T VARC 100: RC#19

H When the same habitat types (forests, oceans, grasslands etc.) in regions of different latitudes are
compared, it becomes apparent that the overall number of species increases from pole to equator. This
1. Which one of the following most accurately expressed the
main idea of the passage?
E latitudinal gradient is probably even more pronounced than current records indicate, since researchers
believe that most undiscovered species live in the tropics.
(A) At present, no single hypothesis explaining the latitudinal
gradient in numbers of species is more widely accepted than
any other.
One hypothesis to explain this phenomenon, the “time theory” holds that diverse species adapted to
(B) The tropical climate is more conductive to promoting species
today’s climatic conditions have had more time to emerge in the tropical regions, which, unlike the
V temperate and arctic zones, have been unaffected by a succession of ice ages. However, ice ages have
caused less disruption in some temperate regions than in others and have not interrupted arctic
diversity than are arctic or temperate climates.
(C) Several explanations have been suggested for global patterns
in species distribution, but a hypothesis involving rates of
E conditions.
speciation seems most promising.
Alternatively, the species-energy hypothesis proposes the following positive correlations: incoming (D) Despite their differences, the various hypotheses regarding a
R energy from the Sun correlated with rates of growth and reproduction; rates of growth and latitudinal gradient in species diversity concur in prediction that
reproduction with the amount of living matter (biomass) at a given moment; and the amount of the gradient can be expected to increase
B biomass with number of species. However, since organisms may die rapidly, high production rates can
exist with low biomass. And high biomass can exist with few species. Moreover, the mechanism 2. Which one of the following situations is most consistent with
A proposed—greater energy influx leading to bigger populations, thereby lowering the probability of local
extinction—remains untested.
the species-energy hypothesis as described in the passage?
(A) The many plants in a large agricultural tract represent a
L A third hypothesis centers on the tropics’ climatic stability, which provides a more reliable supply of
limited range of species.
(B) An animal species experiences a death rate almost as rapid
resources. Species can thus survive even with few types of food, and competing species can tolerate as its rate of growth and reproduction.
greater overlap between their respective niches. Both capabilities enable more species to exist on the
(C) Within the small number of living organisms in a desert
same resources. However, the ecology of local communities cannot account for the origin of the
habitat, many different species are represented.
M latitudinal gradient. Localized ecological processes such as competition do not generate regional pools
of species, and it is the total number of species available regionally for colonizing any particular area (D) In an arctic tundra, the plants and animals exhibit a slow
that makes the difference between, for example, a forest at the equator and one at higher latitude. rate of growth and reproduction.
E A fourth and most plausible hypothesis focuses on regional speciation, and in particular on rates of
N speciation and extinction. According to this hypothesis, if speciation rates become higher toward the
tropics, and are not negated by extinction rates, then the latitudinal gradient would result—and

T become increasingly steep.

The mechanism for this rate-of-speciation hypothesis is that most new animal species, and perhaps
O plant species, arise because a population subgroup becomes isolated. This subgroup evolves differently
and eventually cannot interbreed with members of the original population. The uneven spread of a
R species over a large geographic area promotes this mechanism: at the edges, small populations spread
out and form isolated groups. Since subgroups in an arctic environment are more likely to face
extinction than those in the tropics, the latter are more likely to survive long enough to adapt to local
T VARC 100: RC#19
H When the same habitat types (forests, oceans, grasslands etc.) in regions of different latitudes are
compared, it becomes apparent that the overall number of species increases from pole to equator. This
3. As presented in the passage, the principles of the time
latitudinal gradient is probably even more pronounced than current records indicate, since researchers theory most strongly support which one of the following
E believe that most undiscovered species live in the tropics. predictions?
(A) In the absence of additional ice ages, the number of
One hypothesis to explain this phenomenon, the “time theory” holds that diverse species adapted to species at high latitudes could eventually increase
today’s climatic conditions have had more time to emerge in the tropical regions, which, unlike the significantly.
V temperate and arctic zones, have been unaffected by a succession of ice ages. However, ice ages have
caused less disruption in some temperate regions than in others and have not interrupted arctic
(B) No future ice ages are likely to change the climatic
conditions that currently characterize temperate regions.
conditions.
E (C) If no further ice ages occur, climatic conditions at high
latitudes might eventually resemble those at today’s
Alternatively, the species-energy hypothesis proposes the following positive correlations: incoming
R energy from the Sun correlated with rates of growth and reproduction; rates of growth and reproduction
with the amount of living matter (biomass) at a given moment; and the amount of biomass with number
tropical latitudes.
(D) Researchers will continue to find many more new
B of species. However, since organisms may die rapidly, high production rates can exist with low biomass.
And high biomass can exist with few species. Moreover, the mechanism proposed—greater energy influx
species in the tropics than in the arctic and temperate
zones.
leading to bigger populations, thereby lowering the probability of local extinction—remains untested.
A A third hypothesis centers on the tropics’ climatic stability, which provides a more reliable supply of 4. Which one of the following, if true, most clearly weakens
L resources. Species can thus survive even with few types of food, and competing species can tolerate
greater overlap between their respective niches. Both capabilities enable more species to exist on the
the rate-of-speciation hypothesis as it is described in the
passage?
same resources. However, the ecology of local communities cannot account for the origin of the (A) A remote subgroup of a tropical species is reunited with
latitudinal gradient. Localized ecological processes such as competition do not generate regional pools of the original population and proves unable to interbreed
species, and it is the total number of species available regionally for colonizing any particular area that
M makes the difference between, for example, a forest at the equator and one at higher latitude.
with members of this original population.
(B) Investigation of a small area of a tropical rain forest
reveals that many competing species are able to coexist on
E A fourth and most plausible hypothesis focuses on regional speciation, and in particular on rates of
speciation and extinction. According to this hypothesis, if speciation rates become higher toward the the same range of resources.
(C) A correlation between higher energy influx, larger
N tropics, and are not negated by extinction rates, then the latitudinal gradient would result—and become
increasingly steep. populations and lower probability of local extinction is
definitively established.
T The mechanism for this rate-of-speciation hypothesis is that most new animal species, and perhaps plant
species, arise because a population subgroup becomes isolated. This subgroup evolves differently and
(D) Most of the isolated subgroups of mammalian life within
a tropical zone are found to experience rapid extinction.
O eventually cannot interbreed with members of the original population. The uneven spread of a species
over a large geographic area promotes this mechanism: at the edges, small populations spread out and
form isolated groups. Since subgroups in an arctic environment are more likely to face extinction than
R those in the tropics, the latter are more likely to survive long enough to adapt to local conditions and
ultimately become new species.
T VARC 100: RC#19
When the same habitat types (forests, oceans, grasslands etc.) in regions of different latitudes are
H compared, it becomes apparent that the overall number of species increases from pole to equator. This 5. Which one of the following inferences about the
latitudinal gradient is probably even more pronounced than current records indicate, since researchers biological characteristics of a temperate-zone grassland is
E believe that most undiscovered species live in the tropics. most strongly supported by the passage?
(A) It has more different species than does a tropical-zone
One hypothesis to explain this phenomenon, the “time theory” holds that diverse species adapted to
forest.
today’s climatic conditions have had more time to emerge in the tropical regions, which, unlike the
temperate and arctic zones, have been unaffected by a succession of ice ages. However, ice ages have (B) Its climatic conditions have been severely interrupted in
V caused less disruption in some temperate regions than in others and have not interrupted arctic
conditions.
the past by succession of ice ages.
(C) If it has a large amount of biomass, it also has a large
E Alternatively, the species-energy hypothesis proposes the following positive correlations: incoming
number of different species.
(D) It has a larger regional pool of species than does an
R energy from the Sun correlated with rates of growth and reproduction; rates of growth and reproduction
with the amount of living matter (biomass) at a given moment; and the amount of biomass with number
arctic grassland.
of species. However, since organisms may die rapidly, high production rates can exist with low biomass.
B And high biomass can exist with few species. Moreover, the mechanism proposed—greater energy influx
leading to bigger populations, thereby lowering the probability of local extinction—remains untested.
A A third hypothesis centers on the tropics’ climatic stability, which provides a more reliable supply of

