CLASSIFICATION OF CURRICULUM THEORIES

CURRICULUM THEORIST THEORIST`S BOOK THEORISTS´ CURRICULUM THEORIES

ISP Nation and John

1. Macalister P. 3 • Model that needs to be followed in order to create a curriculum design that
(2010) includes Principles, needs and environment that are primary factors to consider
Teaching curriculum design because can affect the goal directly.
.
• The goals include (content and sequencing, format and presentation and
Monitoring and assessment and all of the elements are evaluated to measure
effectiveness.

2. Hutchinson and Waters P 5-8 • The theorist presents the Parts of a curriculum design process
( 1987) for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: Including the Environment analysis, Discovering needs, following principles, goals,
Cambridge content and sequencing for a curriculum design.
University Press. [1] :

3. Dubin and Olshtain P. 8-11. • According to the theorist the curriculum can be presented in different forms
(1986) Dubin, F. and Olshtain, E. 1986. Curriculum such as: linear, modular, cyclical and Matrix. The curriculum processes imply
Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Finding a process and presenting material, monitoring and assessing and
Press.
evaluating a course.
.

4. Tessmer, M. P. 14
1990) A neglected stage of instructional design. • Tessmer indicates that there are taken in consideration important aspects prior
Educational Technology Research and Development 38, 1: to design a curriculum to make it more effective such as Environment analysis
55–64. [2]:[ 14p]
(learners, teachers, situation) Environment constraints [constraints and effects
(general, particular and effects on curriculum design)].

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 Richards, J.C.
5. P 14-18 The Theorist implies the Understanding of barriers or obstacles also called constraints
Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. (constraint of time: local information from the environment, research information, and
Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. [1, 2, 4]:[14-18p]
the effects of the time constraint on the design of the course).
●

6. Dubin, F. and Olshtain, E. P. 19 (1986) Curriculum Design. Cambridge: Then the Dubin and Olshtain also list five steps to have an effective environment
Cambridge University analysis to design a course including important aspects such as; The language settings,
Press. [19p]
patterns of language use in a society, Group and individual attitudes and political and
national context.
7. Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. P. 24-25 (1987) for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: The theorist focuses in the consideration of needs analysis: Necessities of the group
Cambridge involved, Lacks or the current knowledge and Wants which is the expectation of what
University Press. [1]: [24-25p]
teacher and students want to accomplish

8. Munby, J. P. 25-26 1978) Communicative Syllabus Design. The curriculum theorists Provide questions that focus on needs including areas of
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. language learning such as Goals, Language, Ideas, Skills and texts.
[1,3, 7]: [25-26]

9 Long, M.H. P3 Long proposes Methods and examples of Needs analysis that involve the focus and the
(2005) a (ed). Second Language Needs Analysis. method to accomplish it based on Necessities, lacks and wants.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. [3]
Decide what course content and presentation features will meet the needs evaluated
involving elements such as evaluating needs analysis, issues in needs analysis,
(common core and specialized language, Narrow focus – wide focus and Critical needs
analysis)

10
George, H.V. 1963a. Report on a Verb
George H. V. Form Frequency Count. Monograph of ✓ Methods and principles
the Central Institute of English, 1. Method approach
Hyderabad, Volumes 1 and 2. [4, 5]

11 Ellis, R. 1. Ellis, R. 2005. Principles of ✓ The twenty principles

instructed language learning. o Content and sequence

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 System 33: 209–224. [1, 4] ▪ Frequency
▪ Strategies and autonomy
▪ Spaced retrieval
▪ Language system
▪ Keep moving forward
▪ Teach ability
▪ Learning burden
▪ Interference

12 Krahnke, K.J. and o Format and presentation

Christison, M.A. Krahnke, K.J. and Christison, M.A. 1983. ▪ Motivation
Recent language research and some ▪ Four strands
language teaching principles. TESOL ▪ Comprehensible input
Quarterly 17, 4: 625–649. [4] ▪ Fluency
▪ Output
▪ Deliberate learning
▪ Time on task
▪ Depth of processing
▪ Interrogative motivation
o Monitoring and assessment
▪ Ongoing needs and environment analysis
feedback
13 George, H.V.
George, H.V. 1972. Common Errors in 1. Content and sequencing
Language Learning. Rowley, MA: 1. The best possible coverage of language in use through
Newbury House. [1] the inclusion of items that occur frequently in English.

14
Carroll, J.B., Davies, P. and Richman, B.
Carroll, J. B. 1971. The American Heritage Word High-frequency items of the language by comparing it with available
Frequency Book. Boston: Houghton frequency lists.
Mifflin. [4]

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15
Wong Fillmore, L. 1983. The language
learner as an individual: Implications of A language course should train the learners in how to learn a language,
Wong, F. L.
research on individual differences for so that they can become effective and independent language learners.
the ESL teacher. In M.A. Clarke and J.
Handscombe (eds), On TESOL ’82: 157–
173. [4]
16
Suggested five principles for promoting learner autonomy that teachers
Cotterall, S. 2000. Promoting learner and curriculum designers should consider.
autonomy through the curriculum:
Cotterall, S.
Principles for designing language ▪ Learner goals
courses. ELT Journal 54, 2: 109–117. [4] ▪ The language learning process
▪ Task
▪ Learner strategies
▪ Reflection on learning
17
Kachroo, J.N. 1962. Report on an
investigation into the teaching of Learners should have increasingly spaced, repeated opportunity to give
Kachroo, J.N.
vocabulary in the first year of English. attention to wanted items in a variety of contexts.
Bulletin of the Central Institute of English
2: 67–72. [4]

18 The language focus of a course needs to be on generalizable features on

Johns, T. and Davies, F. 1983. Text as a the language system.
vehicle for information: The classroom Vocabulary
use of written texts in teaching reading a. High-frequency vocabulary.
Johns, T. and Davies, in a foreign language. Reading in a b. Underlying meaning
F. Foreign Language 1, 1: 1–19. [4] c. Word parts
Structure
Nation, I.S.P. 1979. The curse of the d. Frequent structures
comprehension question: Some Discourse
alternatives. Guidelines 2: 85–103. [4] e. Topic type
f. Rhetorical structure

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 g. Cohesive devices.

19
Pienemann, M., Johnston, M. and A language course should progressively cover useful language items, skills
Brindley, G. 1988. Constructing an and strategies.
acquisition-based procedure for
Pienemann, M.
second language assessment. Studies in The teaching of language items should take account of the most
Second Language Acquisition 10: 217– favorable sequencing of these items and should take account of when
243. [4] the learners are most ready to learn them.

20 Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding Second

Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [4]
Structures in order of acquisition
Goldschneider, J.M. and DeKeyser, R.M.
a. single words, formulae
2005. Explaining the natural order of L2
b. SVO, SVO?
morpheme acquisition in English: A
Ellis, R. c. ADVERB PREPOSING
meta-analysis of multiple determinants.
d. DO FRONTING
Language Learning 55, 1: 27–77. [4]
Goldschneider, J.M e. TOPICALIZATION
f. NEG + V(don’t)
Izumi, E. and Isahara, H. 2005.
Izumi, E. and Isahara, g. PSEUDO-INVERSION
Investigation into language learners’
H. h. YES/NO-INVERSION
acquisition order based on an error
i. PARTICLE SHIFT
analysis of a learner corpus. In
Pienemann, M., j. V-“TO”-V
Proceedings of IWLeL 2004: An
Johnston, M. and k. 3RD-SG-S
interactive workshop on language e-
Brindley, G. l. DO-2ND
learning. Tokyo, Japan: 63–71. [4]
m. AUX-2ND
n. ADV-LY
Pienemann, M., Johnston, M. and
o. Q-TAG
Brindley, G. 1988. Constructing an
p. ADV-VP
acquisition-based procedure for
second language assessment. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition 10: 217–
243. [4]

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21
Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics across
Cultures. Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan Press. [4]
Lado, R.
The course should help the learners to make the most effective use of
Ringbom, H. 1987. The Role of the First previous knowledge.
Ringbom, H. 1987
Language in Foreign Language
Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters. [4]

22 George, H.V. 1962. On teaching and

“unteaching”. ELT Journal 17, 1: 16–20.
The items in a language course should be sequenced so that items, which
George, H. V. [3]
are learned together, have a positive effect on each other for learning,
and so that interference effects are avoided.
West, M. West, M. 1955. Learning to Read a
Foreign Language (2nd ed.). London:
Longman. [4]
23 Format and presentation
As much as possible, the learners should be interested and excited about
learning the language and they should come to value this learning.
Crabbe D.
Make the subject matter of the lessons relevant and interesting to them.
Surveys of wants and attitudes can help gather information to guide this.
Crabbe, D. 1993. Fostering autonomy
Give the learners some control and decision-making over what they do. A
from within the classroom: The
negotiated or partly negotiated syllabus (see Chapter 10) is one way to
teacher’s responsibility. System 21, 4:
do this.
443–452. [4, 10, 14]
Set tasks with clear outcomes and with a high possibility of the learners
completing them successfully.

