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Bhakti Sufi Traditions
Bhakti Sufi Traditions
1 mark
What was the difference between Ba-shara and Be- shara Sufis?
These terms were used in the reference of Sufis. Ba shara were those sufi saints who
adhere with the Shariat and Be- shara were those who ignored shariat completely.
Which sufi sect was the first to get establish in India and who was the founder?
Muinud din Chishti founded the first sufi sect in India. He established the Chishti
silsilah.
2 marks
Mention the name of heterodox sects that made their ground in medieval period?
The name of the heterodox sects is Shaivism and Vaishnavism. The Shaivaite were
the devotees of Shiva whereas Vaishnavite were the devotees of Vishnu.
What was the work area of the new religious leaders? How they have
communicated with the people? What was their contribution to present society?
Why they failed to win the support of ruling elites?
The new religious leader concentrated on the upliftment of the untouchables and of
women. These new religious leaders were classified as nath, jogis and siddhas. Many
of these belonged to artisanal class. They questioned the authority of vedas and
communicated with people in the common language spoken by the people. They
failed to enjoy the support of elite/ ruling class because politically India was in
transitionary phase and Rajput rulers were strengthening their position for that they
seek the help of brahmins and therefore ignored the new religious leaders and sects.
“Religious policy tends to change in India as per the preferences of the ruler”.
Examine the statement.
The religious policy of the empire was totally depending upon the ruler if he is a bigot
then he uses to prefer his own religion great. And a liberal monarch gives respect to
each and every religion.
Why the Bhakti movement failed to make its profound influence in Northern
India?
Bhakti movement failed to make its profound influence in Northern India because at
that time northern India was in transitionary phase. There was a political uncertainty
and Rajputs were gradually asserting their authority for which they seeked the support
of Brahmins. Hence the new rulers were the supporter of Brahmin religion. Therefore
the Bhakti movement failed to register the support of ruling elites and thus failed
to make any significant mark in northern India.
List the practices that were adopted by Chistis in their Khanqah to show respect
to the Shaikh and adoption of local customs.
Practices adopted by the Chistis were as follows:-
• Offering Sijda i.e bowing before the sheikh
• Offering water to visitors
• Shaving the heads of initiates
• Yogic exercises
Why the Chishtis became so much prominent and successful in India? Give any
two reasons.
The reasons for the success of Chishtis in India were as follows:
• Chishtis successfully adapted themselves to the Indian conditions and local
environment both physical and social.
• Chishtis did not keep themselves aloof from the masses and freely adopted Indian
devotional practices, which they felt, were good.
What led to the increase in the number of deities in the post Gupta and Early
Medieval period?
Many tribal and lesser important deities were given importance in this period and
were came to be regarded as the incarnation of Vedic deities. This led to the increase
in the number of deities in the early medieval period.
What was the striking feature regarding religion, during the period between
eighth to eighteenth centuries?
During the period between eighth and eighteenth century, a number of gods and
goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts appeared. According to historians, it
indicated the continued and extended worship of the major deities such as Vishnu,
Shiva and the goddesses, visualised in a variety of forms.
What were the conflicts that arose during the Bhakti Movement?
There were sometimes conflicts between those who followed the Vedic methods of
worship and those who practiced the Tantric way of worshipping deities. Those who
valued the Vedic tradition often condemned the practices that went beyond the
performances of sacrifices and chanting of mantras. On the other hand those who
engaged in Tantric practices ignored the authority of the Vedas.
Why were the Alvars and the Nayanars in conflict with Buddhism and Jainism?
According to the historians, the saint-poets the Alvars and the Nayanars were opposed
to Buddhism and Jainism. This conflict is well marked in their compositions
and especially of the Nayanars. Scholars say that this conflict was due to competition
between members of different religious traditions for royal patronage.
What is Shari’a?
The Shari’a is the law governing the Muslim community. It is based on the Qur’an
and the hadis, traditions of the Prophet including a record of his remembered words
and deeds. With the spreading out of Islam in areas with different customs and rituals,
the qiyas (analysis by comparison) and ijma (consent of community) were recognised
as two sources of legislation and part of shari'a.
Define the term zimmi?
The zimmi means “protected” and is derived from the Arabic word zimma, protection.
It was developed for people who followed revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and
Christians, and lived under Muslim rule. They paid a tax called jizya and got the
protection from Muslims. In India this status was extended to Hindus as well.
What are the five pillars of faith in Islam? How the universal features of Islam
were declined with the passing of time?
• The followers of Islam follow five "pillars" of faith:
• There is one god, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger (shahada).
• Offering prayers five times a day (namaz / salat).
