3,456 x 10° kg ‘The longitudinal stiffness of the bridge is computed assuming the bridge deck to displace rigidly as shown in Fig. E1-3e. Each column of a bent behaves as a clamped-clamped column. The longitudinal stiffness provided by each bent is beg (SH) [20 1015) Ne 21000 N/m ‘Two bents provide a total stiffness of k= 2x ken = X 210,900 = 421,800kN/m ‘The equation governing the longitudinal displacement w is mit +ku=018 Equations of Motion, Problem Statement, and Solution Methods Chap. 1 @ Bridge deck — Y 8 © = \ mo A Footings i © Figure E13 1.6 MASS-SPRING-DAMPER SYSTEM We have introduced the SDF system by idealizing a one-story structure (Fig. 1.5.1a), an approach that should appeal to structural engineering students. However, the classic SDF system is the mass~ spring-damper system of Fig. 1.6.1a. The dynamics of this system is developed in textbooks on1.4 Newton's Law of Motion ‘We continue with the study of the simple oscillator depicted in Fig. 1.3. analytical relation between the displacement u, 's Second Law of Motion, which in modem notation may be expressed as Fone on Where F is the resultant force acting on a particle of mass m and a its resultant acceleration. The reader should recognize that Eq. (1.7) is vector relation and as such it can be written in equivalent form in terms of its components along the coordinate axes x,y, and 2, namely, Frama, +\s\ (1.84) Dram, Ba a DF =ma, iS (1.80) : a (1.80) ‘The acceleration is defined as the second derivative of the position vector with respect to time; it follows that Eqs. (1.8) are indeed differential equations. The reader should also be reminded that these. equations as stated by Newton are directly applicable only to bodies idealized as particles, that is, bodies assumed to possess mass but no volume. However, as is proved in elementary mechanics,1 Undamped Single Degree-of Freedom System undergoing Newton's Law of Motion is also directly applicable to bodies of finite dimensions Er translatory motion For plane motion of a rigid body that is symmetric with respect to the reference plane o (vy plane), Newton's Law of Motion yields the following equations: if motion r= mac), a (1.9b) OMG = loa (1.9¢) In the above equations (a), and (ag), are the acceleration components, along the x and y axes, of the center of mass G of the body;(@is the angular acceleratiayy Ic is the mass moment of inertia of the body with respect to an axis through G, the center of mass; and Mc; is the sum with respect to an axis through G, perpendicular to the x-y plane of the moments of all the forces acting on the body. Equations (1.9) are certainly also applicable to the motion of a rigid body in pure rotation about a fixed axis, altematively, for this particular type of plane motion, Eq. (1.9c) may be replaced by . 7 pv YdP Som = too (1.94) in which the mass moment of inertia Jo and the moment of the forces Mo are determined with respect to the fixed axis of rotation. The general motion of a rigid body is described by two vector equations, ‘one expressing the relation between the forces and the acceleration of the mass center, and another relating the moments of the forces and the angular motion of the body. This last equation expressed in its scalar components is rather complicated, but seldom needed in structural dynamics, 1.5 Free Body Diagram At this poin, it i advisable to follow a method conducive to an organized and systematic analysis in the solution of dynamics problems. The first and probably the most important practice to follow in any dynamic analysis is to draw a free body diagram of the system, prior to writing a mathematical description of the system. ‘The free body diagram (FBD), as the reader may recall, isa sketch of the body isolated from all other bodies, in which all the forces external to the body are shown. For the case at hand, Fig. 1.66 depicts the FBD of the mass m of the oscillator, displaced in the postive direction with reference to ‘coordinate u and acted upon by the spring force Aieaaming alice fig) The weight of the body mg and the normal reaction N of the supporting surface are also shown for completeness, though these forces, acting in the vertical direction, do not enter into the equation of motion written for the u direction. The application of Newton's Law of Motion gives aku = mit (1.10) ir i and where the acceleration has been indicated by ii. In this notation, i ¥ ‘to time and obviously a single overdot denotes the first derivative with respect to time, that is, the “velocity.16 D’Alember's Principle oe ape) wo peli EIA io ©) (or Wo ae’ Fig. 1.6 Altemate free body diagrams: (a) Single degree-o-freedom system, (b) Showing only external forces, (€) Showing external and inertial forces Figure 1.6c shows the FBD with inclusion of the: . This force is equal to the mass multiplied by the acceleration, and should always be directed negatively with respect to the corres ponding coordinate. ‘The application of D’Alembert’s Principle use equ it ‘or example, in Fig. 1.6c, the summation of forces in the w direction gives directly — (un) ter NLP which obviously is equivalent to Eq. (1.10). ple ¢ The use of D’Alembert’s Principle in this case appears to be trivial. This will not be the case for a more complex problem, in which the , le of ill be explained later, the Principle of Virtual Work is directly applicable to any system in equilibrium. If follows then that this principle may also be applied to the solution of dynamic problems, provided that D’Alembert’s Principle is used to establish the dynamic equilibrium of the system. Show that the same differential equation is obtained for a body vibrating along a horizontal axis or for the same body moving vertically, as shown in Fig. 1.7a, b. Solution: The FBDs for these two representations of the simple oscillator are shown in Fig. 1.7e, ¢, in which the inertial forces have been included. Equating to zero in Fig. 1.7c the sum of the forces along the direction 1, we obtain ii + ku =0 (a) When the body in Fig. 1,7d is in the static equilibrium position, the spring is stretched ug units and exerts & force kug = W upward on the body, where W is the weight of the body. When the body is displaced a distance « downward from this position of equilibrium the magnitude of the spring force10 1 Undamped Single Degree-of Freedom Systern u katy r f 4 wk ries AW _] m i” ue K(up tu) = W + ku = =] Lp ats ky =W Sl @ © f, Fig. 1.7 ‘Two representations of the simple oscillator and corresponding free body diagrams. (a) Tdealized single degree of freedom system, ternative idealized single degree of freedom system, (c) dynamic equilibrium with inertial force, (@) static displacement due to gravity load, (e) dynamic equilibrium with inertial force of alternative model is given by F, = k(up + u) or F, = W + ku since kup = W. Using this result and applying it to the body in Fig. 1.7e, we obtain from Newton’s Second Law of Motion —(W + ku) +W — mii =0 (b) or mit + ku = 0 which is identical to Eq. (a). 1.7 Solution of the Differential Equation of Motion The next step toward our objective is to find the solution of the differential Eq, (1.11). We should again adopt a systematic approach and proceed first to classify this differential equation. Since the dependent variable w and second derivative ii appear in the first degree in Eq, (1.11), this equation is classified as linear and of second order. The fact that the coefficients of u and of ii (k and m, respectively) are constants and that the second member (right-hand side) of the equation is zero further classifies this equation as homogenous with constant coefficients. We should recall, probably with a certain degree of satisfaction, that a general procedure exists for the solution of linear areExample 1.4 Derive the equation of motion of the mass m suspended from a spring at the free end of the cantilever, steel beam shown in Fig. E1.4a. For steel, = 200,000 MPa. Neglect the mass of the beam and spring, |— Undeformed position Static equilibrium (a) (b) fs fs we pn Vow tne © @ Figure E14 (4) System; (6) undeformed, deformed, and static equilibrium positions: ()fee-bedy diagram; (2) spring and beam Forces.are creme ness K remains be determined. It relates the static force fs tothe resulting displacement iby ka © where T= Tiyang + Treen @ here Zien is the deflection ofthe right end of the beam and Za is the deformation inthe spring. With reference to Fig. El.4d, fs re ® InEq, (g), substitute for 7 from Eq, () and the Ty A Tam from Eq, (ht obtain eo natin ia han ®See 18 Mas-Spnp-Canor ten $ a ., Kk 1500 Nim and ~ au x ti one 3 A200 PH OES gym Now, ‘Substituting fork and kya in Eq, (i) gives k= 2313N/m As mentioned earlier, the gravity forces can be omitted from the formulation of the governing {faton forthe system of Fig. El 4 provided thatthe displacement w is measured from the static equi- {rium positon. However, the gravity loads must be considered if they act as ether restoring forces (Example 1.5) oras destabilizing forees (Example 1.6). Example 15 Derive the equation governing the free motion of a simple pendulum (Fig. El.Sa), which consists of a Point mass m suspended by alight string of length L. a Figure E1 (2) Simple pendulum: (b) free-body diagram. Solution Figure E1.Sa shows the displaced postion of the pendulum defined by the angle & measured from the vertical positon, and Fig. E1.5b shows the free-body diagram of the mass. The forces acting are the weight mg, easion Tin the string, and D’Alember’s fictitious natn fore = ml. 7” Equilibrium of the moments of forces about O gives g Mp : I, 76 in + mplsind =0 ® eee ase T This is a nonlinear differential equation governing 9. For small rotations, sin@ = @ and the equation of motion (Ea (a}] can be rewritten as £ 5+2o=0 0 ait Example 1.6 “The system of Fig. El.6a consists of a mass m attached toa rigid massless column of height h pinned at the base. Lateral esitanc is provided bythe sing of stiffness kat the top ofthe column, Assuming small deflections derive the equation of motion. Wha is the buckling loadEquations of Motion, Problem Statement, and Solution Methods Chap. 1 wf & N a¥ me, © Figure E16 Solution Figure El.6b shows the displaced postion of the system defined by the angle @ Or Jateral Gisplacement u-= hsind. The free-body diagram in Fig. El.6c includes the mass m= ms, the lateral resisting force f= ku, D' Alembert’s fictitious inertia force, fy = mh, and axial force N in the column. Equilibrium of moments about O gives @ fit fohicos@ — mgh sin! For small 6, sin@ ~ and cos ~ 1, and the equilibrium equation becomes, fil fol — mgh® =0 &) Substituting for f; = mhd) and fe = kitsind ~ kh8, gives mit + (ui — mghy@ =0 © “This s the equation of motion that can also be written in terms of lateral displacement u =H? mgv®2 mit+ (k-"8)u=0 @ ‘Observe that the gravity load reduces the effective stem by an _amot depends on the load (= mass) | If the mass is m= k/(gL), the effective stiffness is seer rake sistent becomes unstable under its own mass, Thus, the buckling load (or mass) s ©