Set many short achievement tests to encourage the learners to work and
to show them that they can be successful learners.
Show the learners how to keep records of their progress so that they can

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 see their continuing success. These records can include speed reading
graphs, standardized dictation scores, number of graded readers
completed and movement through the levels, scores on split-information
tasks and writing-accuracy graphs.
24 Cotterall, S. 2000. Promoting learner Help the learners become autonomous learners (Crabbe, 1993; Cotterall,
autonomy through the curriculum: 2000) by explaining the rationale and goals of particular classroom
Cotterall, S.
Principles for designing language activities, by the teacher modelling autonomous behaviour and by
courses. ELT Journal 54, 2: 109–117. [4] learners modelling autonomous behaviour for each other.
25 Reward learners’ efforts through publication in a class newsletter, through
praise and through attention from the teacher.
Nation, I.S.P. 1989a. Improving speaking
Nation, I.S.P.
fluency. System 17, 3: 377–384. [4]
Use tasks that contain built-in challenges such as competition, time
pressure, memory and hidden puzzle-like solutions (Nation, 1989a).
26 Boon, A. 2007. Mission: Possible. Modern Encourage learners to set achievable and realistic individual goals (Boon,
Boon, A.
English Teacher 16, 2: 40–47. [4] 2007).
27 A course should include a roughly even balance of the four strands of
meaning-focused input, language-focused learning, meaning-focused
Elley, W. and Mangubhai, F. 1981. The output and fluency activities.
Impact of a Book Flood in Fiji Primary
Elley, W. Schools. Wellington: NZCER. [4, 8, 12] There should be substantial quantities of interesting comprehensible
receptive activity in both listening and reading.
Nord, J. Nord, J. 1980. Developing listening
fluency before speaking: An alternative In a very practical and well-conducted experiment, Elley and Mangubhai
paradigm. System 8, 1: 1–22. [4] (1981) replaced part of drill-based English lessons for Fijian learners of
English with self-directed reading of interesting children’s books.

28 Day, R.R. and Bamford, J. 2002. Top ten There are various ways in which teachers can build up class sets (not all of
principles for teaching extensive the same title) of reading texts. Here are some of them:
reading. Reading in a Foreign
Day, R.R. and Language 14, 2: 136–141. [4] Seek funding from an embassy of an English-speaking country to finance
Bamford such a library. A request like this has more chance of being successful if it
Day, R.R. and Bamford, J. 1998. contains a list of the required books, their total cost, and information
Extensive Reading in the Second about where they can be obtained.
Language Classroom. Cambridge: Get each learner to buy one text each and then organize a system for

7
 Cambridge University Press. [4] temporarily exchanging the books amongst the members of the class so
that each learner can read the books belonging to other learners in the
class.

Build up a reading box of material taken from newspapers, written by

learners, written by a group of co-operating teachers, and put on cards or
in plastic bags.

Place a book in a glass-covered case. Each day turn one page so that
the

learners can read more of the story each day. (We are grateful to Tony
Howe for this suggestion.)
29 Reading aloud
Elley (1989) also conducted research on reading stories aloud to learners
Elley, W. 1989. Vocabulary acquisition to see what effect this would have on vocabulary learning. He found that
Elley, W. from listening to stories. Reading there was substantial learning of vocabulary from listening especially if the
Research Quarterly 24, 2: 174–187. [4] teacher
briefly singled out a word for attention by writing it on the blackboard or
by quickly giving its meaning.
30 Winitz, H. (ed) 1981. The Comprehension
Approach to Foreign Language
Winitz, H. Advocates of the comprehension approach to language learning
Instruction. Rowley, MA: Newbury
House. [4]
31 Terrell, T. 1982. The natural approach to
language teaching: An update.
Terrell, T. The natural approach stress
Modern Language Journal 66, 2: 121–
132. [4]
32 McComish, J. 1982. Listening to pictures. Ways of incorporating it to a language course
McComish, J. Modern English Teacher 10, 2: 4–8. [4, • Set aside a regular time in each language class for listening to a
13] short story or a continuing story read by the teacher.
Nation, I.S.P. and • Provide taped stories that learners can take home or listen to in
Newton, J. Nation, I.S.P. and Newton, J. 2009. class.
Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and • Use quantity-based listening techniques like listening to pictures

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 Speaking. New York: Routledge. [1, 4, 6] (McComish, 1982), listen and draw, padded questions (Nation
and Newton, 2009).
33 Brumfit, C.J. 1984b. The Bangalore
Procedural Syllabus. ELT Journal 38, 4:
233–241. [5, 8, 10]
A language course should provide activities aimed at increasing the
Brumfit, C.J. 1985. Accuracy and fluency with which the learners can use the language they already know,
fluency: A fundamental distinction for both receptively and productively.
communicative teaching
Brumfit, C.J. methodology. In C.J. Brumfit, Language Fluency
and Literature Teaching: From Practice
Ellis, R. to Principle. Oxford: Pergamon. Fluency is often contrasted with accuracy (Brumfit, 1984), and is seen as a
way of making consciously studied material become available for less
Ellis, R. 1987. Contextual variability in conscious use. Ellis (1987) sees fluency activities as a way of making
second language acquisition and the features of learners’ “careful” style of language use become available in
relevancy of language teaching. In R. other less monitored styles.
Ellis (ed), Second Language Acquisition
in Context. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall International. [4]
34 Pimsleur, P. 1967. A memory schedule. Features of fluency tasks
Modern Language Journal 51, 2: 73–75. Features:
[4] - Quantity (processing a large amount of language)
- Limited demands (focusing only on fluency without having to cope
Brumfit, C.J. 1985. Accuracy and with too many new language items or unfamiliar ideas).
Pimsleur, P. 1967 fluency: A fundamental distinction for - Preparation, planning, seeking feedback
communicative teaching - Repetition by the learner.
Brumfit, C. J. 1985 methodology. In C.J. Brumfit, Language - High rate of processing
and Literature Teaching: From Practice
Ellis, R. 1987 to Principle. Oxford: Pergamon.

Ellis, R. 1987. Contextual variability in Ways of producing the features

second language acquisition and the
relevancy of language teaching. In R. - Set of goals of time or quantity.
Ellis (ed), Second Language Acquisition - Learner control: choice of topic, language, organization.

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 in Context. Englewood - Teacher control: or supported material.
- Set a goal.
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International. [4] - A new audience
- A new goal
- Limited time
- A running record, e.g. a graph.
35 Swain, M. 1985. Communicative
competence: Some roles of
comprehensible input and
comprehensible output in its
development. In S. Gass and C.
Swain, M. Madden (eds), Input in Second
Speaking and writing
Language Acquisition (pp. 235–253).
Biber, D. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. [4]
The learners should be pushed to produce the language in both speaking
and writing over a range of discourse types.
Munby, J. Biber, D. 1990. A typology of English
texts. Linguistics 27: 3–43. [5]

Munby, J. 1978. Communicative

Syllabus Design. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. [1,3, 7]
36 Long, M.H. 1988. Instructed
interlanguage development. In L.
Beebe (ed), Issues in Second Language
Language-focusing
Long, M.H. Acquisition. New York: Newbury House.
[4]
The course should include language-focused learning in the sound
Ellis, R.
system, vocabulary, grammar and discourse areas.
Ellis, R. 1990. Instructed Second
Language Acquisition. Oxford: Basil
Blackwell. [4]
37 Language-focused learning requires certain conditions to be effective.
Ellis, R. 1995. Interpretation tasks for
Ellis, R.
grammar teaching. TESOL Quarterly 29, • The language features focused on must be reasonably simple.
1: 87–105. [4] • The language features should not be influenced by developmental

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 sequences or, if they are, the learners should be at the appropriate
stage of development to benefit from the attention.
• If the purpose of the learning is to make learning from meaning-
focused input more effective, then it is sufficient to raise learners’
awareness of the item and its use (Ellis, 1995).
38 Wong Fillmore, L. 1982. Instructional
language as linguistic input: Second-
language learning in classrooms. In L.C.
Wilkinson (ed), Communicating in the As much time as possible should be spent using and focusing on the
Wong, F. L.
Classroom: Language, Thought and second language.
Culture. Advances in the Study of
Cognition Series. New York, NY:
Academic Press. [4]
39 Time on task

Davis, P. with Pearse, E. 2000. Success in The “time on task” principle is important at all levels. Even with absolute
Davis, P. with Pearse,
English Teaching. Oxford: Oxford beginners there are many opportunities to establish the target language
E.
University Press. [4] as the main classroom language, by using it for greetings and farewells,
instructions and other naturally recurring interactions (Davis and Pearse,
2000).
40 Craik, F.I.M. and Lockhart, R.S. 1972.
Levels of processing: A framework for
Learners should process the items to be learned as deeply and as
Craik, F.I.M. memory research. Journal of Verbal
thoughtfully as possible.
Learning and Verbal Behavior 11: 671–
684. [4]
41 The course should be presented so that the learners have the most
favorable attitudes to the language, users of the language, use of the
Dörnyei, Z. 2001. Motivational Strategies
language, the teacher’s skill in teaching the language and their chances
in the Language Classroom.
Dörnyei, Z. of success in learning the language.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[4]
There should be opportunity for learners to work with the learning material
in ways that most suit their individual learning style.
42 Krashen, S. Krashen, S. 1981. The fundamental Monitoring and assessment
pedagogical principle in second

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 Ellis, R. language teaching. Studia Linguistica The selection, gradation, presentation and assessment of the material in a
35, 1–2: 50–70. [4] language course should be based on a careful consideration of the
learners and their needs, the teaching conditions, and the time and
Ellis, R. 1987. Contextual variability in resources available.
second language acquisition and the
relevancy of language teaching. In R. Learners should receive helpful feedback which will allow them to
Ellis (ed), Second Language Acquisition improve the quality of their language use.
in Context. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall International. [4]
43 Franken, M. 1987. Self-questioning
scales for improving academic writing. Focus on the product of communication, particularly in reading and
Guidelines 9, 1: 1–8. [4] writing, can have a positive effect on language use. Feedback about the
process of communication can bring about valuable improvement in
Franken, M.
Chandler, J. 2003. The efficacy of formal speaking, and in writing (Franken, 1987). The giving and receiving
various kinds of error feedback for of feedback, usually from all three sources, is an integral part of the
Chandler, J
improvement in the accuracy and process approach to writing. A key point for teachers to remember,
fluency of L2 student writing. Journal of however, is that the learners are required to do something with the
Second Language Writing 12, 3: 267– feedback they receive (Chandler, 2003).
296. [4]
44 Ten principles of Ellis

Ellis (2005) presents a list of ten principles which overlap with the list of
twenty mentioned in this chapter. Which ones overlap? Write the number
of the overlapping principle from Table 4.1 next to the principle below.
Ellis, R. 2005. Principles of instructed
Which of Ellis’s principles are not in Table 4.1? Here are Ellis’s principles:
language learning. System 33: 209–224.
[1, 4] Fedderholdt, K. 2001. An email
Ellis, R Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of
exchange project between non-native
formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence.
speakers of English. ELT Journal 55, 3:
273–280. [11]
Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning.

Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form.

Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit

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 knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge.

Instruction needs to take into account the learner’s “built-in syllabus”.

Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input.

Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for

output.

The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2

proficiency.

Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners.

In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well

as controlled production.
45 Page 71.
Vocabulary
Coxhead, A. 2000. A new academic
Coxhead, A.
word list. TESOL Quarterly 34, 2: 213-238, A new academic word list.
[1,3,5]

46 Learning vocabulary in another language.

a. the goals of vocabulary learning.
Page 73.
b. knowing a word,
Nation, I.S.P. Nation, I.S.P. 2001. Learning vocabulary
c. Teaching and explaining vocabulary.
in Another Language. Cambridge:
d. specialized uses of vocabulary
Cambridge University Press. [7, 14]
e. word study strategy.

47 Page 73. A general service list of English Words.

West, M.
West, M. 1953. A general service list of a. A list of 2,000 most frequent words in English.
English Words. London: Longman. [4,5]

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48 Page 73.
A computational Analysis of Present Day American English
Kucera, H. and a. The corpus vocabulary
Kucera, H. and Francis, W.N. 1967. A
Francis, W.N. b. analyses of the corpu
computational Analysis of Present Day
c. word- frequency distribution
American English, Providence, RI: Brown
d. word length
University Press. [4]
sentence length
49 Page 74.

Willis, J. and Willis, D. 1989. Collins’

Willis and Willis COBUILD English course
COBUILD English course. London: Collins
ELT. [5]

50 Page 74.
Higa, M. 1963. Interference effects of
Higa, M. interlist word relationships in verbal . Interference effects of interlist word relationships in verbal learning journal
learning journal of Verbal Learning and of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior.
Verbal Behavior. 2:170-175. [1,4]

51 Page 74.
Grammar
George, H.V. 1963b. A Verb form
George, H.V.
frequency count. ELT journal 18, 1:31-37
A Verb form frequency count, a. Grammatical implication.
[4,5].

52 Functions
Page 75. 1. Threshold level English.
Van Ek, J.A. and Van Ek, J.A. and Alexander, L.G. 1980. a. Imparting and seeking factual information
Alexander. Threshold Level English. Oxford: b. expressing and finding out intellectual attitudes
Pergamon Press. [1,5] c. expressing and finding out emotional attitudes
d. expressing and finding out moral attitudes
e. getting things done

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 f. socializing

53 2. The notional syllabus: Theory and practice. English Teaching Forum

Page. 75 a. Imparting and seeking factual information
Debson, J. 1979. The notional syllabus: b. expressing and finding out attitudes
Dobson
Theory and practice. English Teaching c. Suasion
Forum 17, 2:2-10. [5] d. Socializing
e. structuring discourse
communication repair.
54 Page 76.
Discourse
1. (1990) Biber
1. A typology of English texts.
(1990) Biber D. Biber, D. 1990. A typology of English
a. Features in text types.
texts. Linguistics 27: 3-43. [5]

55 Page 76.
1. (1978) Brown Skillis, subskills and strategies
Brown, G. 1978. Understanding spoken 11. Understanding spoken language.
(1978) Brown G.
language, TESOL Quartely 12, 3:271-283. a. Interactional speaking and transactional speaking.
[5]

56 12.Taxonomy of Educational Objectives .

Page 77. a. Cognitive activity.
1. (1956) Bloom’s taxonomy b. Knowledge
(1956) Bloom’s
Bloom, B.S. (ed) 1956. Taxonomy of c. comprehension
taxonomy
Educational Objectives . Book 1. d. application
Bloom, B.S.
Cognitive Domain. London: Longman. e. analysis,
[5] f. synthesis
g. evaluation.

57 Page. 78
1. 1992) Chikalanga A suggested taxonomy of inferences for the reading teacher.
Chikalanga Chikalanga, I. 1992. A suggested a. Comprehension activities
taxonomy of inferences for the reading
teacher. Reading in a Foreign

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 Langage, 8, 2:697-709. [5]

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1. 2005) Day and Park
Day, R.R. and Park, J.-S. 2005. 14. Developing reading comprehension questions. Reading in a
Day and Park Developing reading comprehension Foreign Language
questions. Reading in a Foreign Comprehension activities.
Language 17, 1:60-73. [5]

59 Ideas
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15. . What should language teaching be about?
14. (1983) Cook
a. Content ideas.
Cook, V.J. 1983. What should language
Cook V.J. b. Imaginary happenings
teaching be about? ELT journal
c. learner survival needs,
37,3:229-234, [5].
d. interesting facts
e. culture.

60 Page78
14. (1990) Britten and Fahsi Design decisions on the cultural content of a secondary English course for
Britten and Fahsi Adaskio, K., Britten, D. and Fahsi, B. Morocco
Adaskio, K., 1990. Design decisions on the cultural a. Aesthetic,
content of a secondary English course b. sociological,
for Morocco. Elt Journal 44, 1:3-1. [5] c. semantic and sociolinguistic culture.

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. Cultural progression in teaching and learning foreign languages.
Witte, A. 2006. Cultural progression in
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teaching and learning foreign
Seven stages of cultural progression
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Prabhu N.S. Page 80.
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 Prahbu, N.S. 1987. Second Language a. Teaching, learning,
Pedagogy. Oxford:Oxford University b. syllabus and material
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63 19. Task-based Language Learing and Teaching.

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c. approaches,
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e. benefits and challenges.

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14. (2001) Bygate
Bygate, M., Skehan, P. and Swain, M.
2001. Introduction. In M. Bygate, P. 18. Researching Pedagogic Tasks, Second Language Learning,
Bygate,M Skehan and M. Swain ((eds) a. Language and learning of students tasks.
Researching Pedagogic Tasks, Second
Language Learning, Teaching and
Testing. Hawlow: Longman. [4]

65 Page 80
14. (2007) Willis and Willis
Willis and Willis Willis, D. and Willis, J. 2007. Doing Takd-
based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [4,11]
20. Doing Takd-based Teaching.
a. Nature of a task.
Six questions that help teachers and the curriculum designer determine
the extent to which an activity is task-like.

66 Linear approaches to sequencing

Page 82.
14. (1962) Bruner
15. The Process of Education.
Bruner J.S. Bruner, J.S. 1962. The Process of
a. Spiral curriculum.
Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
b. the importance of structure,
University Press. [5]
c. readiness for learning,
d. intuitive and analytic thinking,

17
 e. motives for learning,
f. aids to teaching.

Page 84
14. (1995) Michael West
14. Learning to Read a Foreign Language. Reading activities.
West, M. 1955. Learning to Read a
Michael West
67 Foreign Language (2nd ed.). London:
Longman. [4]

68 Page 84.
14. (1999) Nation and Wang
Nation, I.S.P. and Wang, K. 1999.
Nation and Wang Graded readers and vocabulary. Graded readers and vocabulary. Reading in a Foreign Language
Reading in a Foreign Language 12, 2:
355–380. [5]

69 Page 88.
A MODULAR APPROACH TO SEQUENCING
14. (1994) Block
Block, D. 1994. A day in the life of a
16. A day in the life of a class: Teacher/learner
Block, D class: Teacher/learner perceptions of
a. perceptions of task
task purpose in conflict. System 22, 4:
b. purpose in conflict.
473–486. [6]
Teachers and learners do not share the same view of parts of a lesson.
70 Page 90.
14. (2007) Nation The four standards
(2007) Nation I.S.P. Nation, I.S.P. 2007. The four strands.
Innovation in Language Learning and 14. The four strands. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching
Teaching 1, 1: 1–12. [6] a. Specifications for making the tests.

71 Page 90 17. The fundamental pedagogical principle in second language

14. (1981) Krashen
Krashen, S. 1981. The fundamental
(1981) Krashen, S.
pedagogical principle in second
language teaching. Studia Linguistica
teaching.
a. Meaning-focused input
b. Listening and speaking.
Comprehensive input.

18
 35, 1–2: 50–70. [4]

72 Page 93. Fluency development

14. (2006) Chung and Nation
Chung and Nation Chung, M. and Nation, I.S.P. 2006. The 18. The effect of a speed reading course.
I.S.P effect of a speed reading course. a. Controlled vocabulary,
English Teaching 61, 4: 181–204. [6] b. ways to improve reading speed.

73 19. Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing.

a. Learning to read in another language
b. learning to recognize and spell words,
Page. 94
c. intensive reading,
14. (2009) Nation and Newton
Nation and Newton d. extensive reading,
Nation, I.S.P. 2009. Teaching ESL/EFL
e. reading faster,
Reading and Writing. New York:
f. assessing reading,
Routledge. [6]
g. helping learners write,
the writing process.
74
Page 97
Blocks and threads
14. (1995) Woodward
Woodward T. Woodward, T. and Lindstromberg, S.
1995. Planning from Lesson to Lesson.
Planning from lesson to lesson. Blocks and threads lessons.
London: Longman. [6]

75 Tasks and presentations

Page 103 20. A Framework for Task-based Learning.

