TOPIC 3.

DEVELOPMENT OF LINGUISTIC SKILLS: LISTENING, SPEAKING, READING AND WRITING.

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DEVELOPMENT OF LINGUISTIC SKILLS

2.1. LISTENING

2.2. SPEAKING

2.3. READING

2.4. WRITING

3. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH.

3.1. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING.

3.2. METHODOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS.

4. CONCLUSION.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. INTRODUCTION

The final goal in Teaching English as a Foreign Language, according to the Curriculum, is
the development of "Communicative Competence", that is, to enable the learner to
communicate, through oral and written communication, using the foreign language in real and
meaningful contexts. This approach implies that language is considered to be an instrument of
communication and emphasises its functional value (Wilkins, 1972), which means that we use
language to express and exchange meanings in context rather than learning an abstract system
of grammatical rules.

1
 Using a foreign language effectively requires having a number of different abilities.
Linguists have identified four major abilities, which are called linguistic skills. They are: listening,
speaking, reading and writing.

Although present trends of language teaching stress the importance of oral skills
(listening and speaking), this does not imply that written skills should be neglected as they are
fundamental elements of a language. In the case of children learning a FL, these written skills
involve certain difficulties, since they have not yet fully developed these two skills in their mother
tongue. That is why they are considered to be taught gradually, paying more attention to aural
and oral skills at lower levels, yet introducing written ones carefully since the beginning, specially
reading, through simple words.

The satisfactory integration of the four skills will lead our students to reach effective oral
and written communicative competence, our main aim as foreign language teachers (established
in both LOMLOE 3/2020, article 17f., and Royal Decree 126/124, article 7.f.), “To acquire a basic
communicative competence in at least one foreign language to enable children to express and
understand simple messages and get by in everyday situations”.

Additionally, the legal framework, RD 126/14 states: "The contents, evaluation criteria and
learning standards are organised in four blocks corresponding to both comprehension and
production in oral and written texts". This structure corresponds to the FL activities described in
the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR, 2001). Similarly, it is
indispensable to consider in this topic that the official curriculum established in our region by
(reference to regional curriculum) divides the English contents in four blocks, corresponding to
the four linguistic skills, listening, speaking, reading and writing.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF LINGUISTIC SKILLS.

Communication can take place through oral and written interaction, which involves
'receptive' skills (listening & reading) and 'productive' skills (speaking & writing). That is,
understanding and producing oral and written messages in a meaningful context. This topic
demands a presentation of the four skills in isolation; however, we should remember that the
communicative methodological view in our curriculum demands the integration of these skills in
tasks which recreate real life situations.

2.1. LISTENING

2
 Listening is a receptive oral skill and it can be considered a complex and active process
since it involves the integration and activation of aural perception, linguistic knowledge and
semantic intuition.

The nature of listening comprehension means that the listener should be encouraged to
engage in an active process of listening for meanings, using not only the linguistic cues but also
non-linguistic knowledge. This is something we, as FL teachers, should bear in mind when facing
communicative situations in the FL class.

An important point for teachers to bear in mind is that children concentrate and listen
with understanding more effectively if they are motivated and engaged in meaningful activities
while listening. It is important, therefore, to remember that listening is not a passive activity.
Children will be involved in the active process of listening if they see the purpose of the task. We
can do this by using activities which actively support learners' understanding and guide their
attention to specific parts of the spoken text.

The children should be told that they cannot always be expected to understand every
word. Thus, the teacher has to specify whether they are being asked to understand the general
content of a spoken text ('listen for gist') or to focus on specific details, such as the number of
speakers, the sequence of events in a story, etc. ('listening for specific information'). The use of
support materials will help children feel confident about what is important to concentrate on.

On the other hand, we should not forget that it is useful to think of listening in three
stages: what pupils do in preparation for listening (pre-listening activities'); while they listen so
they remain active ('while-listening activities), and after they have listened ('post-listening
activities'), e.g. produce a drawing, make a tape, answer questions, and so on. From an
organisational perspective, listening tasks should be divided into three stages:

a. Pre-listening activities: These activities will help teachers activate vocabulary on the
topic of the listening activity and give an opportunity for previous understanding to
the learner.

b. While-listening activities: These activities are related to the identification of the

information while the learner is listening to a given oral text.

3
 c. Post-listening activities: Once our students have listened they can develop some
activities with the information received. These can help them to consolidate the
vocabulary learned and give them an opportunity to practise oral social interaction.