• Giving alms (zakat).
• Fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm).
• Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).
The universal feature of islam declined beacuse of the sectarian practices and due to
the influence of local customary paractices in Islam.
Why the Dargah at Ajmer became so popular? Give any two reasons.
The dargah of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti became so popular because of the following
reasons:
• The shaikh was known for his generiosity, simplicity, and piousness. All this
qualities of shaikh impressed the people and they started visiting to seek blessings
from him.
• Location of the Ajmer was the second important reason for its popularity. As it
was located on the route of Gujarat and Delhi and both these places were important
economic and political centre.
How the development of Chishti movement affected the life of the people of
Southern India?
In southern India sufi poetry was composed in the Dakhani language around the
Bijapur and Karnataka region. Women while performing household chores sang these
poems. Other compositions were in the form of lurinama and wedding songs.
5 marks
What do you mean by Khanqah? Give a sketch of life in Khanqah.
Khanqahs were primarily founded as the resting place for Sufi saints but gradually
they became the center of sufi learning.
A Khanqah is comprised of many small rooms and there was a big hall, which was
called jama’at e khana in that big hall the disciples and visitors use to stay and offer
prayers. Other peoples who live in the Khanqah were shaikh and his family members
and attendants of shaikh. Shaikh meet with people in morning and in afternoons.
Shaikh lives in the small room built on the roof of the hall.
There run an open kitchen (langar) on charity and people from all the fields were
offered meals there. People from all the walks of life came to interact with shaikh.
Write a note on the two processes at work during the period of Bhakti
movement.
According to historians, for the development of Bhakti movement there were two
processes at work.
One was the process of circulating or fusing of Brahmanical ideas. It was reflected in
the composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit
verse, so that women and Shudras who had been excluded could now be accessible to
the texts.
The second process at work was the recognition of the beliefs and practices of non-
Brahmanical social categories. During this period many beliefs and practices were
fashioned through a continuous dialogue between “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions
and “little” traditions throughout the land. For example at Puri in Orissa, before the
twelfth century the local deity was made of wood by local tribal specialists, later it
was renowned as a form of Vishnu.
What were the contributions of the Chola rulers to the Bhakti traditions?
• The Chola rulers supported the Brahmanas and the bhakti traditions and made
land donations, constructed temples for Vishnu and Shiva. Some of the magnificent
temples for Shiva such as temples in Chidambaram, Thanjavur, and
Gangaikondacholapuram were constructed under their patronage.
• The Chola rulers constructed temples often to claim supreme divine and proclaim
their own power and status and adorned those temples with stone and metal sculpture
to represent the visions of the popular saints. They made the most spectacular
representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture.
• The Chola kings introduced in temples singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns under
royal patronage, taking the initiative to collect and organise them into a text.
• According to inscriptional evidence, the Chola King Parantaka I had produced the
metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in a Shiva temple and these were
carried in procession during the festivals of these saints.
Write a note on the religious conditions in north India on the eve of Bhakti
movement.
According to historians, in north India there was a period when several Rajput states
emerged and in most of these states Brahmanas gained very important place by
performing rituals. There was nobody to challenge them directly. At the same time
there were other religious leaders who were out of the orthodox Brahmanical systems,
and were gaining ground.
These included the Naths, Jogis and Siddhas. Many of them came from artisanal
groups such as weavers who were well organised. These religious leaders questioned
the authority of the Vedas, but they were unable to win the support of the ruling elites.
The arrival of the Turks undermined the Rajput states and the Brahmanas who were
attached with those states.
Sources to know Kabir - The Kabir Bijak is preserved by Kabirpanth (the path or
sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and in Uttar Pradesh. The Kabir Granthavali is associated
with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan and many of his compositions are found in the Adi
Granth Sahib. All these compilations were made after the death of Kabir. Kabir’s
poems have survived in several languages and dialects and sometimes with special
language of nirguna poets and others known as ulat bansi.
Kabir’s teachings - Kabir tried to describe the Ultimate Reality including Islam.
According to him the Ultimate Reality was Allah, Khuda, Hazarat and Pir. He also
used some Vedic terms such as Brahman and Atman. He also used some yogic
traditional terms such as shabda (sound) or shunya (emptiness).
8 marks
Here is a Vachana composed by Basavanna:
When they see a serpent carved in stone they pour milk on it.
If a real serpent comes they say: “Kill. Kill.”
To the servant of the god who could eat if served they say: “Go away! Go away!”
But to the image of the god which cannot eat they offer dishes of food.
What were the main features of the followers of the Virashaiva traditions?