14. (1996) Willis a. Language structure,
Willis, J. b. task-based syllabus,
Willis, J. 1996. A Framework for Task-
based Learning. Harlow: Longman. [6] c. task-based learning framework.
d. It consists of three phrases: pre-task,
e. the task cycle
language focus.

19
76
Nation, I.S.P. and Beglar, D. 2007. A
Beglar, D. 2007 vocabulary size test. The Language
Teacher 31, 7: 9–13. [3, 7]
✓ Monitoring and assessment
o Guidelines for monitoring and assessment
o Types of monitoring and assessment
1. Placement assessment
2. Observation learning
3. Short-term achievement assessment
4. Diagnostic assessment
5. Achievement assessment
6. Proficiency assessment

The Vocabulary Size Test (Nation and Beglar, 2007) is a proficiency

measure of vocabulary size. Teachers can make their own proficiency
tests, however, and proficiency can be assessed through scales and
checklists.

77 Tests

P. 110 Tests, which focus on language items, include pronunciation, vocabulary

Meara, P. 1987 Meara, P. and Buxton, B. 1987. An and grammar tests. For example, a placement test designed for the
From Council of alternative to multiple choice Council of Europe (Meara and Buxton, 1987) consists of a computerised
Europe. vocabulary tests. Language Testing 4, 2: yes/no test where the learners see individual words without context from
142–151. [7] various frequency levels and have to indicate whether they know the
word or not.

78 Placement tests:
111
Meara, P. and Buxton, B. 1987. An 1. The Eurocentres Vocabulary Test has already been mentioned. This test
Meara, P. and Buxton,
alternative to multiple choice takes about ten minutes to sit and is automatically scored by the
B.
vocabulary tests. Language Testing 4, 2: computer that administers it. It is reported to work well as a placement
142–151. [7] test (Meara and Buxton, 1987).

20
79
111
4. Nation, I.S.P. 1990. Teaching and
Learning Vocabulary. New York:
Newbury House. [1, 7]
Nation, I.S.P. 1990 5. Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D. and
From Council of Clapham, C. 2001. Developing and
Europe. exploring the behavior of two new
versions of the Vocabulary Levels
Test. Language Testing 18, 1: 55–88.
[7]
80 Allen, V.F. 1970. Toward a thumbnail
Allen, V.F. 1970 test of English competence. English
Teaching Forum 8, 3: 37. [7]
81 111
7. Savage, W. and Whisenand, R. 1993.
Logbooks and language learning
objectives in an intensive ESL
workshop. TESOL Quarterly 27, 4:
Savage, W. and 741–746. [7]
Whisenand, R. 8. Nation, I.S.P. 1990. Teaching and
Learning Vocabulary. New York:
Newbury House. [1, 7]
What are the design features of the activity that set up the learning
Nation, I.S.P. 2001. Learning Vocabulary
conditions or that need to be changed to set up the learning conditions?
in Another Language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. [7, 14]
82 P. 112
Brown, J.D.
Brown, J.D. 1995. The Elements of
2. The Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation, 1990; Schmitt et al., 2001) was
designed to see where learners needed to develop their vocabulary
knowledge and thus is basically a diagnostic test. Because knowledge
of vocabulary is an important component of language use, it has
however been effectively used as a placement test.
3. Structured interviews are often used as a placement test. In a
structured interview, the learners are interviewed individually. The
interviewer has a series of questions, beginning with common short
questions such as “What is your name?” and moving gradually to more
complex questions or commands such as “Tell me about the places
you have visited in New Zealand”.
A cloze test, particularly one where the deleted words are selected by the
test maker, can be a useful placement test. Although the cloze is
considered to be a reasonable test of general language proficiency, a
selective close can focus on particular aspects of vocabulary and
grammar. It is not a test of language in use because the conditions in
sitting a cloze test do not closely parallel meaning-focused reading.
Sentence completion tests can also be used as placement tests. Allen’s
(1970) “thumbnail test of English competence” is a modest example of
this. Here are some example completion items.
✓ Placement assessment
1. Observation of learning
1. What is the learning goal of the activity?
2. What are the learning conditions that would lead to
the achievements of this goal?
3. What are the observable signs that these learning
conditions are occurring?
✓ Short-term achievement assessment
1. What is it?
21
 Language Curriculum. New York: 2. Another performance objective
Newbury House. [5, 7] 3. What it should provide?

83 P. 113
9. Tumposky, N.R. 1984. Behavioural Performance objectives: goals
objectives, the cult of efficiency,
and foreign language learning: Are There has been considerable debate about the value of performance
they compatible? TESOL Quarterly objectives (see for example Tumposky, 1984), but Brown (1995) in an
18, 2: 295–310. [7] excellent discussion shows that while many of the criticisms are true for
Brown, J.D. and
10. Clarke, D.F. 1989. Materials poorly made objectives, there is considerable value in using performance
Tumposky, N.R.
adaptation: Why leave it all to the objectives to clarify goals for both teacher and learners, and to monitor
teacher? ELT Journal 43, 2: 133–141. progress. At the least, curriculum designers should write performance
[7, 10, 11] objectives for some of the goals of the course, particularly where there
Brown, J.D. 1995. The Elements of might be misunderstanding of what is to be learned and where focused
Language Curriculum. New York: repeated practice is needed to reach the goals.
Newbury House. [5, 7]
84 P.114
11. Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D. and
Clapham, C. 2001. Developing and
exploring the behavior of two new Diagnostic assessment
versions of the Vocabulary Levels a. Vocabulary levels test.
Test. Language Testing 18, 1: 55–88. i. High-frequency vocabulary
Schmitt, N.
[7] ii. Academic vocabulary
Morris, L. and Cobb, T. 2004. iii. Low-frequency vocabulary
Vocabulary profiles as predictors of the Cost-effective diagnosis
academic performance of Teaching
English as a Second Language trainees.
System 32: 75–87. [7]
85 P. 116
Proficiency assessment
16. Alderson, C. and Hamp-Lyons, E.
a. Difference between what is a proficiency test and an
Alderson, C. and 1996. TOEFL preparation courses: a
achievement test.
Watanabe, Y. study of washback. Language
b. IELTS
Testing 13, 3: 280–297. [7]
TOEFL
Watanabe, Y. 1996. Does grammar

22
 translation come from the entrance
examination? Preliminary findings from
classroom-based research. Language
Testing 13, 3: 318–333. [7]
86 117
Wall (1996) shows the value of regarding the introduction of a new test
Wall, D. 1996. Introducing new tests into
and the management of its washback effects as being an example of
Wall, D. traditional systems: Insights from general
educational innovation. Thus, it is useful to consider washback effects
education and from innovation theory.
using the framework and questions used in innovation theory.
Language Testing 13, 3: 334–354.[7]
87 An important value of proficiency tests is that they are one source of
evaluation data for a programme. They represent an independent
measure of the relevance and adequacy of a language course. Elder
P. 117
and O’Loughlin (2003) provide data on how much change can be
Elder, C. and O’Loughlin, K. 2003. Score
Elder, C. and expected in an IELTS score as a result of doing an intensive English
gains on IELTS after 10–12 weeks of
O’Loughlin, K. programme. Achievement measures favour the course and favour
intensive English study. IELTS Research
learners who have done the course. But, it is possible that what is being
Report 4: 62–87. [7]
done on the course, even though it is done well, does not represent what
it means to know the language. A valid proficiency measure is one way of
checking this.
88 Validity

For example, the Eurocentres Vocabulary test that we looked at earlier in

this chapter has rather low face validity – it presents words in isolation
P. 119
without a context, it does not ask for the learner to give a meaning, and it
20. Brown, D. 1983. Conversational
does not require the learners to use the vocabulary. This could affect
Brown, D. cloze tests and conversational
learners’ reaction to the test and their acceptance of its results. Similarly, a
ability. ELT Journal 37, 2: 158–161. [7]
test of speaking which does not require the learners to speak (Brown,
1983) has low face validity. A deeper understanding of how these two
tests work and how they have been validated shows that these are valid
tests, but their face validity, their appearance of being a certain kind of
test, is still low.
89 Munby, J. 1978 P. 118-119 Good assessment: reliability, validity and practicality
Richards, J.C. 1983 Examining content validity a. Reliability
Bennet, G.K. 21. Munby, J. 1978. Communicative b. Validity

23
90 Nuttall, C. Syllabus Design. Cambridge: iv. Similarity a test of speaking which does not require the
Cambridge University Press. [1,3, 7] learners to speak has low validity.
22. For listening: Richards, J.C. 1983. v. Formative and summative evaluation compared.
Listening comprehension: Design, Practicality
approach, procedure. TESOL
Quarterly 17, 2: 219–240. [7]
23. For reading: Bennett, G.K. 1972.
Review of the remote associates
test. In O.K. Buros (ed), The Seventh
Mental Measurements Yearbook.
Highland Park, NJ: Gryphon. [7]
For reading: Nuttall, C. 1996. Teaching
Reading Skills in a Foreign Language.
Oxford: Macmillan Heinemann. [7]
91 Evaluation
Steps in an evaluation.

✓ Find who the evaluation is for and what kind of information they
need.
✓ Find what the results of the evaluation will be used for – to improve
the course, to decide whether to keep or get rid of the course.
✓ Decide if the evaluation is necessary or if the needed information is
P. 123
already available.
Kiely, R. and Rea-Dickins, P. 2005.
Kiely, R. and Rea- ✓ Find how much time and money are available to do the
Program Evaluation in Language
Dickins, P evaluation.
Education. Basingstoke: Palgrave
✓ Decide what kinds of information will be gathered.
Macmillan. [8]

a. Purpose and audience of the evaluation.