2.2. SPEAKING

Speaking is a productive oral skill which implies a complex cognitive process in which
listening plays an important role. Speaking a FL implies being able to understand it orally, that is,
speaking and listening normally interact with each other in oral communication. Oral, social
interaction is an exchange of opinions, ideas, knowledge, impressions... between people. This
may be seen as a process of negotiation of meaning which refers to the skill of making sure that
the interlocutors have correctly understood the speaker and that the speaker has understood
them.

Before getting the students to produce oral messages, or take part in activities of
interaction, and especially if inhibition is evident, models for imitation are advised to be given in
order to provide linguistic input and facilitate their gradual fluency and accuracy in oral
production. As communication is the main function of oral interaction, any activity proposed
must have a clearly communicative purpose. That is, students should have a reason for speaking.
Young beginners, therefore, have to be given opportunities to speak as soon and as much as
possible, so as to be made to feel that they are making progress and fulfilling their expectations,
thus avoiding disappointment.

In the early stages of learning, not much spontaneous speech can be expected from
pupils. Much of the English they will learn to produce in the initial stages will be what is known
as 'formulaic language’. This consists of routines or patterns which children memorise and which
enable them to communicate with minimum linguistic competence. By hearing this language
over and over again, children learn to use it and soon realise that certain questions and requests
can be made in English. This process will take place at first through imitation of linguistic models
provided in the classroom moving towards the autonomous production of English language by
the learners.

Littlewood (1981) distinguishes two main types of speaking activities:

a. Pre-communicative activities, in which learners are equipped with some skills to

communicate; thus, the criterion for success is therefore not so much whether he or she

4
 has managed to convey an intended meaning, but rather whether he or she has
produced an acceptable piece of language.

b. Communicative activities, where learners are expected to produce language that they
have recently learnt (e.g. through open or cued dialogues). Among the contributions of
communicative activities to FL learning we should mention that they provide motivation
and a natural way for learning, since they are performed in a real-like context where
pupils use the language to communicate.

2.3. READING

Reading is a complex psycholinguistic process which involves a wide diversity of

procedures or sub-skills, such as identification and interpretation of the graphic signs, the
understanding of their meanings, and finally a reflection and personal interpretation of these
meanings.

According to Pat Rigg (1986), reading is not only the process of converting letters into
sounds or recognizing and understanding words, but a process of communication between a
writer and a reader, and as any act of communication; it involves sending and receiving messages
in a meaningful context. One way into reading with young children is to read them stories aloud
from a picture book, while the teacher also shows them the words and pictures so that they can
start to associate sounds and meaning with written symbols. This reading allows the gradual
addition of vocabulary and the motivation for second language learning.

Reading can be approached through authentic and non-authentic texts.

- Authentic texts are designed for native speakers, not for language students. This kind
of material can be newspapers, books, comics, advertisements, cut outs from
magazines, and so on.

- A non-authentic text in language teaching terms is one that has been written
especially for language students (e.g. an adaptation from the book 'Little Red Riding
Hood').

5
 On the other hand, decorating the classroom with functional print, such as alphabet
friezes, flashcards, posters, lyrics from songs, and the like, using published material or materials
devised by the learners and the teacher, may help the learner to keep some information with
simple everyday eye-contact. Needless to say, the role of ICT in the improvement and fostering of
reading skills is undeniable: platforms like storybird.com or simply bringing to the classroom
adapted Audiobooks from YouTube are excellent ways to combine technology and reading skills.

In relation to reading comprehension we have to bear in mind that the reading capacity
of the students from Primary Education starts from a very simple reading at the word level to a
more systematic and complex reading. Therefore, it is convenient for the student to get used to
extensive and intensive reading.

- For intensive reading, students will work with short texts, from which they will
understand basically all the words, paying attention to the details and getting
particular points (scanning for specific information). Some possible texts are: labels,
advertisements, letters from friends, etc.

- In extensive reading, students will make the effort to understand the messages
although they may not know the meaning of some words, getting a global picture or
a clear idea of the overall meaning of the text (skimming for gist).

Summing up, we may say that FL teachers should bear in mind that it is important to
introduce reading after the pupils have some basic knowledge of the spoken language. In the
same way, we will introduce writing when our pupils have the necessary ability to do it.

2.4. WRITING

Writing is a complex mechanical process that has to acquired gradually, starting from the
mastery copying focusing surface features, such handwriting, spelling and punctuation, moving
towards ability of correct words (vocabulary) and grammar creative written texts, where there
are higher cognitive demands and a greater focus on meaning and personal expression as well as
form. Obviously, reading has a notable influence in writing expression, "the more we read the
better we write". However, an important principle at all levels is that children should not be
asked to write something that they cannot say in English.

6
 Although writing requires awareness of linguistic patterns and accuracy, the writings of
our students are likely to exhibit problems in language control. In this sense, error must be dealt
with at an appropriate stage of the composing process. In addition to deciding when to correct
errors, the teacher must also decide who will correct the errors, which errors to correct, and how
to correct errors.

It is helpful to provide plenty of practice in the meaning and spelling of basic words so
their use is familiar and gradually becomes more automatic. Children enjoy personal writing, so
it would be a good idea to personalise writing tasks, where possible. The more pressing need is
to ensure that writing is contextualised and, where possible.

Teachers should be aware of the differing writing demands text types make in terms of
vocabulary, sentence structures, the organisation of ideas, and layout.

Tasks and activities for writing

Procedures and techniques for teaching writing start with simple 'controlled' activities at
the word and sentence level, to consolidate the student's grammar, lexicon, spelling, and
punctuation. Then, we move to more complex tasks that involve the students in the production
of 'guided' and 'free' texts in order to cultivate their discourse competence, that is, paragraph
construction, devices of cohesion and coherence, and personal style in writing.

3. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

The Communicative Approach adopted for teaching English as a foreign language starts
from a theory of language as a means of communication. Therefore, the main goal in language
teaching is to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as Communicative Competence. Hymes
coined this term in order to contrast a communicative view of language with Chomsky's theory
of 'Linguistic Competence'. For Chomsky (1965), the focus of linguistic theory was to characterise
the abstract abilities speakers possess that enable them to produce grammatically correct
sentences in a language (knowing a language is equivalent to mastering the grammar of that
language). Thus, Chomsky's view of competence deals primarily with abstract grammatical
knowledge of the language.

Hymes held that such a view of linguistic theory was limited, and that linguistic theory
needed to be seen as part of a more general theory incorporating communication (interaction)

7
and culture, that is, he incorporated the 'sociolinguistic' dimension. Hymes' view of
'Communicative Competence' was defined as 'what a speaker needs to know in order to be
communicatively competent in a speech community'.

For Canale and Swain (1980) 'Communicative Competence' refers both to knowledge
(conceived as what is known, either consciously or unconsciously, about a given language and
the use of that language for the purpose of communication) and also to skill (how well and
effectively one can perform in actual interaction-communication). They argue that both aspects,
knowledge and skill, are necessary elements for communication to occur.

Unlike former approaches to what knowing a language involves, Canale and Swain's
theoretical framework refers to four main areas of knowledge and skill, so that we can
communicate effectively and efficiently in a given language since many related aspects are
relevant such as the situation or context, the degree of formality, and so on.

Explicit reference is made to different related competences which altogether will lead
language learners to develop their communicative competence. Canale and Swain differentiate:
Grammatical, Sociolinguistic, Discourse and Strategic competences.

a. Grammatical/linguistic competence: The focus lies on the necessary skill and knowledge
to understand and produce meaningful linguistic messages. It involves the mastery and
command of the different elements, rules and features of a language: vocabulary,
word-formation, sentence structure, pronunciation, spelling, ...

a. Sociolinguistic competence: It deals with the extent to which utterances are produced
and understood appropriately in different sociolinguistic contexts or situations depending
on contextual factors, such as the status of the participants or the purpose of the
interaction.

b. Discourse competence: It makes reference to the ability to relate the information in a

communicative situation with coherence and cohesion.

c. Strategic competence: According to Oxford (1990) learning strategies are specific actions
taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed,
more effective, and more transferable to new situations.

8
 Additionally, Canale and Swain (1983) considered that the sociocultural competence was
implicitly acquired through the attainment of these four. According to them, the cultural
background and support of language learning is an essential element of the learning process of
that language. This does not mean that one has to make that culture his/her own but, of course,
one has to know them and be respectful. A clear example could be the celebration of Halloween
with the children in the school. We do not really acquire that celebration as ours, but we give
them the opportunity to learn about sociocultural backgrounds from English-speaking countries.

3.1. Communicative Language Teaching

We have already covered the concept of communicative competence, which is the

theoretical concept underpinning Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). As Nunan (1989)
suggests, today it seems accepted that language is more than a simple system of rules;
therefore, we need to distinguish between knowing grammatical rules and being able to use
those rules effectively and appropriately when communicating. In this light, Littlewood (1991)
makes a distinction between communicative activities, focused on form; and pre-communicative
activities, which intend students to practise the total skill of communication.

3.2. Methodological implications.

Regarding methodological assumptions, the learner must be given opportunities to

practise and internalise not only grammatical structures, but also discourse, sociocultural or
strategic factors. In this light, classroom interaction is at the heart of the FLT process together
with the need to motivate students through communicative activities which respond to their
needs and their interests and preferences. However, the use of linguistic rules is also necessary
and should be integrated in contextualised activities. Similarly, variety in activities based on the
information gap principle arouses the students' interest; role plays or drama to foster classroom
interaction; and activities related to technological advances (e-mail, online activities, video-chat.,
etwinning participation, etc.) are common techniques in CLT.

In relation to the language, the learner is encouraged to prioritise meaning over

grammatical form and accuracy. Thus, we must create a "desire" to communicate, both in oral
and written form and in different real-like contexts.

Needless to say that CLT has dramatically changed the role of the teacher and students,
which many times are complementary. According to Breen and Candlin (1980) the role of the

9
teacher can be divided into three main categories: facilitator of the communicative process,
participant and observer and learner (also organiser, resources designer, mediator, controller,
etc.). Regarding students, by definition, CLT puts the focus on the learner. In this sense, taking
into account the students' communicative needs and getting them to develop awareness of their
own learning are central in this process.

Another common feature to different views of CLT is that error is seen as a natural part of
the FL learning process and as a proof of evolution towards a certain degree of communicative
competence or interlanguage using Selinker words. This implies that the teacher must be careful
on what, when and how to correct. As a rule, errors are treated when they interfere with
communication and cause breakdowns or potential fossilisation or if the learner makes them
regularly. Additionally, the four macro skills must be covered through activities which provide
students with situations where social interaction (pair and group work) is presented.

Finally, it is worth mentioning the Common European Framework of Reference for

Languages (CEFRL), as it has had a significant impact on foreign language teaching, learning and
assessment in the European context. In its own words, the CEFRL "provides a common basis for
the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc.
across Europe. It describes in a comprehensive way what learners have to learn to do in order to
use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to
be able to act effectively." In this sense, the CEFRL establishes international standards for
learning, teaching and assessment for modern languages in Europe. Regarding the methodology
in language learning, the CEFRL states that a fundamental principle is that the methods
employed shall be more effective if they consider the needs of the learners and their social
context. In this sense, the CEFRL views learners as individuals in charge of accomplishing real
tasks through the FL in the so-called "action-based approach".

4. CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, we can state that language learning naturally depends on what we think
knowing a language involves. If we consider language learning as communication, to exchange
information and meanings with other people, we will have to make students see that as the
ultimate aim in the classroom. Therefore, students will have to see that attention is paid to the
four skills and to the different competences, not only the linguistic one.

10
 For this reason, the acquisition of a FL aims at the efficient communicative exchange
between people, both oral and written, taking into account aspects such as linguistic, strategic,
sociolinguistic, sociocultural and discourse competence.

There is no doubt that an "open" and eclectic communicative approach is the dominant
trend nowadays, since FL teachers are aware of the importance of taking the best of each of the
previous methods and blend them to adapt to the specific characteristics of students and
teaching environment. Moreover, our current educational law (LOMCE) and RD 126/14 and
Decree (reference to regional curriculum) stress that learning the different skills to enable the
learner to communicate effectively is the main goal of the FL area; and therefore, the use of the
guidelines in a modern communicative approach seem the right direction to be followed in order
to produce competent users of the FL.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

- BREWSTER, J., ELLIS, G. And GIRARD, D. (1992) "The Primary English Teacher's Guide".
London: Penguin English.

- CANALE, M., & SWAIN, M. (1981). "A Theoretical Framework for Communicative
Competence". (In Palmer, A., Groot, P., & Trosper, G.) (Eds.)

- COUNCIL OF EUROPE. "Common European Framework of Reference for Languages". 2001

- ELLIS, R. (1985) "Understanding Second Language Acquisition". Oxford, O.U.P. - HYMES,

D.H. (1972) "On Communicative Competence" J.B. Pride and J. Holmes (eds.).

- LITTLEWOOD, W. (1991) "Communicative Language Teaching". An Introduction.

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

- NUNAN, D. (1989) "Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom". Cambridge, C.U.P.

- OXFORD, R. (1990) "Language Learning Strategies. What Every Teacher Should Know".
New York, Newbury House.

- RIGG, P. (1986) "Children and ESL: Integrating Perspectives" John Benjamins Publishing
Co.

- WILKINGS, D. A (1972) “Linguistics in Language Teaching". University College. London

11
LAWFUL REFERENCES

- Organic Law, 8/2013, 9th December, on the improvement of the Quality of Education.

- RD 126/14, 28th February, which establishes the basic Curriculum for Primary Education.

12