Main features of the followers of the Virashaiva traditions are:
• Lingayats believe in a monotheistic world where Shiva the supreme God and self
are one and the same. Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with
Shiva and will not return to this world.
• They worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga and men usually wear a
small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder.
• The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the
Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
What is Tevaram?
Tevaram is a collection of poems. They have been composed by the three
primary Nayanars (Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar) of the 63 Saivite Saints who led
the Bhakti movement of the 1st millennium CE. These poems were compiled and
classified in the tenth century on the basis of the music of the songs.
What was the role of women in the early Bhakti movements led by Nayanars?
One of the most striking features of these traditions was the presence of
women. These women renounced their social obligations, but did not join an
alternative order or become nuns. Their very existence and compositions posed a
challenge to patriarchal norms. Karaikkal Ammaiyar, one of the few women amongst
the sixty three Nayanars, is one of the greatest figures of early Tamil literature. She
adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal. Her compositions
were preserved within the Nayanar tradition.
What was the attitude of the Alvars towards the Caste system?
The Alvars opposed the caste system. They initiated a movement of protest against
the caste system and the dominance of the Brahmanas. They made attempts to reform
the system also. This can be confirmed from the fact that bhaktas hailed from diverse
social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from
castes considered “untouchable”.
How can we say that the Alvar traditions were considered important?
The importance of the traditions of the Alvars was sometimes indicated by the claim
that their compositions were as important as the Vedas. For instance, one of the major
anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, was
frequently described as the Tamil Veda; thus, claiming that the text was as significant
as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas.
Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follows:
The pilgrimage of the Mughal princess Jahanara, 1643
The following is an excerpt from Jahanara’s biography of shaikh Muinuddin
Chishti, titled Munis al Arwah (The Confidant of Spirits):
After praising the one God … this lowly faqira (humble soul) Jahanara ... went
from the capital Agra in the company of my great father (Emperor Shah Jahan)
towards the pure region of incomparable Ajmer … I was committed to this idea,
that every day in every station I would perform two cycles of optional prayer …
For several days ... I did not sleep on a leopard skin at night, I did not extend my
feet in the direction of the blessed sanctuary of the revered saving master, and I
did not turn my back towards him. I passed the days beneath the trees. On
Thursday, the fourth of the blessed month of Ramzan, I attained the happiness
of pilgrimage to the illuminated and the perfumed tomb … With an hour of
daylight remaining, I went to the holy sanctuary and rubbed my pale face with
the dust of that threshold. From the doorway to the blessed tomb I went
barefoot, kissing the ground. Having entered the dome, I went around the light-
filled tomb of my master seven times … Finally, with my own hand I put the
finest quality of
itar on the perfumed tomb of the revered one, and having taken off the rose scarf
that I had on my head, I placed it on the top of the blessed tomb ...
What were the gestures that show Jahanara’s devotion for the Shaikh?
Jahanara the mughal princess has not slept on the leopard skin and had not extended
her feets in the direction of the dargah, and she offered prayers twice a day. After
reaching to the shrine, she kissed the ground and rubbed the dust of the dargah on her
face.
How does she suggest that the dargah was a special place?
She has described that the dargah was illuminated and there was a nice fragrance all
around, this shows that dargah was a special place.
Who is the author of the text from which this excerpt has been taken?
The author of the text was Jahanara and the name of the text is Munis al Arwah
Read the following passage carefully and answer the following questions:
Declining the royal gift
This excerpt from a sufi text describes the proceedings at Shaikh Nizamuddin
Auliya’s hospice in 1313:
I (the author, Amir Hasan Sijzi) had the good fortune of kissing his (Shaikh
Nizamuddin Auliya’s) feet … At this time a local ruler had sent him the deed of
ownership to two gardens and much land, along with the provisions and tools for
their maintenance. The ruler had also made it clear that he was relinquishing
all his rights to both the gardens and land. The master … had not accepted that
gift. Instead, he had lamented: “What have I to do with gardens and fields and
lands? … None of … our spiritual masters had engaged in such activity.” Then
he told an appropriate story: “… Sultan Ghiyasuddin, who at that time was still
known as Ulugh Khan, came to visit Shaikh Fariduddin (and) offered some
money and ownership deeds for four villages to the Shaikh, the money being for
the benefit of the dervishes (sufis), and the land for his use. Smiling, Shaikh al
Islam (Fariduddin) said: ‘Give me the money. I will dispense it to the dervishes.
But as for those land deeds, keep them. There are many who long for them. Give
them away to such persons.’”
Discuss the kind of relationship expressed in the passage above between king and
sufi.