L resources. Species can thus survive even with few types of food, and competing species can tolerate
greater overlap between their respective niches. Both capabilities enable more species to exist on the
same resources. However, the ecology of local communities cannot account for the origin of the
latitudinal gradient. Localized ecological processes such as competition do not generate regional pools of
species, and it is the total number of species available regionally for colonizing any particular area that
M makes the difference between, for example, a forest at the equator and one at higher latitude.

A fourth and most plausible hypothesis focuses on regional speciation, and in particular on rates of
E speciation and extinction. According to this hypothesis, if speciation rates become higher toward the
tropics, and are not negated by extinction rates, then the latitudinal gradient would result—and become
N increasingly steep.

T The mechanism for this rate-of-speciation hypothesis is that most new animal species, and perhaps plant
species, arise because a population subgroup becomes isolated. This subgroup evolves differently and
eventually cannot interbreed with members of the original population. The uneven spread of a species
O over a large geographic area promotes this mechanism: at the edges, small populations spread out and
form isolated groups. Since subgroups in an arctic environment are more likely to face extinction than
R those in the tropics, the latter are more likely to survive long enough to adapt to local conditions and
ultimately become new species.
 VARC 100: RC#18
T Since some of the dead animals never washed ashore, the overall disaster was presumably 1. According to the author, which of the following correctly
H worse; perhaps 50 percent of the population died. A dolphin die-off of this character and
magnitude had never before been observed; furthermore, the dolphins exhibited a startling
describes the chain of events that led to the death of dolphins??
(A) The abnormal growth of alga P. brevis resulted in toxin
E range of symptoms. The research team that examined the die-off noted the presence of both
skin lesions and internal lesions in the liver, lung, pancreas and heart, which suggested a massive
accumulation in fish, dolphins fed on this fish, their immunity
got compromised, a surge in pollutant PCB worsened their
opportunistic bacterial infection of already weakened animals.
system and bacterial infection became the final nail in their
coffin.
V Tissues from the stricken dolphins were analyzed for a variety of toxins. Brevetoxin, a toxin
produced by the blooming of the alga Ptychodiscus brevis, was present in eight out of seventeen
(B) An unusual surge in pollutant PCB stressed dolphins’ immune
responses and led to high levels of toxins, the growth of alga
E dolphins tested. Tests for synthetic pollutants revealed that polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
were present in almost all animals tested. P.brevis exacerbated the immune system and more PCB dumped
offshore led to organ failure and death
R The research team concluded that brevetoxin poisoning was the most likely cause of the (C) Bacterial infection compromised dolphins’ immunity,
B illnesses that killed the dolphins. Although P. brevis is ordinarily not found along the Atlantic
coast, an unusual bloom of this organism—such blooms are called “red tides” because of the
offshore dumping of PCB pollutant led to poisoning, and the
toxin accumulation due to excessive growth of P.brevis led to
A reddish color imparted by the blooming algae—did occur in the middle of the affected coastline
in October 1987. These researchers believe the toxin accumulated in the tissue of fish and then
organ failure and death
(D) An unusual surge in PCB pollutants triggered stressful
L was ingested by dolphins that preyed on them. The emaciated appearance of many dolphins
indicated that they were metabolizing their blubber reserves, thereby reducing their buoyancy
immune responses, the excessive growth of P.brevis led to
accumulation of toxins, further worsening their condition, and
and insulation (and adding to overall stress) as well as releasing stores of previously accumulated this compromised immune system probably gave up to a
synthetic pollutants, such as PCBs, which further exacerbated their condition. The combined bacterial infection
M impact made the dolphins vulnerable to opportunistic bacterial infection, the ultimate cause of
death.
2. The passage is primarily concerned with
E For several reasons, however, this explanation is not entirely plausible. First, bottlenose dolphins
(A) assessing the effects of a devastating bacterial infection in
Atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins
N and P. brevis red tides are both common in the Gulf of Mexico, yet no dolphin die-off of a similar
magnitude has been noted there. Second, dolphins began dying in June, hundreds of miles north (B) pointing out the weaknesses in the research methodology
used to explore the dolphin die-off
T of and some months earlier than the October red tide bloom. Finally, the specific effects of
brevetoxin on dolphins are unknown, whereas PCB poisoning is known to impair functioning of (C) discussing relative effects of various marine pollutants in
O the immune system and liver and to cause skin lesions; all of these problems are observed in the
diseased animals. An alternative hypothesis, which accounts for these facts, is that a sudden
dolphin die-off in Atlantic coast
(D) advancing possible alternative explanations for the massive
R influx of pollutants, perhaps from offshore dumping, triggered a cascade of disorders in animals
whose systems were already heavily laden with pollutants. Although brevetoxin may have been a
dolphin die-off

contributing factor, the event that actually precipitated the die-off was a sharp increase in the
dolphins’ exposure to synthetic pollutants.
 VARC 100: RC#18
T Since some of the dead animals never washed ashore, the overall disaster was presumably 3. Which one of the following is most analogous to the
H worse; perhaps 50 percent of the population died. A dolphin die-off of this character and
magnitude had never before been observed; furthermore, the dolphins exhibited a startling
approach taken by author of the passage with regard to the
research described in the third paragraph?
E range of symptoms. The research team that examined the die-off noted the presence of both
skin lesions and internal lesions in the liver, lung, pancreas and heart, which suggested a massive
(A) A physics teacher accepts the data from a student’s
experiment but questions the student’s conclusions.
opportunistic bacterial infection of already weakened animals. (B) An astronomer provides additional observations to
support another astronomer’s theory.
V Tissues from the stricken dolphins were analyzed for a variety of toxins. Brevetoxin, a toxin
produced by the blooming of the alga Ptychodiscus brevis, was present in eight out of seventeen
(C) A cook revises a traditional recipe by substituting
modern ingredients for those used in the original.
E dolphins tested. Tests for synthetic pollutants revealed that polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
were present in almost all animals tested. (D) A doctor prescribes medication for a patient whose
illness was misdiagnosed by another doctor.
R The research team concluded that brevetoxin poisoning was the most likely cause of the
B illnesses that killed the dolphins. Although P. brevis is ordinarily not found along the Atlantic
coast, an unusual bloom of this organism—such blooms are called “red tides” because of the
4. It can be inferred from the passage that the author
would most probably agree with which one of the following
A reddish color imparted by the blooming algae—did occur in the middle of the affected coastline
in October 1987. These researchers believe the toxin accumulated in the tissue of fish and then
statements about brevetoxin?
(A) It may have been responsible for the dolphins’ skin
L was ingested by dolphins that preyed on them. The emaciated appearance of many dolphins
indicated that they were metabolizing their blubber reserves, thereby reducing their buoyancy
lesions but could not have contributed to the bacterial
infection.
and insulation (and adding to overall stress) as well as releasing stores of previously accumulated (B) It forms more easily when both P. brevis and synthetic
synthetic pollutants, such as PCBs, which further exacerbated their condition. The combined pollutants are present in the environment simultaneously.
M impact made the dolphins vulnerable to opportunistic bacterial infection, the ultimate cause of
death.
(C) It damages liver function and immune system responses
in bottlenose dolphins but may not have triggered this
E For several reasons, however, this explanation is not entirely plausible. First, bottlenose dolphins
particular dolphin die-off.
(D) It is unlikely to have caused the die-off because it was
N and P. brevis red tides are both common in the Gulf of Mexico, yet no dolphin die-off of a similar
magnitude has been noted there. Second, dolphins began dying in June, hundreds of miles north not present in the dolphins’ environment when the die-off
began.
T of and some months earlier than the October red tide bloom. Finally, the specific effects of
brevetoxin on dolphins are unknown, whereas PCB poisoning is known to impair functioning of
O the immune system and liver and to cause skin lesions; all of these problems are observed in the
diseased animals. An alternative hypothesis, which accounts for these facts, is that a sudden
R influx of pollutants, perhaps from offshore dumping, triggered a cascade of disorders in animals
whose systems were already heavily laden with pollutants. Although brevetoxin may have been a
contributing factor, the event that actually precipitated the die-off was a sharp increase in the
dolphins’ exposure to synthetic pollutants.
 VARC 100: RC#18
T Since some of the dead animals never washed ashore, the overall disaster was presumably 5. The explanation for the dolphin die-off given by the
H worse; perhaps 50 percent of the population died. A dolphin die-off of this character and
magnitude had never before been observed; furthermore, the dolphins exhibited a startling
research team most strongly supports which one of the
following?
E range of symptoms. The research team that examined the die-off noted the presence of both
skin lesions and internal lesions in the liver, lung, pancreas and heart, which suggested a massive
(A) When a dolphin metabolizes its blubber, the PCBs
released may be more dangerous to the dolphin than they
opportunistic bacterial infection of already weakened animals. were when stored in the blubber.
(B) When P. brevis blooms in an area where it does not
V Tissues from the stricken dolphins were analyzed for a variety of toxins. Brevetoxin, a toxin
produced by the blooming of the alga Ptychodiscus brevis, was present in eight out of seventeen
usually exist, it is more toxic than it is in its usual habitat.
(C) Opportunistic bacterial infection is usually associated
E dolphins tested. Tests for synthetic pollutants revealed that polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
were present in almost all animals tested. with brevetoxin poisoning in bottlenose dolphins.
(D) The dolphins’ emaciated state was probably a symptom
R The research team concluded that brevetoxin poisoning was the most likely cause of the of PCB poisoning rather than of brevetoxin poisoning.
B illnesses that killed the dolphins. Although P. brevis is ordinarily not found along the Atlantic
coast, an unusual bloom of this organism—such blooms are called “red tides” because of the
A reddish color imparted by the blooming algae—did occur in the middle of the affected coastline
in October 1987. These researchers believe the toxin accumulated in the tissue of fish and then
L was ingested by dolphins that preyed on them. The emaciated appearance of many dolphins
indicated that they were metabolizing their blubber reserves, thereby reducing their buoyancy
and insulation (and adding to overall stress) as well as releasing stores of previously accumulated
synthetic pollutants, such as PCBs, which further exacerbated their condition. The combined
M impact made the dolphins vulnerable to opportunistic bacterial infection, the ultimate cause of
death.
E For several reasons, however, this explanation is not entirely plausible. First, bottlenose dolphins
N and P. brevis red tides are both common in the Gulf of Mexico, yet no dolphin die-off of a similar
magnitude has been noted there. Second, dolphins began dying in June, hundreds of miles north
T of and some months earlier than the October red tide bloom. Finally, the specific effects of
brevetoxin on dolphins are unknown, whereas PCB poisoning is known to impair functioning of
O the immune system and liver and to cause skin lesions; all of these problems are observed in the
diseased animals. An alternative hypothesis, which accounts for these facts, is that a sudden
R influx of pollutants, perhaps from offshore dumping, triggered a cascade of disorders in animals
whose systems were already heavily laden with pollutants. Although brevetoxin may have been a
contributing factor, the event that actually precipitated the die-off was a sharp increase in the
dolphins’ exposure to synthetic pollutants.
 VARC 100: RC#17
Japanese firms have achieved the highest levels of manufacturing efficiency in the 3. It can be inferred from the passage that one
T world automobile industry. Some observers of Japan have assumed that Japanese problem associated with the production of huge
firms use the same manufacturing equipment and techniques as United States lots of cars is which of the following?
H firms but have benefited from the unique characteristics of Japanese employees (A) The need to manufacture flexible machinery
and the Japanese culture. However, if this were true, then one would expect
E Japanese auto plants in the United States to perform no better than factories run
and equipment
(B) The need to store extra components not
by United States companies. This is not the case; Japanese-run automobile plants
located in the United States and staffed by local workers have demonstrated required for immediate use
(C) The need for expensive training programs for
V higher levels of productivity when compared with factories owned by United
States companies. workers, which emphasize the development of
E Other observers link high Japanese productivity to higher levels of capital
facility in several production jobs
(D) The need to increase the investment per
R investment per worker. But a historical perspective leads to a different vehicle in order to achieve high productivity
conclusion. When the two top Japanese automobile makers matched and then levels
B doubled United States productivity levels in the mid-sixties, capital investment per
employee was comparable to that of United States firms. Furthermore, by the late
A seventies, the amount of fixed assets required to produce one vehicle was roughly
4. With which of the following predictive
statement regarding Japanese automakers would
equivalent in Japan and in the United States.
L the author most likely agree?
Since capital investment was not higher in Japan, it had to be other factors that (A) The efficiency levels of the Japanese
led to higher productivity. A more fruitful explanation may lie with Japanese automakers will decline if they become less
M production techniques. Japanese automobile producers did not simply implement flexible in their approach to production.
(B) United States automakers will originate new
conventional processes more effectively: they made critical changes in United
E States procedures. For instance, the mass-production philosophy of United States production processes before Japanese
automakers encouraged the production of huge lots of cars in order to utilize fully automakers do.
N expensive, component-specific equipment and to occupy fully workers who have (C) Japanese automakers will hire fewer workers
been trained to execute one operation efficiently. Japanese automakers chose to
T make small-lot production feasible by introducing several departures from United
than will United States automakers because each
worker is required to perform several jobs.
O States practices, including the use of flexible equipment that could be altered
easily to do several different production tasks and the training of workers in
(D) Japanese automakers will spend less on
equipment repairs than will United States
R multiple jobs. Automakers could schedule the production of different components
or models on single machines, thereby eliminating the need to store the buffer automakers because Japanese equipment can be
stocks of extra components that result when specialized equipment and workers easily altered.
are kept constantly active.
 VARC 100: RC#17
Japanese firms have achieved the highest levels of manufacturing efficiency in the 1. The author suggests that if the observers of
T world automobile industry. Some observers of Japan have assumed that Japanese Japan mentioned in line 2 were correct, which of
firms use the same manufacturing equipment and techniques as United States the following would be the case?
H firms but have benefited from the unique characteristics of Japanese employees (A) Japanese workers would be trained to do
and the Japanese culture. However, if this were true, then one would expect
E Japanese auto plants in the United States to perform no better than factories run
several different production jobs.
(B) Culture would not have an influence on the
by United States companies. This is not the case; Japanese-run automobile plants
located in the United States and staffed by local workers have demonstrated productivity levels of workers.
(C) The workers in Japanese-run plants would
V higher levels of productivity when compared with factories owned by United
States companies. have higher productivity levels regardless of
E Other observers link high Japanese productivity to higher levels of capital
where they were located.
(D) The production levels of Japanese-run plants
R investment per worker. But a historical perspective leads to a different located in the United States would be equal to
conclusion. When the two top Japanese automobile makers matched and then those of plants run by United States companies.
B doubled United States productivity levels in the mid-sixties, capital investment per
employee was comparable to that of United States firms. Furthermore, by the late
A seventies, the amount of fixed assets required to produce one vehicle was roughly
2. Which of the following statements concerning
the productivity levels of automakers can be
equivalent in Japan and in the United States.
L inferred from the passage?
Since capital investment was not higher in Japan, it had to be other factors that (A) Prior to the 1960’s, the productivity levels of
led to higher productivity. A more fruitful explanation may lie with Japanese the top Japanese automakers were exceeded by
M production techniques. Japanese automobile producers did not simply implement those of United States automakers.
(B) The culture of a country has a large effect on
conventional processes more effectively: they made critical changes in United
E States procedures. For instance, the mass-production philosophy of United States the productivity levels of its automakers.
automakers encouraged the production of huge lots of cars in order to utilize fully (C) The greater the number of cars that are
N expensive, component-specific equipment and to occupy fully workers who have produced in a single lot, the higher a plant’s
been trained to execute one operation efficiently. Japanese automakers chose to
T make small-lot production feasible by introducing several departures from United
productivity level.
(D) The amount of capital investment made by
O States practices, including the use of flexible equipment that could be altered
easily to do several different production tasks and the training of workers in
automobile manufacturers in their factories
determines the level of productivity.
R multiple jobs. Automakers could schedule the production of different components
or models on single machines, thereby eliminating the need to store the buffer
stocks of extra components that result when specialized equipment and workers
are kept constantly active.
 VARC 100: RC#16
T In the 1960s, sociologist John McKnight coined the term "redlining" to describe the 1. All of the following can be inferred from the passage,
H discriminatory practice of fencing off areas where banks would avoid investments EXCEPT
(A) Discriminatory denial of service and differential pricing
based on community demographics. During the heyday of redlining, the areas most
E frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. For example, in are characteristic features of redlining
Atlanta in the 1980s, a Pulitzer Prize-winning series of articles by investigative reporter (B) The illegalization of redlining brought about a change in
Bill Dedman showed that banks would often lend to lower-income whites but not to scope and nature of the act.
(C) Access to mortgages is related to higher property
V middle-income or upper-income blacks. The use of blacklists is a related mechanism
also used by redliners to keep track of groups, areas, and people that the discriminating
values.
(D) Redlining significantly subsided with the passing of the
E party feels should be denied business or aid or other transactions. In the academic
Fair Housing Act in 1968.
literature, redlining falls under the broader category of credit rationing.
R 2. Which of the following, not mentioned in the passage,
The term came from the practice of banks outlining certain areas in red on a map —
B within the red outline, banks refused to invest. With no access to mortgages, residents
would qualify as an example of reverse redlining as defined
in the passage?
within the red line suffered low property values and landlord abandonment; buildings
A abandoned by landlords were then likely to become centers of drug dealing and other
(A) A hospital refuses to offer medical care to consumers in
certain neighborhoods.
L crime, thus further lowering property values. (B) Residents of low-income neighborhoods are less likely
to be hired for positions than residents of higher-income
Redlining in mortgage lending was made illegal by the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which neighborhoods, even when the applicants have the same
prohibited such discrimination based on race, religion, gender, familial status, disability, qualifications.
M or ethnic origin, and by community reinvestment legislation in the 1970’s. However, (C) An auto insurance company hires an African American
redlining may have continued in less explicit ways, and can also take place in regards to spokesperson in a bid to attract more African American
E constrained access to health care, jobs, insurance, and more. Even today, some credit consumers.
(D) A grocery store in a low-income neighborhood charges
N card companies send different offers to homes in different neighborhoods, and some
auto insurance companies offer different rates based on zip code.
exorbitant prices for products that most residents are
unable to buy elsewhere.
T
Reverse redlining occurs when predatory businesses specifically target minority
O consumers for the purpose of charging them more than would usually be charged to a
consumer of the majority group. Redlining can lead to reverse redlining — if a retailer
R refuses to serve a certain area based on the ethnic-minority composition of the area,
people in that area can fall prey to opportunistic smaller retailers who sell inferior
goods at higher prices.
 VARC 100: RC#16
T In the 1960s, sociologist John McKnight coined the term "redlining" to describe the
H discriminatory practice of fencing off areas where banks would avoid investments based
on community demographics. During the heyday of redlining, the areas most frequently
E discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. For example, in Atlanta in
the 1980s, a Pulitzer Prize-winning series of articles by investigative reporter Bill
Dedman showed that banks would often lend to lower-income whites but not to
V middle-income or upper-income blacks. The use of blacklists is a related mechanism
also used by redliners to keep track of groups, areas, and people that the discriminating
E party feels should be denied business or aid or other transactions. In the academic
literature, redlining falls under the broader category of credit rationing.
R
The term came from the practice of banks outlining certain areas in red on a map —
B within the red outline, banks refused to invest. With no access to mortgages, residents
within the red line suffered low property values and landlord abandonment; buildings
A abandoned by landlords were then likely to become centers of drug dealing and other
L crime, thus further lowering property values.
Redlining in mortgage lending was made illegal by the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which
prohibited such discrimination based on race, religion, gender, familial status, disability,
M or ethnic origin, and by community reinvestment legislation in the 1970’s. However,
redlining may have continued in less explicit ways, and can also take place in regards to
E constrained access to health care, jobs, insurance, and more. Even today, some credit
3. Which of the following correctly describes a sequence of
events presented in the passage?
(A) Subprime mortgages lead to widespread defaults, which
lead to landlord abandonment.
(B) Landlord abandonment leads to redlining, which leads
to crime and drug dealing.
(C) Redlining leads to reverse redlining, which leads to
constrained access to health care, jobs, insurance, and
more.
(D) Redlining leads to landlord abandonment, which leads
to the use of buildings for crime and drug dealing.
4. Which of the following is the best way to describe
author’s description of redlining ?
(A) A vicious cycle of discrimination against certain
neighborhoods bringing down their asset value and driving
up the service prices.
(B) A linear chain of events starting in discrimination on the
basis of race and ending in crime
(C) A complex situation causing social, economic, moral and
emotional harm to a social group while benefiting another.
(D) A business practice exploiting an already socially
disadvantaged group.

N card companies send different offers to homes in different neighborhoods, and some
auto insurance companies offer different rates based on zip code.
T
Reverse redlining occurs when predatory businesses specifically target minority
O consumers for the purpose of charging them more than would usually be charged to a
consumer of the majority group. Redlining can lead to reverse redlining — if a retailer
R refuses to serve a certain area based on the ethnic-minority composition of the area,
people in that area can fall prey to opportunistic smaller retailers who sell inferior goods
at higher prices.
 VARC 100: RC#15
T In the two decades between 1910 and 1930, over ten percent of the Black population of the United
1.The author indicates explicitly that which of the following
States left the South, where the preponderance of the Black population had been located, and
H migrated to northern states, with the largest number moving, it is claimed, between 1916 and 1918. records has been a source of information in her
investigation?
It has been frequently assumed, but not proved, that the majority of the migrants in what has come
E to be called the Great Migration came from rural areas and were motivated by two concurrent (A) United States Immigration Service reports from 1916 to
factors: the collapse of the cotton industry following the boll weevil infestation, which began in 1918
1898, and increased demand in the North for labor following the cessation of European immigration (B) Federal censuses between 1910 and 1930
caused by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. This assumption has led to the conclusion (C) The volume of cotton exports between 1898 and 1910
V that the migrants’ subsequent lack of economic mobility in the North is tied to rural background, a (D) The federal census of 1910
background that implies unfamiliarity with urban living and a lack of industrial
E skills. 2.In the passage, the author anticipates which of the
following as a possible objection to her argument?
R But the question of who actually left the South has never been rigorously investigated. Although
(A) It is uncertain how many people actually migrated
numerous investigations document an exodus from rural southern areas to southern cities prior to
B the Great Migration, no one has considered whether the same migrants then moved on to northern during the Great Migration.
(B) The eventual economic status of the Great Migration
cities. In 1910 over 600,000 Black workers, or ten percent of the Black work force, reported
A themselves to be engaged in “manufacturing and mechanical pursuits,” the federal census category migrants has not been adequately traced.
(C) It is not likely that people with steady jobs would have
roughly encompassing the entire industrial sector. The Great Migration could easily have been made
L up entirely of this group and their families. It is perhaps surprising to argue that an employed reason to move to another area of the country.
(D) It is not true that the term “manufacturing and
population could be enticed to move, but an explanation lies in the labor conditions then prevalent
in the South. mechanical pursuits” actually encompasses the entire
industrial sector
M About thirty-five percent of the urban Black population in the South was engaged in skilled trades.
Some were from the old artisan class of slavery—blacksmiths, masons, carpenters—which had had
E a monopoly of certain trades, but they were gradually being pushed out by competition,
mechanization, and obsolescence. The remaining sixty-five percent, more recently urbanized,
N worked in newly developed industries—tobacco, lumber, coal and iron manufacture, and railroads.

T Wages in the South, however, were low, and Black workers were aware, through labor recruiters
and the Black press, that they could earn more even as unskilled workers in the North than they
O could as artisans in the South. After the boll weevil infestation, urban Black workers faced
competition from the continuing influx of both Black and White rural workers, who were driven to
R undercut the wages formerly paid for industrial jobs. Thus, a move north would be seen as
advantageous to a group that was already urbanized and steadily employed, and the easy
conclusion tying their subsequent economic problems in the North to their rural background comes
into question.
 VARC 100: RC#15
T In the two decades between 1910 and 1930, over ten percent of the Black population of the United
3.The author cites each of the following as possible
States left the South, where the preponderance of the Black population had been located, and
H migrated to northern states, with the largest number moving, it is claimed, between 1916 and 1918. influences in a Black worker’s decision to migrate north in
the Great
It has been frequently assumed, but not proved, that the majority of the migrants in what has come
E to be called the Great Migration came from rural areas and were motivated by two concurrent Migration EXCEPT
factors: the collapse of the cotton industry following the boll weevil infestation, which began in (A) prospects of more lucrative employment in northern
1898, and increased demand in the North for labor following the cessation of European immigration cities
caused by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. This assumption has led to the conclusion (B) second-hand information at their disposal
V that the migrants’ subsequent lack of economic mobility in the North is tied to rural background, a (C) competition from rural workers
background that implies unfamiliarity with urban living and a lack of industrial (D) ethnic composition in the northern states
E skills.
4. It can be inferred from the passage that the “easy
R But the question of who actually left the South has never been rigorously investigated. Although
conclusion” is based on which of the following
numerous investigations document an exodus from rural southern areas to southern cities prior to
B the Great Migration, no one has considered whether the same migrants then moved on to northern assumptions?
(A) People who migrated from rural areas to large cities
cities. In 1910 over 600,000 Black workers, or ten percent of the Black work force, reported
A themselves to be engaged in “manufacturing and mechanical pursuits,” the federal census category between 1910 and 1930 usually did so for economic
reasons.
roughly encompassing the entire industrial sector. The Great Migration could easily have been made
L up entirely of this group and their families. It is perhaps surprising to argue that an employed (B) Most people who left rural areas to take jobs in cities
returned to rural areas as soon as it was financially possible
population could be enticed to move, but an explanation lies in the labor conditions then prevalent
in the South. for
them to do so.
M About thirty-five percent of the urban Black population in the South was engaged in skilled trades. (C) People with rural backgrounds were less likely to
Some were from the old artisan class of slavery—blacksmiths, masons, carpenters—which had had succeed economically in cities than are those with urban
E a monopoly of certain trades, but they were gradually being pushed out by competition, backgrounds.
mechanization, and obsolescence. The remaining sixty-five percent, more recently urbanized, (D) Most people who had once been skilled workers were
N worked in newly developed industries—tobacco, lumber, coal and iron manufacture, and railroads.
not willing to work as unskilled workers
T Wages in the South, however, were low, and Black workers were aware, through labor recruiters
and the Black press, that they could earn more even as unskilled workers in the North than they
O could as artisans in the South. After the boll weevil infestation, urban Black workers faced
competition from the continuing influx of both Black and White rural workers, who were driven to
R undercut the wages formerly paid for industrial jobs. Thus, a move north would be seen as
advantageous to a group that was already urbanized and steadily employed, and the easy
conclusion tying their subsequent economic problems in the North to their rural background comes
into question.
 VARC 100: RC#15
T In the two decades between 1910 and 1930, over ten percent of the Black population of the
5.According to information in the passage, which of the
United States left the South, where the preponderance of the Black population had been located,
H and migrated to northern states, with the largest number moving, it is claimed, between 1916 and following is a correct sequence of groups of workers, from
highest
1918. It has been frequently assumed, but not proved, that the majority of the migrants in what
E has come to be called the Great Migration came from rural areas and were motivated by two paid to lowest paid, in the period between 1910 and 1930?
concurrent factors: the collapse of the cotton industry following the boll weevil infestation, which (A) Artisans in the North; artisans in the South; unskilled
began in 1898, and increased demand in the North for labor following the cessation of European workers in the North; unskilled workers in the South
immigration caused by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. This assumption has led to the (B) Artisans in the North and South; unskilled workers in the
V conclusion that the migrants’ subsequent lack of economic mobility in the North is tied to rural North; unskilled workers in the South
background, a background that implies unfamiliarity with urban living and a lack of industrial (C) Artisans in the North; unskilled workers in the North; artisans
E skills.
in the South; unskilled workers in the South
(D) Artisans in the North and South; unskilled urban workers in
R But the question of who actually left the South has never been rigorously investigated. Although
the North; unskilled rural workers in the South
numerous investigations document an exodus from rural southern areas to southern cities prior to
B the Great Migration, no one has considered whether the same migrants then moved on to
northern cities. In 1910 over 600,000 Black workers, or ten percent of the Black work force,
A reported themselves to be engaged in “manufacturing and mechanical pursuits,” the federal
census category roughly encompassing the entire industrial sector. The Great Migration could
L easily have been made up entirely of this group and their families. It is perhaps surprising to argue
that an employed population could be enticed to move, but an explanation lies in the labor
conditions then prevalent in the South.

M About thirty-five percent of the urban Black population in the South was engaged in skilled trades.
Some were from the old artisan class of slavery—blacksmiths, masons, carpenters—which had had
E a monopoly of certain trades, but they were gradually being pushed out by competition,
mechanization, and obsolescence. The remaining sixty-five percent, more recently urbanized,
N worked in newly developed industries—tobacco, lumber, coal and iron manufacture, and railroads.

T Wages in the South, however, were low, and Black workers were aware, through labor recruiters
and the Black press, that they could earn more even as unskilled workers in the North than they
O could as artisans in the South. After the boll weevil infestation, urban Black workers faced
competition from the continuing influx of both Black and White rural workers, who were driven to
R undercut the wages formerly paid for industrial jobs. Thus, a move north would be seen as
advantageous to a group that was already urbanized and steadily employed, and the easy
conclusion tying their subsequent economic problems in the North to their rural background
comes into question.
T VARC 100: RC#14
H It is exceedingly difficult to make people realize that an evil is an evil. For instance, we seize
a man and deliberately do him a malicious injury: say, imprison him for years. One would not
1. The passage is most probably intended to
A. serve as an introduction to a more detailed discussion of
E suppose that it needed any exceptional clearness of wit to recognize in this an act of
diabolical cruelty. But in England such a recognition provokes a stare of surprise, followed by
poverty
B. censure imprisonment as a punitive measure
an explanation that the outrage is punishment or justice or something else that is all right, C. analyze the possible repercussions of social evils
or perhaps by a heated attempt to argue that we should all be robbed and murdered in our D. continue a prior discussion of strong measures against
V beds if such senseless villainies as sentences of imprisonment were not committed daily. It is
useless to argue that even if this were true, which it is not, the alternative to adding crimes
social evils

E of our own to the crimes from which we suffer is not helpless submission. Chickenpox is an
evil; but if I were to declare that we must either submit to it or else repress it by seizing
2. It can be inferred from the passage that the author
would agree with all the following except
everyone who suffers from it and punishing them by inoculation with smallpox, I should be
R laughed at; for thought nobody could deny that the result would be to prevent chickenpox
A. most people don't realize that by punishing offenders
they are surrendering themselves to the vicious cycle of
to some extent by making people avoid it much more carefully, and to effect a further
B apparent prevention by making them conceal it very anxiously, yet people would have sense
crime and punishment
B. sentences of imprisonment have little success in
enough to see that the deliberate propagation of smallpox was a creation of evil, and must
A therefore be ruled out in favor of purely humane and hygienic measures.
reducing the crime rate in society
C. it would be ridiculous to inoculate people suffering from
L Yet in the precisely parallel case of a man breaking into my house and stealing my diamonds
chicken pox with small pox
D. if criminals were not strongly punished for their
I am expected as a matter of course to steal ten years of his life. If he tries to defeat that
misdeeds there would be no law and order in society
monstrous retaliation by shooting me, my survivors hang him. The net result suggested by
the police statistics is that we inflict atrocious injuries on the burglars we catch in order to
M make the rest take effectual precautions against detection; so that instead of saving our
diamonds from burglary we only greatly decrease our chances of ever getting them back,
E and increase our chances of being shot by the robber. But the thoughtless wickedness with
which we scatter sentences of imprisonment is as nothing compared to the stupid levity
N with which we tolerate poverty as if it were either a wholesome tonic for lazy people or else
a virtue to be embraced as St. Francis embraced it. If a man is indolent, let him be poor. If he
T is drunken, let him be poor. If he is not a gentleman, let him be poor. If he is addicted to the
fine arts or to pure science instead of to trade and finance, let him be poor. If he chooses to
O spend his wages on his beer and his family instead of saving it up for his old age, let him be
poor. Let nothing be done for "the undeserving": let him be poor. Serve him right! Also --
R somewhat inconsistently blessed are the poor!
T VARC 100: RC#14
H It is exceedingly difficult to make people realize that an evil is an evil. For instance, we seize a 3. The authors argument about imprisonment would be
man and deliberately do him a malicious injury: say, imprison him for years. One would not most weakened by showing that
E suppose that it needed any exceptional clearness of wit to recognize in this an act of A. imprisonment is not widely regarded as an act of cruelty
diabolical cruelty. But in England such a recognition provokes a stare of surprise, followed by B. chicken pox and burglary are not analogous evils
an explanation that the outrage is punishment or justice or something else that is all right, or C. imprisonment does not cause malicious injury
perhaps by a heated attempt to argue that we should all be robbed and murdered in our D. sentences of imprisonment are given increasingly rarely
V beds if such senseless villainies as sentences of imprisonment were not committed daily. It is
useless to argue that even if this were true, which it is not, the alternative to adding crimes 4. The author apparently believes that people at the time
E of our own to the crimes from which we suffer is not helpless submission. Chickenpox is an
evil; but if I were to declare that we must either submit to it or else repress it by seizing
he wrote the passage were
A. inclined to consider poverty a social evil
R everyone who suffers from it and punishing them by inoculation with smallpox, I should be
laughed at; for thought nobody could deny that the result would be to prevent chickenpox to
B. in favor of unusually harsh punishment of all offenders
C. too ready to judge other people unfairly
B some extent by making people avoid it much more carefully, and to effect a further apparent
prevention by making them conceal it very anxiously, yet people would have sense enough
D. inconsistent in their attitude to poverty

A to see that the deliberate propagation of smallpox was a creation of evil, and must therefore
be ruled out in favor of purely humane and hygienic measures.
L Yet in the precisely parallel case of a man breaking into my house and stealing my diamonds I
am expected as a matter of course to steal ten years of his life. If he tries to defeat that
monstrous retaliation by shooting me, my survivors hang him. The net result suggested by
M the police statistics is that we inflict atrocious injuries on the burglars we catch in order to
make the rest take effectual precautions against detection; so that instead of saving our
diamonds from burglary we only greatly decrease our chances of ever getting them back,
E and increase our chances of being shot by the robber. But the thoughtless wickedness with
which we scatter sentences of imprisonment is as nothing compared to the stupid levity with
N which we tolerate poverty as if it were either a wholesome tonic for lazy people or else a
virtue to be embraced as St. Francis embraced it. If a man is indolent, let him be poor. If he is
T drunken, let him be poor. If he is not a gentleman, let him be poor. If he is addicted to the
fine arts or to pure science instead of to trade and finance, let him be poor. If he chooses to
O spend his wages on his beer and his family instead of saving it up for his old age, let him be
poor. Let nothing be done for "the undeserving": let him be poor. Serve him right! Also --
R somewhat inconsistently blessed are the poor!
T VARC 100: RC#13
H About twice every century, one of the massive stars in our galaxy blows itself apart in a supernova
explosion that sends massive quantities of radiation and matter into space and generates shock waves
1. Which of the following titles best describes the content of
the passage?
E that sweep through the arms (a narrow extension of a larger area, mass, or group) of the galaxy. The
shock waves heat the interstellar gas, evaporate small clouds, and compress larger ones to the point at
(A) The Origins and Effects of Supernovas
which they collapse under their own gravity to form new stars. The general picture that has been
(B) The Life and Death of Stars
developed for the supernova explosion and its aftermath goes something like this. (C) Supernovae and life on Earth
(D) The Aftermath of a Supernova
V Throughout its evolution, a star is much like a leaky balloon. It keeps its equilibrium figure through a
balance of internal pressure against the tendency to collapse under its own weight. The pressure is 2. According to the passage a neutron star is
E generated by nuclear reactions in the core of the star which must continually supply energy to balance
the energy that leaks out in the form of radiation. Eventually the nuclear fuel is exhausted, and the
(A) a gaseous cloud containing heavy elements
(B) an transient stage between an ordinary star and a
pressure drops in the core. With nothing to hold it up, the matter in the center of the star collapses
R inward, creating higher and higher densities and temperatures, until the nuclei and electrons are fused
supernova
(C) the residue that is left by a supernova
into a super-dense lump of matter known as a neutron star.
B As the overlying layers rain on the surface of the neutron star, the temperature rises, until with a
(D) the core of an ordinary star that houses the
thermonuclear reactions
A blinding flash of radiation, the collapse is reversed. A thermonuclear shock wave runs through the now
expanding stellar envelope, fusing lighter elements into heavier ones and producing a brilliant visual
outburst that can be as intense as the light of 10 billion suns. The shell of matter thrown off by the
L explosion plows through the surrounding gas, producing an expanding bubble of hot gas, with gas
temperatures in the millions of degrees. This gas will emit most of its energy at X-ray wavelengths, so it
is not surprising that X-ray observatories have provided some of the most useful insights into the nature
of the supernova phenomenon. More than twenty supernova remnants have now been detected in X-

M ray studies.

Recent discoveries of meteorites with anomalous concentrations of certain isotopes indicate that a
E supernova might have precipitated the birth of our solar system more than four and a half billion years
ago. Although the cloud that collapsed to form the Sun and the planets was composed primarily of
N hydrogen and helium, it also contained carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, elements essential for life as we
know it. Elements heavier than helium are manufactured deep in the interior of stars and would, for the

T most part, remain there if it were not for the cataclysmic supernova explosions that blow giant stars
apart. Additionally, supernovas produce clouds of high-energy particles called cosmic rays. These high-
energy particles continually bombard the Earth and are responsible for many of the genetic mutations
O that are the driving force of the evolution of species

R
T VARC 100: RC#13
H About twice every century, one of the massive stars in our galaxy blows itself apart in a supernova
explosion that sends massive quantities of radiation and matter into space and generates shock waves
3. The author implies that
(A) it is sometimes easier to detect supernovas by
E that sweep through the arms (a narrow extension of a larger area, mass, or group) of the galaxy. The
shock waves heat the interstellar gas, evaporate small clouds, and compress larger ones to the point at
observation of the X-ray spectrum than by observation of
which they collapse under their own gravity to form new stars. The general picture that has been
visible wavelengths of light
developed for the supernova explosion and its aftermath goes something like this. (B) life on Earth is endangered by its constant exposure to
radiation forces that are released by a supernova
V Throughout its evolution, a star is much like a leaky balloon. It keeps its equilibrium figure through a
balance of internal pressure against the tendency to collapse under its own weight. The pressure is
(C) recently discovered meteorites indicate that the Earth
and other planets of our solar system survived the
E generated by nuclear reactions in the core of the star which must continually supply energy to balance
the energy that leaks out in the form of radiation. Eventually the nuclear fuel is exhausted, and the
explosion of a supernova several billion years ago
(D) lighter elements are formed from heavier elements
pressure drops in the core. With nothing to hold it up, the matter in the center of the star collapses
R inward, creating higher and higher densities and temperatures, until the nuclei and electrons are fused
during a supernova as the heavier elements are torn apart
into a super-dense lump of matter known as a neutron star.
B As the overlying layers rain on the surface of the neutron star, the temperature rises, until with a
4. According to the passage what is the first event in the
sequence that leads to the occurrence of a supernova?
A blinding flash of radiation, the collapse is reversed. A thermonuclear shock wave runs through the now
expanding stellar envelope, fusing lighter elements into heavier ones and producing a brilliant visual
(A) An ordinary star begins to emit tremendous quantities
of X-rays.
outburst that can be as intense as the light of 10 billion suns. The shell of matter thrown off by the
L explosion plows through the surrounding gas, producing an expanding bubble of hot gas, with gas
(B) A neutron star is enveloped by a superheated cloud of
gas.
temperatures in the millions of degrees. This gas will emit most of its energy at X-ray wavelengths, so it
is not surprising that X-ray observatories have provided some of the most useful insights into the nature (C) An imbalance between light and heavy elements causes
of the supernova phenomenon. More than twenty supernova remnants have now been detected in X- an ordinary star to collapse.
M ray studies. (D) An ordinary star burns up its supply of nuclear fuel and
begins to collapse.
Recent discoveries of meteorites with anomalous concentrations of certain isotopes indicate that a
E supernova might have precipitated the birth of our solar system more than four and a half billion years
ago. Although the cloud that collapsed to form the Sun and the planets was composed primarily of
N hydrogen and helium, it also contained carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, elements essential for life as we
know it. Elements heavier than helium are manufactured deep in the interior of stars and would, for the

T most part, remain there if it were not for the cataclysmic supernova explosions that blow giant stars
apart. Additionally, supernovas produce clouds of high-energy particles called cosmic rays. These high-
energy particles continually bombard the Earth and are responsible for many of the genetic mutations
O that are the driving force of the evolution of species

R
T VARC 100: RC#13
H About twice every century, one of the massive stars in our galaxy blows itself apart in a supernova
explosion that sends massive quantities of radiation and matter into space and generates shock waves
5. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) speculating about the origins of our solar system
E that sweep through the arms (a narrow extension of a larger area, mass, or group) of the galaxy. The
shock waves heat the interstellar gas, evaporate small clouds, and compress larger ones to the point at
(B) presenting evidence proving the existence of supernova
which they collapse under their own gravity to form new stars. The general picture that has been
(C) discussing the nuclear reaction that occurs in the core of
developed for the supernova explosion and its aftermath goes something like this. a star
(D) describing the sequence of scientific events leading to
V Throughout its evolution, a star is much like a leaky balloon. It keeps its equilibrium figure through a
balance of internal pressure against the tendency to collapse under its own weight. The pressure is
and from supernova

E generated by nuclear reactions in the core of the star which must continually supply energy to balance
the energy that leaks out in the form of radiation. Eventually the nuclear fuel is exhausted, and the
pressure drops in the core. With nothing to hold it up, the matter in the center of the star collapses
R inward, creating higher and higher densities and temperatures, until the nuclei and electrons are fused
into a super-dense lump of matter known as a neutron star.
B As the overlying layers rain on the surface of the neutron star, the temperature rises, until with a
A blinding flash of radiation, the collapse is reversed. A thermonuclear shock wave runs through the now
expanding stellar envelope, fusing lighter elements into heavier ones and producing a brilliant visual
outburst that can be as intense as the light of 10 billion suns. The shell of matter thrown off by the
L explosion plows through the surrounding gas, producing an expanding bubble of hot gas, with gas
temperatures in the millions of degrees. This gas will emit most of its energy at X-ray wavelengths, so it
is not surprising that X-ray observatories have provided some of the most useful insights into the nature
of the supernova phenomenon. More than twenty supernova remnants have now been detected in X-

M ray studies.

Recent discoveries of meteorites with anomalous concentrations of certain isotopes indicate that a
E supernova might have precipitated the birth of our solar system more than four and a half billion years
ago. Although the cloud that collapsed to form the Sun and the planets was composed primarily of
N hydrogen and helium, it also contained carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, elements essential for life as we
know it. Elements heavier than helium are manufactured deep in the interior of stars and would, for the

T most part, remain there if it were not for the cataclysmic supernova explosions that blow giant stars
apart. Additionally, supernovas produce clouds of high-energy particles called cosmic rays. These high-
energy particles continually bombard the Earth and are responsible for many of the genetic mutations
O that are the driving force of the evolution of species