• Large-scale evaluations – “tend to focus on major educational
innovations with significant financial backing with an underlying
agenda”.
• Teacher-led evaluations.
• Management-led evaluations.

24
92
P. 126
Type and focus of the evaluation.
1. Beretta, A. and Davies, A. 1985.
Beretta, A. and 1. Formative and summative distinction.
Evaluation of the Bangalore
Davies, A. 1985 • Short term evaluation
Project. ELT Journal 39, 2: 121–
• Long term evaluation
127. [8, 10]
93 P. 126 Illuminative evaluation
2. Stenhouse, L. 1975. An
Stenhouse, L. 1975 Introduction to Curriculum Where evaluation helps those involved understand what is going on in the
Research and Development. programme, and this necessarily requires teachers to be active
London: Heinemann. [8] programme evaluators.
94 P. 126
3. Long, M.H. 1984. Process and
Along with formative/summative and short term/long term, a third
Long, M.H. 1984 product in ESL program
distinction is process/product.
evaluation. TESOL Quarterly 18, 3:
409–425
95
4. Davies, A. 2006. What do learners
really want from their EFL course? Evaluating the course environment.
Davies, A. 2006 and
ELT Journal 60, 1: 3–12. [8, 10] b. Observation and checklists
Block, D. 1998.
5. Block, D. 1998. Exploring • Formative evaluation as a part of a course
interpretations of questionnaire • The results of an evaluation
items. System 26: 403–425. [8]
96 Teaching evaluation checklist
6. Tucker, C. Allen. 1968. Evaluating Disadvantages of the checklist
beginning textbooks. English
Teaching Forum 6, 5: 8–15. [8, 11] • They may “blind” the observer from seeing other important
Tucker, C. Allen. 1968
7. Clarke, D.F. 1991. The negotiated features that are not on the list,
Clarke, D.F. 1991
syllabus: What is it and how is it • They tend to become out of date as theory changes
likely to work? Applied Linguistics (consider the course book evaluation form designed by
12, 1: 13–28. [8, 10, 11] Tucker (1968)), and
• Many checklists are based on the assumption that summing

25
 the parts is equal to the whole.

97 12. Approaches to curriculum design

a. Models of curriculum design
b. A comparative analysis of Grave’s model of curriculum
design.
1. Murdoch, G.S. 1989. A pragmatic c. Environment analysis
basis for curriculum design. d. Needs analysis
Murdoch’s model English Teaching Forum 27, 1: 15– e. Principles
18. [9] f. Goals
g. Content and sequencing
h. Format and presentation
i. Monitoring and assessment
j. Evaluation
98 a. Learner’s present level of competence
b. Course objectives
c. Reasons for studying English and long-term learning aims
d. Resource limitations that affect classroom activity.
e. Sociocultural factors and learning habits of relevance to
English teaching.
2. Graves, K. 2000. Designing
f. Learners’ age group, present lifestyle and interests.
Language Courses: A Guide for
Grave’s model g. Aspects of target culture that will interest learners and can
Teachers. Boston: Heinle and
be exploited in materials.
Heinle. [9]
i. Language and procedures to be covered by the
course.
ii. Emphasis on particular skills.
iii. Methodology to be used: type and sequencing of
activities.
3. Themes for course materials and texts: choice suitable textbooks.
99 Page 139
Tessmer, M. and Wedman, J.F. 1990. A A Waterfall model.
layers-of-necessity instructional
Tessmer, M. and development model. Educational Tessmer and Wedman (1990) describe this view as a “waterfall” model,
Wedman, J.F. Technology Research and where one stage of curriculum design, for example environment analysis,

26
 Development 38, 2: 77–85. [10, 11] is done thoroughly, and then the next stage of needs analysis is done
thoroughly, and so on in much the same way as the flow of water fills one
container in a stepped-down series and then flows over to fill the next.

100 A Waterfall model.

Page 142
Macalister, J. and Macalister, J. and Sou, B. 2006. English
Sou, B. for science and technology in
Cambodia: An exercise in curriculum
design. Guidelines 28, 2: 9–12. [9]
Macalister and Sou (2006) draw on a “waterfall” model in their description
of a course’s design. The output of one stage becomes the input of the
next.
Steps in curriculum design
a. Goals
b. Content and sequencing
c. Format and presentation
d. Monitoring, assessing and evaluating

101
A Waterfall model.
P. 142
Murdoch (1989) describes a similar sequence, beginning with an analysis
Murdoch, G.S. 1989. A pragmatic basis
of learners’ present proficiency and necessities, and a study of the
for curriculum design. English Teaching
learners’ reasons for studying English and long-term learning aims (needs
Forum 27, 1: 15–18. [9]
Murdoch, G.S.. analysis). This results in a description of the content of the course.

102 ✓ A “layers of necessity” model

In Tessmer and Wedman’s model, curriculum design is seen initially as a
Tessmer, M. and choice between various layers. Each layer is complete in itself and
Tessmer, M. and Wedman, J.F. 1990. A
Wedman, J.F. includes the major parts of the curriculum design process – environment
layers-of-necessity instructional
analysis, determining needs and goals, deciding on the instructional
development model. Educational
strategy (format and presentation), developing the materials, and
Technology Research and
evaluating and revising. But each layer differs in the detail and
Development 38, 2: 77–85. [10, 11]
thoroughness with which each of these parts of curriculum design are
carried out. The curriculum designer has to decide what layer of
curriculum design will be chosen. This decision will depend on balancing

27
 the amount of time and resources available to do the curriculum design
and the level of thoroughness needed.
The layer would involve all the following steps:
a. Decide on the most severe environmental constraint on the course
and how it will affect the curriculum design.
b. Decide on the most urgent necessity that learners have to meet at
the end of the course.
c. Make a short list of items to cover.
d. Decide on a simple lesson format that will make use of available
material.
e. Gather the material for the course.
f. Decide on a simple form of assessment.
3. Deciding on an Approach
103
✓ Negotiated Syllabuses
P. 149
Breen, M. 1987 Breen, M. 1987. Contemporary
Negotiated syllabuses are also called “process syllabuses” (Breen, 1987).
paradigms in syllabus design. Language
The word process in the term process syllabus indicates that the important
Teaching 20, 2: 81–92 and 157–174. [1,
feature of this type of syllabus is that it focuses on how the syllabus is made
10]
rather than what should be in it.

104 ✓ Negotiated Syllabuses

P. 149
Clarke (1991) sees the interest in negotiated syllabuses arising from
Clarke, D.F. 1991. The negotiated
Clarke, D.F. 1991 humanistic methodologies like community language learning which are
syllabus: What is it and how is it likely to
very learner-centered, from needs analysis which focuses on learners’
work? Applied Linguistics 12, 1: 13–28.
needs, from work in individualization and learner autonomy, and from
[8, 10, 11]
learner strategy research which sees the learner playing a central role in
determining how the language is learned. These are clearly strong reasons
for having a negotiated syllabus.

105 ✓ Negotiated Syllabuses

28

P. 149
Breen, M.P. and Breen, M.P. and Littlejohn, A. 2000b. The
Littlejohn, A. 2000b. practicalities of negotiation. In Breen
and Littlejohn 2000a: 272–295. [10]
Breen and Littlejohn (2000b: 272–3) list situations where a negotiated
syllabus is almost unavoidable:
a. Where the teacher and students have different backgrounds.
b. Where time is short and the most useful choices must be made.
c. Where there is a very diverse group of students and there is a need
to find common ground.
d. Where initial needs analysis is not possible.
e. Where there is no course book.
f. Where the students’ past experiences must be part of the course.
g. Where the course is open-ended and exploratory.

106 ✓ Negotiated Syllabuses

Breen and Littlejohn (2000a: 30–31) see the range of decisions open to
negotiation as including all the parts of the central circle of the curriculum
design diagram, namely goals, content and sequencing, format and
presentation, and monitoring and assessment.
a. Purposes: Why are we learning the language? (Goals)
P. 150 b. Content: What should be the focus of our work? (Content and
Breen, M.P. and Littlejohn, A. 2000a. sequencing)
Breen, M.P. and Classroom Decision-Making. c. Ways of working: How should the learning work be carried out?
Littlejohn, A. 2000a. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Format and presentation)
[10] d. Evaluation: How well has the learning proceeded? (Monitoring and
assessment)

Breen and Littlejohn (2000a: 34–38) point out that negotiation of the goals,
content, presentation or assessment of the syllabus can occur at any level
of detail or generality from negotiating a particular task in the course, to a
sequence of tasks, a series of lessons, the whole course, or the wider
curriculum
107 P. 152 Irujo (2000) decided that negotiation of an MA teaching methodology
Irujo, S. 2000. A process syllabus in a course was best done by presenting course members with a draft syllabus

29
 methodology course: Experience, in which some items were non-negotiable, but in which there were many
beliefs, challenges. In Breen and items and procedures (methods of learning, assignments, etc.) that were
Irujo, S. Littlejohn 2000a: 209–222. [10] negotiable. Adding to the draft necessarily involved removing something
from it to provide a place for the new topic. This use of a draft syllabus
satisfied course members who felt uncomfortable with a completely
negotiated syllabus. It also made negotiation more focused and efficient,
and dealt very effectively with the wide range of experience (or lack of it)
that course members brought to the course.
108

✓ Requirements for a Negotiated Syllabus

P. 152 Breen (1987) describes the decisions to be negotiated in a negotiated
Breen, M. 1987. Contemporary (process) syllabus and the materials needed to make it work. The decisions
Breen, M. 1987 paradigms in syllabus design. Language include the following, and are made through discussion by the teacher
Teaching 20, 2: 81–92 and 157–174. [1, and the learners.
10] 1. Negotiation procedure
2. Course planning: participation
3. Course planning: procedure.
4. Course planning: learning goals
5. Course evaluation
a. Key element
b. What involves the process syllabus
6. Resources and materials

109
P. 153
Clarke, D.F. 1989. Materials adaptation:
Why leave it all to the teacher? ELT
Clarke, D.F. 1989. Journal 43, 2: 133–141. [7, 10, 11]
It is possible to have a syllabus within which some parts or some aspects
are negotiated while others are left under the control of the teacher or
curriculum designer (Clarke, 1989). There are several ways of dividing up
the syllabus. Here are some of the possibilities.
Ways of dividing up the syllabus
a. A fixed lesson or time of the day is set aside for negotiated
activities.
b. One or more of the four types of decisions described above

30
 (participation, procedure, learning goals, evaluation) is open for
negotiation. Clarke (1989)
c. The classes for one or more language s154kills.
d. One or more parts of the inner circle of the curriculum design
diagram is open to negotiation.

110 ✓ Negotiating Assessment

Several of the reports focus on negotiation of assessment and evaluation,

largely because this has direct effects on goals and ways of achieving
these goals. Breen and Littlejohn (2000a: 40) point out that there are four
major factors affecting feedback through assessment:
P. 154
a. The extent to which students are aware of the criteria being used.
Breen, M.P. and Littlejohn, A. 2000a.
b. The relative emphasis given to what they have achieved as
Classroom Decision-Making.
Breen, M.P. and compared with what they have failed to achieve.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Littlejohn, A. c. The coincidence between what the feedback focuses upon and
[10]
what the students themselves have recognized as particularly
difficult for them.
d. Whether or not they believe they can act on the basis of the
feedback in a way that solves a recognized problem.

✓ Negotiating Assessment

P. 154 Smith (2000) describes a very effective way of negotiating assessment. The
Smith, K. 2000. assessment is seen as including not only the results of tests and assigned
Smith, K. 2000. Negotiating assessment tasks, but also participation in class, homework, and class projects. Table
with secondary-school pupils. In Breen 10.1 provides a sample assessment form that was negotiated in two ways:
and Littlejohn 2000a: 55–62. [10] a. The components and percentage weightings of the components
of assessment were negotiated with the class.
b. Each individual negotiated their particular marks with the teacher.

31
Breen, M. 1987. P. 156 ✓ Disadvantages and advantages of a negotiated syllabus
Breen, M. 1987. Contemporary The advantages of a negotiated syllabus come largely from its
paradigms in syllabus design. Language responsiveness to the “wants” of the learners and the involvement
Teaching 20, 2: 81–92 and 157–174. [1, of the learners. Breen (1987) argues strongly that all courses have to
10] adjust in some way to the reality of the teaching situation and the
negotiated syllabus gives clear recognition to this.
✓ Adopting and adapting an existing course book
P. 159
Prabhu, N.S. 1989. Materials as support:
Prabhu, N.S. 1989. There has been considerable debate on the role of course books in a
Materials as constraint. Guidelines 11, 1:
language course. Prabhu (1989) suggests that because teaching must be
66–74. [11]
matched to the learners’ current knowledge, course books will not be
effective because they are not in touch with the state of this knowledge.
P. 159 Allwright (1981) sees textbooks as removing learners from negotiating the
Allwright, R.L. 1981. What do we want curriculum design process. These points underline the importance of
Allwright, R.L. 1981. teaching materials for? ELT Journal 36, having a flexible approach to the use of a course book and of choosing a
1: 5–18. [6, 11] course book which allows for flexibility.
Willis, D. and Willis, J. Teachers who want to make the classroom activities more task-like can
P. 161
2007. ask themselves the six questions proposed by Willis and Willis (2007) that
Willis, D. and Willis, J. 2007. Doing Task-
were introduced in Chapter 4. For any question that gets a “no” answer,
based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford
the teacher then considers a way to adapt the activity so that the answer
University Press.[4, 11]
becomes “yes”.

P. 164

DiGiovanni, E. and DiGiovanni, E. and Nagaswami, G.

Nagaswami, G.. 2001. Online peer review: An alternative
to face-toface? ELT Journal 55, 3: 263–
The use of computer-mediated activities in the classroom, most obviously
Fedderholdt, K.. 272. [11]
in the teaching of writing (DiGiovanni and Nagaswami, 2001; Fedderholdt,
2001)
Fedderholdt, K. 2001. An email
exchange project between non-native
speakers of English. ELT Journal 55, 3:
273–280. [11]

32
Yang, S.C. P. 164
Yang, S.C. 2001. Integrating computer- the use of the internet as a source of information (Yang, 2001)
mediated tools into the language
curriculum. Journal of Computer
Assisted Learning 17, 1: 85–93. [11]
Salaberry, M.R. Salaberry (2001) suggests four major questions for teachers to consider
P. 164
about the pedagogical effectiveness and the use of technology:
Salaberry, M.R. 2001. The use of
• Does better technology result in better teaching?
technology for second language
• Which features of technology help teaching and learning?
learning and teaching: A retrospective.
• How can we use new technologies in the curriculum?
Modern Language Journal 85, 1: 39–56.
• Do new technologies result in an efficient use of human and material
[11]
resources?
Nitta, R. and Gardner, P. 166
S. Nitta, R. and Gardner, S. 2005.
The design of any evaluation form will be determined by the focus of the
Consciousness-raising and practice in
evaluation. For example, Nitta and Gardner (2005) developed a
ELT course books. ELT Journal 59, 1: 3–13.
framework for evaluating grammar.
[11]

Reinders, H. and p. 168

Lewis, M. Reinders, H. and Lewis, M. 2006. An
Reinders and Lewis (2006) proposed a checklist for evaluating self-access
evaluative checklist for self-access
materials. Occasionally an evaluation may be concerned with wider
materials. ELT Journal 60, 3: 272–278.
social concerns in addition to language learning features.
[11]

Tucker, C. Allen..
P. 168
Sheldon, L.E.. Tucker, C. Allen. 1968. Evaluating A comparison of the evaluation forms designed by Tucker (1968), Sheldon
beginning textbooks. English Teaching (1988) and Ur (1996) shows how current theories of second-language
Ur, P. Forum 6, 5: 8–15. [8, 11] learning influence course book evaluation. An evaluation form that
Sheldon, L.E. 1988. Evaluating ELT seemed adequate twenty or forty years ago now seems inappropriate.
textbooks and materials. ELT Journal 42,
2: 237–246. [11]

33
 Ur, P. 1996. A Course in Language
Teaching: Practice and Theory.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[11] van Ek, J.A. and Alexander,
Innovation to curriculum
P. 172 Here is a list of some changes that could have a direct effect on what
happens in the classroom:
White, R.V. 1993. Innovation in ✓ Introducing a new course book
curriculum planning and program ✓ Changing to a new approach to teaching
White, R.V.
development. Annual ✓ Introducing new teaching techniques
Review of Applied Linguistics 13: 244– ✓ Changing the National English test for entering university
259. ✓ Changing part of the country’s school system to English-medium
✓ Introducing computer-assisted language learning
✓ Moving to standards-based assessment.
P. 172 Reinterpretation of curriculum
Adamson, B. and Davison, C. 2008. Describe how a curriculum introduced in Hong Kong was seen as a
English language teaching in Hong Western import and was reinterpreted by teachers to accommodate to
Kong primary the local culture. Another reason why attempts to introduce change may
schools: Innovation and resistance. In not succeed is that the process of introducing the change to teachers is
Adamson, B. and
D.E. Murray (ed), Planning Change, flawed.
Davison, C.
Changing
Plans: Innovations in Second Language
Teaching. Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan
Press.
P. 172 Cascade model of diffusion
✓ Found in Singapore that the cascade model of diffusion, with a
Goh, C.C.M. and Yin, T.M. 2008. small number of teachers attending train-the-trainer workshops in
Implementing the English Language preparation to train other teachers, is often used but does not
Goh, C.C.M. and Yin,
Syllabus 2001 always succeed.
T.M.
in Singapore schools: Interpretations
and re-interpretations. In D.E. Murray
(ed),
Planning Change, Changing Plans:

34
 Innovations in Second Language
Teaching. Ann Arbor,
MI: University of Michigan Press.
P. 173
Stoller, F.L. 1994. The diffusion of
Stoller, F.L. innovations in intensive ESL programs.
Applied
Linguistics 15, 3: 300–327.
P. 174
Stoller, F.L. 1994. The diffusion of
innovations in intensive ESL programs.
Applied
Linguistics 15, 3: 300–327.
Stoller, F.L.
P. 175
Wedell, M. Wedell, M. 2003. Giving TESOL change
a chance: Supporting key players in the
curric-
Planning the type of change
So that it is not too great and not too small
✓ Is the change too simple or too complex?
✓ Is the change too insignificant or too visible?
✓ Is the change too similar or too different from existing practices?
Six scales for describing the size of the change
The best size being in the middle area of each scale. The scales are
✓ Explicitness
✓ Visibility
✓ Originality
✓ Compatibility with past practices
✓ Difficulty/complexity, and
✓ Flexibility.
Change is most favoured if it is obvious, different, challenging and
requiring adjustment, but not too obvious, different, challenging and
requiring adjustment. If the proposed curriculum change is too small, it
may not win much support from others who do not see it as a real
innovation, and thus not worth a lot of effort. If the change is too large,
then those affected will see many obstacles to its implementation and
may be reluctant to put in the considerable effort needed to support it.
Stoller calls this need for the size of the change to be of a medium size, the
“Goldilocks syndrome” (from the children’s story Goldilocks and the Three
Bears) – not too big, not too small, but just right. The size of the change
should be a matter for planning, adjustment and negotiation.
Resources and support
✓ Consideration should also be given to the resources and support
that classroom teachers will need during the change process,
which may be on-going for a number of years.
35
 ulum change process. System 31: 439–
456.
P. 175
Kennedy, C. 1987. Innovating for a
change: Teacher development and
Kennedy, C.. innovation. ELT
Journal 41, 3: 163–169.
P. 176
Holliday, A. 1994. Appropriate
Methodology and Social Context.
Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Holliday, A.
P. 176
Freeman, D. 2002. The hidden side of
the work: Teacher knowledge and
learning to teach.
A perspective from North American
educational research on teacher
education in
Freeman, D. 2002 and
English language teaching. Language
Borg, S..
Teaching 35, 1: 1–13.
Borg, S. 2006. Teacher Cognition and
Language Education: Research and
Practice. London:
Continuum.
The people involved in the implementation of the change need to see that
there will be benefits from the change
✓ That it can be achieved, and that eventually it will not make them
more over-worked than they are at present. If their involvement in
curriculum change can be shown to add to their professional
development through publication, official recognition, and gains in
status for them or their institution, then this favours change.
When making change we must be very careful when trying to transfer
teaching methodologies from one context to another.
✓ Holliday points out the likely mismatch of methodologies from
Britain, Australasia and North America, when transferred to state
tertiary, secondary and primary education in other parts of the
world. Holliday’s message however is much wider than this,
suggesting that we need to suit teaching methodologies to the
wider culture of the teachers and learners. This wider culture
includes classroom culture, institutional norms, societal norms, and
the role of education in society.
What teachers do in the classroom is to some extent going to be
determined by what they believe.
✓ The importance of examining the role that teacher beliefs play in
deciding what happens in the classroom has been increasingly
recognized in language education research. The old-fashioned
notion that a teacher’s role is to transmit knowledge from the
curriculum to the learners has been replaced by recognition that
teachers have complex mental lives that determine what and how
teachers teach.
36
 P. 176
Freeman, D. 2002. The hidden side of
the work: Teacher knowledge and
learning to teach.
A perspective from North American
Freeman, D..
educational research on teacher
education in
English language teaching. Language
Teaching 35, 1: 1–13.
P. 176
Garton, S. 2008. Teacher beliefs and
interaction in the language classroom.
In S. Garton
and K. Richards (eds), Professional
Garton, S. Encounters in TESOL: Discourses of
Teachers in Teaching.
Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave
Macmillan.
P. 177
Kennedy, C. 1987. Innovating for a
change: Teacher development and
innovation. ELT
Kennedy, C.
Journal 41, 3: 163–169.
Teacher cognition
✓ Teachers’ complex mental lives – often called teacher cognition –
are “the hidden side of teaching” and multiple factors, which
could loosely be described as teachers’ knowledge, beliefs and
personal histories, contribute to them.
Introducing change to teachers, then, means addressing teacher beliefs
because what teachers believe affects how they teach.
✓ At the same time, however, it is important to remember that
teacher beliefs and teacher behaviour in the classroom are not
necessarily the same. Contextual factors can either facilitate or
constrain teaching practice based on teacher beliefs. For
example, language teachers are likely to believe that extensive
reading has beneficial effects on language learning and yet
extensive reading is often absent from the teaching programme.
This absence may reflect factors in the teaching–learning context,
such as assessment requirements or a lack of suitable reading
resources.
Major approaches to change:
✓ power–coercive, where change is achieved through authority,
rules and top-down pressure,
✓ rational–empirical, where change is achieved through explaining,
justifying and showing the reasons why the change is good and
necessary, and
✓ normative–re-educative, where change is achieved through
discussion, involvement and negotiation. In the short term, power–
coercive involves less time than rational–empirical which involves
less time than normative–re-educative.
37
 P. 177 Model of change and style of leadership
✓ The power–coercive approach is typical of a centre–periphery
Markee, N. 1997. Managing Curricular model, such as the educational innovations promoted by an
Innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge international aid agency from a “developed” nation, the rational–
Markee, N..
University empirical approach is typical of a research, development and
Press. diffusion model (favoured by academics who do the research),
and the normative–re-educative approach is typical of a problem-
solving model that is driven by bottom-up pressure.
P. 178 Good communication between all involved as an essential factor in all
change.
White, R.V. 1993. Innovation in
White, R.V curriculum planning and program
development. Annual
Review of Applied Linguistics 13: 244–
259.
P. 179 Innovation as involving the management of the following stages:
✓ Defining aims.
White, R.V. 1993. Innovation in ✓ Defining end results. This should make clear what the particular
curriculum planning and program benefits of the innovation will be.
development. Annual ✓ Gathering information – what we already know and what we need
Review of Applied Linguistics 13: 244– to know.
259. ✓ Defining what has to be done. This involves allocating particular
White, R.V. jobs,
✓ setting time limits, setting up procedures and preparing alternative
plans.
✓ Action – making the changes.
✓ Reviewing and evaluating.

P. 179
Markee, N.
Markee, N. 1997. Managing Curricular
Innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge
These stages show the need for careful and detailed planning plus follow
up to check on the change.
List of principles to guide curricular innovation.
✓ Curricular innovation is a complex phenomenon. This means that it
is affected by a large number of factors and by many features of
the environment in which it takes place. This often makes its

38
 University implementation and effect unpredictable.
Press. ✓ The principal job of change agents is to effect the desired
changes. This principle stresses that the person primarily responsible
for the change needs to bring practical skill and energy to what
they are doing.
✓ Good communication among project participants is a key to
successful curricular innovation.
✓ The successful implementation of educational innovations is based
on a strategic approach to managing change. This principle
underlines the idea that innovation involves short-term, medium-
term, and long-term strategies. It also involves different approaches
to change, such as power–coercive, rational–empirical, and
normative–re-educative approaches. At different times in the
change process different strategies are likely to be appropriate.
✓ Innovation is an inherently messy, unpredictable business.
✓ It always takes longer to effect change than originally anticipated.
✓ There is a high likelihood that change agents’ proposals will be
misunderstood.
✓ It is important for implementers to have a stake in the innovations
they are expected to implement.
✓ It is important for change agents to work through opinion leaders,
who can influence their peers.
P. 180 The information transfer activity.
Palmer, C. 1993. Innovation and the
Palmer, C.
experienced teacher. ELT Journal 47, 2:
166–171.
P. 185 Distinguishes between experiential practices for teacher training and
awareness-raising practices for teacher training.
Ellis, R. 1986. Activities and procedures ✓ Experiential practices involve actual teaching, either real or
Ellis, R.
for teacher training. ELT Journal 40, 2: simulated.
91–99. ✓ Awareness-raising practices involve conscious understanding of
principles, techniques and issues.
P. 187 Reporting on a follow-up evaluation of a workshop one year after the
Lamb, M.
workshop, points out the weaknesses of workshops that do not take

39
Lamb, M. 1995. The consequence of account of the participants’ own teaching and how they see their own
INSET. ELT Journal 49, 1: 72–80. teaching.

Range of effects on the participants a year after the workshop:

✓ No uptake – most of the information was not remembered.
✓ Confusion – information incompletely and inadequately
remembered.
✓ Mislabelling – a term introduced during the workshop was used to
incorrectly label their usual practice.
✓ Appropriation – an idea from the course was used to justify a
change that was not anticipated by the course tutors.
✓ Assimilation – techniques were incorporated into the participants’
teaching without really understanding the rationale for them. These
were usually just “a slight elaboration of [an] existing routine”.
✓ Adaptation and rejection – suggestions were tried but rejected
because the suggestions did not solve the problems the
participants were most concerned with. The problems that the
participants wanted to solve were different from those envisaged
by the workshop tutors.
✓ Engagement – participants “engage with new ideas and gradually
accommodate them within their own belief structures by making
adjustments in their own thinking”.

Lamb’s (1995) main point is that the main focus of short in-service
workshops should be the teachers’ beliefs themselves. Once these are
understood both by the tutors and participants, then the participants will
be more likely to accommodate the new ideas encountered in the
workshop.

Lamb’s study can be interpreted in several complementary ways. First,

workshops should not just focus on understanding material but need to
involve other goals, particularly problem solving and experiencing, to get
participants to engage more realistically with the material. Second,
understanding is not immediate and there needs to be some written

40
 record that participants can later consult to help recall ideas, resolve
misunderstandings and deepen their understanding. Third, workshops
should set modest and realistic aims. A few good ideas well worked
through are more valuable than a lot of ideas poorly understood.
P. 188 Evaluation at the small-group level is also “face saving”.

Edge, J. 1984. Feedback with face. ELT ✓ Video may be a useful form of demonstration, particularly where
Journal 38, 3: 204–206. workshop conditions are far removed from classroom conditions.
Edge, J.
✓ The evaluation aspect of experiencing can be an opportunity for
information provided in the understanding component of a
workshop to be put to use. The workshop organizer can provide
short evaluation checklists, or the participants can design their own
and thus deepen their understanding of the activity they observe.
P. 188 Listening to pictures activity
✓ where learners look at a complex picture and listen to the
McComish, J.
McComish, J. 1982. Listening to pictures. teacher’s description of it, occasionally having to answer true/false
Modern English Teacher 10, 2: 4–8. questions based on the picture.
P. 190 An activity that can be used to encourage discussion through choosing
and sequencing activities in a plan of
Harmer, J. 1984. Balancing activities: A work.
unit planning game. ELT Journal 38, 2:
91–97. There may be a list of principles that must be followed.
✓ The learners are given a blank timetable and a collection of small
cards containing the name of an activity and the time needed to
fill the slots on the timetable.
Harmer, J.
✓ The participants work in small groups to fill the timetable.
✓ Each group has to explain and justify their timetable to others.

Input to this component of a workshop may be sample lessons from a

course book, participants’ descriptions of their own lessons and units of
work, and content and sequencing principles.

The outcome should be participants who are able to choose activities to

41
 meet a particular learning goal, who are able to decide what techniques
will be the ones they will use most often in their teaching, and who are
able to plan an integrated sequence of work.
P. 191 Experiencing, problem solving and making activities were more likely to
lead to the adoption of ideas than understanding.
Palmer, C. 1993. Innovation and the ✓ Palmer describes a workshop where the most effective sequencing
experienced teacher. ELT Journal 47, 2: of goals involved participants first experiencing the innovation,
Palmer, C.
166–171. second reflecting upon the impact of the innovation on their own
teaching (planning), third adapting the innovation to their own
circumstances (making), and finally evaluating the innovation in
the light of actual experience.
P. 196 Assessing speaking skills: A workshop for teacher development.

Knight, B. 1992. Assessing speaking skills:

Knight, B. . A workshop for teacher development.
ELT
Journal 46, 3: 294–302.

P. 196 The production of training packs in in-service teacher training.

Taylor, R. 1992. The production of

Taylor, R.
training packs in in-service teacher
training. ELT
Journal 46, 4: 356–361.
P. 198 A systemic teacher education intervention: The Italian in-service
education program for foreign language teachers.

Lopriore, L. 1998. A systemic teacher

Lopriore, L. education intervention: The Italian in-
service edu-
cation program for foreign language
teachers. TESOL Quarterly 32, 3: 510–
517. [13]

42
 P. 196 Managing innovation in language education: A course for ELT change
agents.
Waters, A. and Vilches, M.L.C. 2005.
Waters, A. and
Managing innovation in language
Vilches, M.L.C.
education: A
course for ELT change agents. RELC
Journal 36: 117–136.
P. 199 Interference.
✓ Teaching a group of closely related words together actually makes
Nation, I.S.P. 2000. Learning vocabulary learning 50 per cent to 100 per cent more difficult, even though
Nation, I.S.P.
in lexical sets: Dangers and guidelines. intuitively we feel that is a good idea to bring similar items together.
TESOL On the other hand, teachers’ intuitions about the importance of
Journal 9, 2: 6–10. repetition and meaningful input are well supported by research.
P. 200 Technique analysis
Nation, I.S.P. 2001. Learning Vocabulary ✓ draws strongly on the application of principles of teaching and
in Another Language. Cambridge: learning. One possible model of technique analysis involves looking
Cambridge at the learning goals of a particular technique and activity.
Nation, I.S.P. University Press. The mental conditions
✓ which are needed to achieve these goals (this is where principles
of learning and teaching most apply), the observable signs that
these mental conditions might be occurring, and the design
features of the technique which set up these mental conditions.
P. 201 Language-focused learning has a very important role to play in any
Langman, J. 2003. The effects of ESL- language course.
trained content-area teachers:
Reducing middle-
Langman, J.
school students to incidental language
learners. Prospect 18, 1: 14–26.

P. 207 Two major ways in which learners can be encouraged to take this
responsibility:
Crabbe, D.
Crabbe, D. 1993. Fostering autonomy ✓ through classroom discussion about learning tasks (their goals, why
from within the classroom: The they are done in certain ways, signs of learning, necessary

43
 teacher’s responsi- conditions for learning, etc.), and
bility. System 21, 4: 443–452. ✓ through the use of tasks that model the sorts of things that learners
could usefully do alone or without the need for teacher guidance
P. 207 Activities without the need for teacher guidance.

Cotterall, S. 1995. Developing a course

Cotterall, S.
strategy for learner autonomy. ELT
Journal 49, 3:
219–227.
P. 207 Fluency development repetition activities like 4/3/2

Maurice, K. 1983. The fluency workshop.

TESOL Newsletter 17, 4: 29
Maurice, K. and
Nation, I.S.P.
Nation, I.S.P. 1989b. Group work and
language learning. English Teaching
Forum 27, 2:
20–24.
P. 207 Ask and answer activities

Simcock, M. 1993. Developing

Simcock, M.
productive vocabulary using the “Ask
and answer”
technique. Guidelines 15: 1–7.
P. 207 Reading for pleasure; self-directed vocabulary learning using cards and
notetaking from written and spoken text.
Nation, I.S.P. Nation, I.S.P. 2001. Learning vocabulary
in Another Language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

44
45
 Theorist Theorist´s book Theorist´s theory
Schwab, J.
5.1
Structure-oriented theories

6.1 George J. Posner (1976). A categorization scheme for Microlevel theorists

and principles of sequencing content. Theorists who seem more concerned with describing and explaining
Kenneth A. Strike Review of Educational Research, 46, 665– curricular phenomena as they occur at the institutional instructional
690. levels.
Principles of differentiation. (n.d.). They present and explicate a “categorization scheme for principles of
Retrieved March 23, 2005, from sequencing content”
http://www.manteno.k12.il.us/
curriculumdiff/principles.htm

5.2
Value-oriented theories: Critical Theorist/ reconceptualists

5.2.1 (1974). A transcendental developmental ideology Basic to all his work is his view of the human condition. Central to that
James B. Mcdonald of education. In W. Pinar (Ed.), human condition is a search for transcendence, the struggle of the
Heightened conscience, cultural revolution, and individual to actualize the whole self.
curriculum theory. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.

5.2.2 Seems to be concerned primarily with the relationship between the

Michael Apple W. society and the school. Central to Apple’s critique of the society and its
schools is his use of the concept of hegemony.

5.3 Content-oriented theories

46
5.3.1 P. 103 ● Child-Centered Curricula: “The centre of all movement in
Parker, F. W. (1894). Talks on pedagogics. New York: E. education is the child.”
L. Kellogg.

5.3.2 P. 102 ● “Confluent education” (a curriculum approach that attempted

Brown, G. I. (1975). Examples of lessons, units, and to synthesize physical, emotional, and intellectual growth),
course outlines in confluent education. In recommended a “fantasy body trip” as a learning activity.
G. I. Brown (Ed.), The live classroom (pp.
231–295). New York: Viking.

5.3.3 Weber, L P. 104 ● Open Education: open education was a child-centered

(1971). The English infant school and curriculum movement that emphasized the social and cognitive
informal education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
development of the child through informal exploration, activity,
Prentice
Hall. and discovery. Here the “whole child” was considered the
beginning point and focus of curriculum work.

P. 102 ● Developmental Education curricula: It stresses the

(1986,April). Curriculum development from
a constructivist perspective. Paper
5.3.4 presented at the annual meeting of the
Brooks, M. American Educational Research
Association, San Francisco.
developmental stages of child growth as the primary
determiners of placement and sequence.
In the developmental perspective, curricula tend to be seen as
instruments for facilitating child development. Certain general
outcomes are postulated. The child’s present developmental
level is assessed.

5.3.5 Knowledge Center Curricula

47
Eisner, E. P. 102
(Ed.). (1985). Learning and teaching the ● Ways of Knowing: According to his notes it grows out of
ways of knowing(Eighty-Fourth Yearbook several emerging research lines: cognitive science, human
of the National Society for the Study of creativity, brain functioning, and conceptions of intelligence and
Education, Part II). Chicago: University of
knowledge.
Chicago Press.

Vallance, E. P.104 ● Ways of knowing: He sees this interest in ways of knowing as

(1985). Ways of knowing and curricular producing a radically different “curriculum map” that is quite
conceptions: Implications for program distinct from the traditional disciplines, its emphasis upon
planning. In E. Eisner (Ed.), Learning and
knowledge and knowing seems to warrant placing it in the
teaching the ways of knowing (pp. 199–
217). Chicago: University of Chicago broader category of knowledge-centered approaches.
Press.

5.3.6 Society-Centered Curricula

Bobbitt, F. P.102
(1918). The curriculum. Boston: Riverside ● The Conformists: The conformists believe that the existing
Press. order is a good one—the best of all possible worlds.

In his basic work The Curriculum, argued for a social point of view,
defining the curriculum as “that series of things which children and
youth must do and experience by way of developing abilities to do the
things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all
respects what adults should be.”

48
 Counts, G. S. P.102 ● The reformers: Those classified as reformers see the society
(1932). Dare the school build a new social as essentially sound in its democratic structure, but want to
order? New York: Day. affect major reforms in the social order.

Counts challenged the schools to take a more active role in achieving

his vision of a more liberal society

● The Futurists: Rather than being attuned to the present

problems of the society, futurists look to the coming age. They
analyze present developments, extrapolate from available data,
and posit alternative scenarios.

Freire, P. P.103 ● The radicals: Those who regard the society as critically flawed
(1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New espouse curricula that would expose those flaws and empower
York: Herder and Herder. the young to effect radical changes.

In Freire’s view, the goal of education is conscientization, a process of

enlightening the masses about the inequities inherent in their
sociocultural reality and giving them the tools to make radical changes
in that social order that restricts their freedom.

5.4 PROCESS-ORIENTED THEORIES

P 103 Are concerned primarily with analyzing the components of the
(1970). The practical: A language for curriculum and their interrelationships. Structure-oriented theories tend
curriculum. Washington, DC: National to be descriptive and explanatory in intent.
Education Association

49
50