The relationship expressed in this excerpt is that the kings use to give grants of land
and donations in cash or kind to the Sufis as a homage to them but as the Chishti
saints believed in simplicity and pious life therefore they continued to deny the
material gifts given to them
• The Alvars and the Nayanars and their approach towards the caste:
According to some historians, the Alvars and the Nayanars started a movement of
protest against the caste system and the Brahmanas and tried to reform the system.
The devotees came from the different social backgrounds such as artisans, cultivators
and even from the caste that were considered “untouchable”.
• Compositions of the Alvars and the Nayanars: The compositions of the Alvars
and the Nayanars are considered to be as important as the Vedas. For example, one of
the anthologies of compositions of the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham (Four
Thousand Sacred Compositions) was described as the Tamil Veda and the text was
significant like the Vedas that were used by the Brahmanas.
•
Women devotees: According to historians one of the striking features of these
traditions was the presence of women. For example there was a saint-poet called
Andal, a woman Alvar. Her compositions were sung and are sung even today in many
parts of the country. Another woman Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva
followed the path of extreme asceticism to attain her goal. Her compositions were
preserved within the Nayanar tradition. These women renounced their social
obligations, but did not become nuns. Their presence in these traditions was a
challenge to patriarchal norms.
• Lingayats and their beliefs: Even today Lingayats are an important community
in Karnataka. They worship Shiva in the form of linga. They wear a small linga in a
silver case over the left shoulder. Jangama or wandering monks are revered. Lingayats
believe that after the death, the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return
to this world. Therefore they do not practice funerary rituals such as cremation as
prescribed in the Dharmashastras, but bury the dead body.
• Challenge to the caste system: The Lingayats strongly challenged the idea of
caste and notion of “pollution” as propagated by Brahmanas. They also questioned the
theory of rebirth. Their critical approach towards the caste won them number of
followers who were marginalised by the Brahmanical social order. The Lingayats also
practiced certain approvals that were rejected by the Dharmashastras such as post-
puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows. We get more information about the
Virashaiva from vachanas (literally, sayings) composed in Kannada by the people
who joined the movement.
Sufi silsilas began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around the
twelfth century. The word silsilaliterally means a chain, signifying a continuous link
between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the
Prophet Muhammad.
It was through this channel that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to
devotees. Special rituals of initiation were developed in which initiates took an oath of
allegiance, wore a patched garment, and shaved their hair.
Discuss the ways in which the Alwars, Nayanars and Virashaivas expressed
critiques of the caste systems.
Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest
against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to
reform the system. To some extent this is corroborated by the fact that bhaktas hailed
from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators
and even from castes considered "untouchable".
• The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka,
led by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-08). His followers were known as
Virashaivas or Lingayats (Wearers of the linga).
• The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the pollution attributed to certain
groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth. These won them
followers amongst those who were marginalised within the Brahmanical social order.
• The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the
Dharmashastras, such as post puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
Analyse, with illustrations, why bhakti and sufi thinkers adopted a variety of
languages in which to express their opinions.
Bhakti thinkers and different languages which were adopted by them to express their
opinion.
• Early Bhakti Saints Pali, Prakarat Tamil and Malyalam etc. languages.
• The Brahmans of South Indian put his views and ideas in Sanskrit and local
languages.
• Kabir's poems have survived in several languages and dialects, and some are
composed the special languages of nirguna poets.
• Baba Guru Nanak, Ravidas etc. composed their hymns in various languages such
as Punjabi and Hindi etc.
• Mirabai compose her Bhajans in Rajsthani and Hindi.
• Some saint of Maharastra and Gujarati uses Marathi and Gujarati language.
Kabir's Teachings:
• Kabir did not accept the caste distinction. He believed that none could be high or
low on the score of caste.
• Kabir was opposed to customs and rituals. He has opposed worship, roja-namaj,
pilgrimage and haj etc.
• Kabir believed in the unity of all religions according to him, there is no distinction
between Hindu-Muslim. The destination of both is the same only the paths are
different.
• His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external worship of both Brahmanical
Hinduism and Islam the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the caste system.
• Kabir opposed caste distinction, condemned bad company, stressed upon -
meditation and love. He identified the teacher with God.
Historians who have tried to understand these developments suggest that there were at
least two processes at work. One was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas.
At the same time there was a second process at work that of the Brahmanas accepting
and reworking the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories.
Example - Through an instance we can say that a local deity whose image was and
continues to be made of wood by local tribal specialists, was recognised as a form of
Vishnu.
These local deities were often incorporated within the Puranic framework by
providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities - sometimes
they were equated with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu.