Received: 29 September 2020 Revised: 23 March 2021 Accepted: 2 May 2021

DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.15788

CONCISE REVIEWS & H YPOTH ESES IN FOOD SCIENCE

Oleogel-based emulsions: Concepts, structuring agents, and

applications in food

Thais J. Silva Daniel Barrera-Arellano Ana Paula B. Ribeiro

Laboratory of Oils and Fats, Department

of Food Technology, School of Food
Engineering, University of Campinas,
Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
Correspondence
Thais J. Silva, Laboratory of Oils and Fats,
School of Food Engineering, Department
of Food Technology, University of Camp-
inas, Campinas, Brazil.
Email: thais.jordania12@gmail.com
Abstract: This review discusses the application of oleogel technology in emulsi-
fied systems. In these systems of mimetic fats, water-in-oil or oil-in-water emul-
sions can be obtained, but, here, we cover emulsions with an oil continuous
phase in detail. Depending on the percentage of water added to the oleogels, sys-
tems with different textures and rheological properties can be developed. These
properties are affected by the characteristics and concentration of the added com-
ponents and emulsion preparation methods. In addition, some gelators exhibit
interfacial properties, resulting in more stable emulsions than those of con-
ventional emulsions. Oleogel-based emulsion are differentiated by continuous
and dispersed phases and the structuring/emulsification components. Crucially,
these emulsions could be applied by the food industry for preparing, for example,
meat products and margarines, as well as by the cosmetics industry. We present
the different processes of emulsion elaboration, the main gelators used, the influ-
ence of the water content on the structuring of water-in-oleogel emulsions, and
the structuring mechanisms (Pickering, network, and combined Pickering and
network stabilization). Finally, we highlight the applications of these systems as
alternatives for reducing processed food lipid content and saturated fat levels.

KEYWORDS
emulsion, fatty acids, lipids, nutrition, oleogel, Pickering

1 INTRODUCTION the suitability of existing processing technologies (Chaves

The consumption of food with high trans- and saturated
fatty acid contents increases the risk of cardiovascular dis-
eases (Briggs et al., 2017). The first regulatory measure to
guarantee healthier fat-based products for consumers was
the exclusion of partially hydrogenated fats. This guide-
line was initially launched by the World Health Organiza-
tion and has been deployed by regulatory bodies in various
countries worldwide (Alburquerquea et al., 2017). How-
ever, industrially produced foods still contain high levels
of saturated fatty acids because these are used to replace
trans-fats because of their similar sensory impact and
et al., 2018).
Thus, fat mimetics are being developed as healthier
alternatives to replace conventional fats. These fats can
be obtained as polymers, polysaccharides, proteins, or
lipids and all behave differently. The area of fat mimet-
ics has recently undergone significant progress, triggered
by the need to develop replacements for trans and satu-
rated fats, especially because food-related regulation has
become stricter. Many different food types have been stud-
ied for fat mimetic applications, such as cakes, choco-
late, cream cheese, margarine, meat products, and spreads
(Marangoni et al., 2020; Patel et al. 2020). Oleogels are

J. Food Sci. 2021;86:2785–2801. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfds © 2021 Institute of Food Technologists

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examples of mimetic fats, defined as viscoelastic materials
comprising a nonpolar liquid phase (oil) and structuring
agents or gelators that immobilize the lipid phase through
the formation of a three-dimensional network, resulting in
systems of varying consistencies (Dassanayake et al., 2011;
Lupi et al., 2016; Meng et al., 2017). Chaves et al. (2018)
describe the potential application of oleogels as fat substi-
tute in the foods such as margarines, meat products, cakes,
spreads, ice cream, cookies, and cream cheese. Neverthe-
less, there remain challenges in this field, mainly related to
the application of these fats in water-containing systems.
Most fat-based foods have high water contents, for exam-
ple, margarine and spreads, which can be formulated with
up to 80% water content (Patel & Dewettinck, 2016). The
fact that many food types have a water component high-
lights the importance of understanding the structuring
agents in oleogels in low and high water-content regimes
(Munk et al., 2019).
The structuring in emulsions may involve the aqueous
phase, oil phase, or interface emulsion (Mao & Miao, 2015).
However, most studies have investigated aqueous-phase
continuous emulsions, and few studies have considered
oil-phase continuous emulsions. Olegel-based emulsions
show large potential for trans-fat replacement and satu-
rated fat reduction in fat-based food products (Jimenez-
Colmenero et al., 2015; Patel, Rodriguez, et al., 2014). These
emulsions are obtained using mechanical forces that pro-
mote the formation of small droplets, as well as the use
of compounds that act at the interfaces, thus reducing
the interfacial tension. This homogenization force can be
provided by high-speed blenders, colloidal mills, or high-
pressure homogenizers (Mao & Miao, 2015).
Continuous phase structuring can occur through three
mechanisms: stabilization with solid particles (“Pickering”
crystals), the formation of a three-dimensional network
that confines the water and oil molecules, or a combina-
tion of Pickering particles and network formation (Ghosh
& Rousseau, 2011). Depending on the structuring mecha-
nism, type, and gelator concentration, emulsions in solid
or semisolid states can be obtained. In particular, lipid crys-
tallization in biphasic systems prevents water droplet sed-
imentation or coalescence (McClements, 2015; Rousseau,
2000). When the emulsions form solid or semisolid struc-
tures, there is a greater potential to achieve kinetic stabil-
ity because of the reduced particle mobility. Oil-in-water
(O/W) emulsions are normally stabilized by electrostatic
and steric repulsions, whereas water-in-oil (W/O) emul-
sions are normally stabilized by steric repulsion because
of the low electrical conductivity of the continuous phase
(Ushikubo & Cunha, 2014).
In the literature, it is possible to find several articles and
book chapters that address various issues associated with
oleogels, such as structuring mechanisms, physical prop-
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oleogel-based emulsions
erties, potential applications, structuring agents, oxidative
stability, health effects, oleogelation process, and sensory
issues (Chaves et al., 2018, 2019; Dassanayake et al., 2011;
Hwang, 2020; Marangoni et al., 2020; Martins et al., 2015;
Mattice & Marangoni, 2019). Because of the importance of
oleogels as alternatives to trans-fats and highly saturated
fats in foods, this review provides an overview of the use of
oleogels in W/O emulsions. The review is structured as fol-
lows: we give (i) an initial description of conventional crys-
tallization and oleogelation; (ii) a description of the main
concepts involving oleogels and oleogel-based emulsions;
(iii) a description of structuring mechanisms involved in
obtaining oleogel-based emulsions, as well as their influ-
ence on the stability of the system; (iv) the applications of
oleogel-based emulsion in food; and (v) the main structur-
ing agents applied in water-in-oleogel emulsions for food
applications with a special focus on so-called “clean label”
formulations. Therefore, this review considers prospects
for using oleogel technology in W/O emulsified systems.
2 CONVENTIONAL
CRYSTALLIZATION VERSUS
OLEOGELATION
2.1 Conventional crystallization
In fats and oils, conventional crystallization involves the
formation of fat crystals that are characterized by partial
or total movement restriction caused by chemical or phys-
ical bonds between the triacylglycerol molecules. Crystal
formation involves four main steps: nucleation, growth,
crystallization, and polymorphism. During nucleation, the
molecules in the liquid state bind and begin to form sta-
ble nuclei. In the growth stage, the molecules of adjacent
triacylglycerol molecules bind together, resulting in the
growth of crystalline nuclei. Then, the crystals undergo
structural changes (size, shape, and orientation). At that
moment, the fat crystals form different polymorphs, that
is, different arrangements of the crystal structure; for
example, α (hexagonal), β (triclinic), and β’(orthorhombic)
(Chaves et al., 2019). Conventional crystallization occurs in
the majority of products containing vegetable fats in their
formulations, such as chocolate, ice cream, bakery prod-
ucts, lipsticks, and margarine.
2.2 Oleogelation
Oleogel systems have emerged as alternatives to conven-
tional fats with high levels of trans-fatty acids and sat-
urated fatty acids. In oleogel systems, lipids composed
of unsaturated triacylglycerols, such as liquid vegetable

oleogel-based emulsions
oils or semisolids, are structured as gels (Chaves et al.,
2018; Pernetti et al., 2007). Thus, oleogels comprise a liq-
uid organic phase that is structured via gelling agents
that form a three-dimensional network for oil entrapment.
These oleogels are thermoreversible and behave in a sim-
ilar way to solid fats, even when they have high unsat-
urated fatty acid content (Blake et al., 2014). Crucially,
the formation of an oleogel does not require chemical or
structural changes in the triacylglycerol molecules, thus
maintaining the nutritional characteristics of the oil used,
content of unsaturated fatty acids, and natural regiospe-
cific distribution (Pernetti et al., 2007; Sundram et al.,
2007).
Oleogels are usually produced by dissolving gelators
(waxes, fatty acids, fatty alcohols, monoacylglycerols, phy-
tosterols, among others), in low concentration, in veg-
etable oil, by heating (above the melting point), followed
by cooling for gelation (Hwang & Winkler-Moser, 2020).
The replacement of solid fat in W/O emulsion for oleogel
is a new approach to these structuring systems (Contreras-
Ramírez et al., 2020). Oleogels may be developed from var-
ious vegetable oils, and their physical and structural char-
acteristics are directly related to the characteristics of the
lipid phase. Vegetable oil with potential for the production
of oleogels are soybean oil, high oleic sunflower oil, olive
oil, and palm oil, due to their composition, availability, and
cost (Chaves et al., 2018). The higher the saturation level of
the oil, the smaller the quantity of gelator required for gela-
tion (Patel, 2015). The ideal gelators are defined as those
capable of structuring liquid oils at low concentrations,
that are recognized as safe, and that have thermoreversible
properties. The study of these gelator properties at different
concentrations and vegetable oils is crucial to enable the
development of a plethora of oleogels with various tech-
nological application characteristics (Pehlivanoğlu et al.,
2016).
The structuring of oleogels has been studied for many
years, and it is known that their structuring is driven
by low-molecular-weight crystalline particles or polymer
self-assembly. The differences in the structuring mech-
anisms are due to the gelator type, size, shape, and
chemical and physical properties (Dassanayake et al.,
2011). The size and shape of the crystals formed can
be controlled through refrigeration and shear, determin-
ing the mechanical properties of the network (Pernetti
et al., 2007). Usefully, oleogel structuring can occur with
only one component or with multicomponent struc-
turing systems, acting in synergy (Patel & Dewettinck,
2016).
In oleogels, the stability is associated with the ability to
bind oil, oxidative and thermal stability. The oil binding
capacity can be associated with organizing the network
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2787
and mechanical resistance of the gels (Park & Maleky,
2020). Oxidative stability is a challenge due to the high con-
tent of unsaturated fatty acids that are more conducive to
oxidative reactions; however, there is evidence that the net-
work formed by the oleogel can protect liquid oil from oxi-
dation, delaying its degradation (Silva et al., 2021; Hwang,
2020).
The advantages of oleogels are the simplification of pre-
established technological processes, zero-trans and low
saturated products, low-fat products, products enriched
with polyunsaturated fatty acids, and cost reduction
with facilities. However, as limitations have a modifi-
cation of pre-established technological processes requir-
ing new facilities, maintenance of sensory character-
istics, effective structuring with low concentrations of
structuring agents, regulatory issues (use of structur-
ing agents generally recognized as safe), thermal and
mechanical resistance, oxidation, and seasonality of some
structuring agents (Martins et al., 2020; Park & Maleky,
2020).
3 EMULSION STRUCTURING:
CONCEPTS AND MECHANISMS
3.1 Conventional emulsion
By definition, an emulsion consists of a colloidal system
formed of two immiscible or partially miscible liquids in
which one is dispersed in the other as droplets (Dickin-
son & Stainsby, 1982). Being thermodynamically unsta-
ble, conventional or nonconventional emulsions must be
stabilized by agents that form a phase-separation barrier.
Depending on the dispersant phase polarity, these systems
can be W/O (oil continuous phase) or O/W (water contin-
uous phase). The emulsifiers in emulsions act by adsorb-
ing at the droplet (oil or water) surface, thus reducing the
interfacial tension and allowing this system to be stabilized
against phenomena such as flocculation, coalescence, and
sedimentation (Bouyer et al., 2012; Rousseau & Hodge,
2005).
3.2 Structured emulsions
Structured emulsions are more sophisticated than con-
ventional emulsions and can be either W/O or O/W, for
example, gelled emulsions, multilayer emulsions, multiple
emulsions, hydrogelled emulsions, Pickering emulsions,
and oleogels (Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2015; Mao & Miao,
2015; McClements, 2010). The focus of this review was on
water-in-oleogel emulsions.

2788
F I G U R E 1 Conventional W/O emulsion, oleogels and
structured W/O emulsions for use as substitutes of fats in foods. The
black circles represent the emulsifier on the surface of the water
drop; the ‘‘traces’’ in the dispersed phase refers to their structuring
3.2.1 Oleogel-based emulsions
Hydrogelled, oleogelled, and Pickering emulsions are
examples of structured emulsions that can have a contin-
uous oil phase (Figure 1) (Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2015;
Mao & Miao, 2015; McClements, 2010).
Hydrogellation is controlled by embedding the emul-
sified droplets within a continuous hydrogel matrix in
which two structures (emulsion and gel) co-exist (Jimenez-
Colmenero et al., 2015). Emulsified droplets (W/O or O/W)
can be incorporated into a continuous hydrogel matrix,
resulting in the formation of hydrogel emulsions. Stabi-
lization and structuring are the results of the emulsifier
and aqueous and oily phases of W/O/W emulsions. In
these cases, the structuring of the aqueous phase is more
promising for promoting the production of systems with
greater viscosity and stability (Dickinson, 2012 ; Jimenez-
Colmenero et al., 2015).
Pickering emulsions can be W/O or O/W and are stabi-
lized by solid particles that do not need to be amphiphilic.
In addition, the partial wetting of the particles through the
water and oil phase allows strong anchoring of the particles
at the oil–water interface (Mao & Miao, 2015; Chevalier &
Bollzinger, 2013).
Oleogelled emulsions consist of an oleogel matrix in
an emulsified system. The continuous phase is structured
with solid fat crystals, and the aqueous phase is trapped
in the gelled network. The emulsions can be structured in
the aqueous phase with the aid of biopolymers or in the
oil phase by lipid structuring agents (Jimenez-Colmenero
et al., 2015; Patel & Dewettinck, 2016). Low-molecular-
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oleogel-based emulsions
weight amphiphilic structures may be able to stabilize
and structure W/O emulsions simultaneously. In this case,
the aqueous phase remains immobilized in the continu-
ous gelled oil phase (Hughes et al., 2009). Its preparation
involves the elaboration of the oleogel (more structuring
oil) and its homogenization with the aqueous phase, thus
resulting in stabilization (Patel, Cludts, Sintang, Lesaffer,
et al., 2014).
For many years, oleogels have evaluated the structuring
mechanisms, structuring agent types, structuring agent
concentration, and vegetable oil type (Park & Maleky,
2020). However, studies involving the application of
oleogels in emulsion systems have recently been devel-
oped as a more versatile and less costly alternative. César
and Campos (2020) investigated the influence of olive, sun-
flower, and macadamia oil on the texture profile, rheologi-
cal behavior, and sensory properties of oleogel-based emul-
sions for application in cosmetics. Sunflower oil was the
one with the best texture properties and sensory analysis.
Contreras-Ramirez et al. (2020) evaluated the influence of
vegetable oil, monoacylglycerols, and polyglycerol polyri-
cinoleate on the physical stability the oleogel-based emul-
sion and observed the formation of a structure that enabled
reduced mobility and delayed phase separation. Silva et al.
(2021) developed low- and high-lipid margarines with
oleogel-based emulsion. The margarines developed were
intended to eliminate the use of partially hydrogenated fat
and saturated fats, resulting in a healthier product with
ideal properties during the shelf life. This demonstrates
the effectiveness of oleogel-based emulsion systems for the
application.
3.3 Structuring mechanisms
Emulsifiers act through accumulation at the interface,
which results in a surface free energy reduction. Some
agents, such as monoacylglycerols, have favorable inter-
actions with interfaces and the oil continuous phase,
thus allowing the modification of the emulsifying capac-
ity depending on the presence of another structuring
component (Ghosh & Rousseau, 2011). In addition,
monoacylglycerols can promote nucleation by changing
the behavior of fat crystals, for example, delaying or accel-
erating polymorphic transitions (Douaire et al., 2014). The
oleogel-based emulsions are stabilized by the presence of
amphiphilic compounds or by fat crystals that collect at
the droplet interface (Rousseau, 2000). This stabilization
can occur through three mechanisms (Figure 2): (i)
Pickering stabilization, (ii) network formation, and (iii)
combined Pickering and network stabilization (Ghosh
et al., 2011; Rousseau, 2000; Visintin et al., 2008).

oleogel-based emulsions
F I G U R E 2 Structuring mechanisms of water-in-oleogel
emulsions. ( ): Represents the drops of water dispersed in the oil;
( ): Different fat crystals crystallized in the oil and/or
interface or solid particles; ( )Three-dimensional network formed
by the structuring
3.3.1 Pickering stabilization
In 1907, British chemist Percival Pickering discovered the
phenomenon that emulsions could be stabilized by small
particles instead of emulsifiers, and these systems are
known as “Pickering emulsions” (Pickering, 1970). From
this discovery, the term “Pickering system” is applied
to crystalline-particle-containing colloidal systems (Yang
et al., 2017). The dispersed particles accumulate at the
oil–water interface and form a mechanical (steric) barrier
that protects the emulsion droplets from coalescence. The
extension of this protection depends on the packing den-
sity of the particles in the interfacial layer and the diffi-
culty in removing the adsorbed particles from the interface
(Dickinson, 2012).
The stabilization of Pickering emulsions can occur in
three ways: (i) the lipids can be crystallized at the interface
encompassing the dispersed droplets; (ii) the solid particles
(nano or microspheres) can be adsorbed at the interface,
creating a steric barrier between adjacent water droplets,
and (iii) shear-crystallized droplet encapsulation matrices
can be formed by shearing and cooling, resulting in encap-
sulated droplet-containing fat crystal clusters (Rousseau,
2013).
As mentioned, Pickering emulsions can be both W/O
and O/W, and the hydration capacity of solid particles at
the interface, defined by the contact angle (θ), with the dis-
persed or continuous phases determines the type of emul-
sion formation. In O/W emulsions, the contact angle is
less than 90◦ and in W/O emulsions it is greater than 90◦ .
When the contact angle is close to 90◦ , the particles act
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2789
effectively as Pickering stabilizers. If the particles tend to
be dispersed in both phases, there is no Pickering stabiliza-
tion. The characteristics of these particles are typically very
hydrophilic (low θ) or very hydrophobic (high θ) (Binks &
Clint, 2002; Yang et al., 2017).
Compared to conventional emulsions, Pickering emul-
sions have the advantage of being more stable because
there is a reduction in the coalescence probability. How-
ever, the stability of Pickering emulsions refers only to
coalescence, and they are not necessarily stable against
creaming or sedimentation (G. J. Lee et al., 2014; Linke &
Drusch, 2018; Yang et al., 2017). Particle wettability, con-
centration, size, packaging density, shape, aqueous phase
pH, and the presence of additives might affect the Picker-
ing emulsion stability (Linke & Drusch, 2018; Rousseau,
2000).
Linke and Drusch (2018) reviewed Pickering emulsions
and discussed the possibilities and limitations of the par-
ticle stabilization approach in foods. For example, fat
crystals can stabilize (by adsorbing at the interface) or
destabilize (crystals in the dispersed phase can protrude
through the interface leading to droplet aggregation) an
emulsion depending on their preferred location (Ghosh &
Rousseau, 2011; Rousseau 2013). Foods such as whipped
cream, pasta, margarine, butter, and ice cream are stabi-
lized by Pickering particles, and they are also used for
foods that require encapsulation or the sustained release of
active ingredients (Ghosh & Rousseau, 2011; Mao & Miao,
2015).
3.3.2 Network stabilization
During crystallization, triacylglycerols are thermodynam-
ically driven to associate, forming crystalline networks. In
emulsions, fat nucleation and crystal growth stages occur
heterogeneously (Arirna et al., 2009). In contrast, emulsion
stabilization by a network system is commonly observed
in oleogels; however, this structuring/stabilization is a
highly complex process (Rousseau, 2000). It is character-
ized by systems in which the crystals have no surface
activity (e.g., saturated triacylglycerols). Therefore, the sta-
bilization of the system occurs through a physical bar-
rier because the formed crystals have little or no interfa-
cial activity. The stability is provided by the formation of
a strong crystalline network via van der Waals forces in
the continuous phase, which slows the spread of droplets
and, consequently, the coalescence with adjacent droplets
(Rousseau, 2000).
Usually, highly saturated fats, such as fully hydro-
genated oils and vegetable waxes, are used for net-
work stabilization. This demonstrates that these com-
pounds have little or no interfacial activity but, instead,

2790
physically convert the dispersed phase into a continu-
ous crystalline matrix (Johansson & Bergenståhl, 1995).
Once formed, this network keeps the droplets separated
from one another because of the presence of intersti-
tial crystals, thus reducing flocculation and coalescence.
However, in the absence of emulsifiers, this network pre-
vents crystals from migrating to the interface, which might
result in the destabilization of the system (Ghosh et al.,
2011).
3.3.3 Combined Pickering and network
stabilization
Stabilization and structuring mechanisms, such as fat crys-
tallization in the continuous oil phase and the interfacial
Pickering effect, can occur at the same time (Jimenez-
Colmenero et al., 2015; Patel, Cludts, Sintang, Lewille,
et al., 2014). For the simultaneous observation of these two
mechanisms, the emulsifier must be in a solid or liquid
state, thus promoting heterogeneous interfacial nucleation
(Ghosh et al., 2011).
When fat crystals are simultaneously adsorbed at the
interface and present in the continuous oil phase as a net-
work of fine particles, stabilization is considered to be pro-
vided by a combination of Pickering and network stabiliza-
tion. This behavior can be observed in both W/O and O/W
emulsions. Margarine and butter are examples of indus-
trial food types stabilized by a combination of Pickering
particles and network formation. In the processing of but-
ter, fat crystal formation results in the initial destabiliza-
tion of the cream (O/W). During the cooling stage, these
intraglobular fat crystals grow and puncture the fat inter-
face, resulting in the aggregation of globules and phase
inversion. In margarine (W/O), the lipid crystals are inac-
tive at the interface but play a direct role in the emulsion
stability (Ghosh et al., 2011).
Carnauba wax microspheres can also stabilize emul-
sions. The microspheres are located on the surface of water
droplets and in the continuous oil phase, leading to a com-
bination of Pickering and network stabilization (Binks &
Rocher, 2009). Pickering crystals are more effective than
network crystals in terms of stabilization efficiency. How-
ever, when the emulsion is heated, the thermal stability
results from the decreased diffusion as a result of the net-
work crystals. Thus, the combination of Pickering and net-
work stabilization can yield greater system stability. When
the crystals are present at the interface and the contin-
uous oil phase simultaneously, both Pickering and net-
work stabilization can synergistically slow coalescence and
sedimentation because of the high crystal concentration
(Ghosh & Rousseau, 2011).
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oleogel-based emulsions
4 OLEOGEL-BASED EMULSION
APPLICATIONS
The properties of oleogels often change when they are
incorporated into foods, probably due to interactions with
other ingredients, such as emulsifiers, preservatives, sugar,
water, salt, and processing (Hwang & Winkler-Moser,
2020). Although the rheological and microstructural prop-
erties of oleogels are quite different from those of conven-
tional fats, they yield similar and, frequently, better results
when applied in foods (Patel et al., 2020). Studies involv-
ing food-grade oleogels have already proven their applica-
bility in various food types, such as sausages (Zetzl et al.,
2012), cream cheese (Bemer et al., 2016), margarine (Silva
et al., 2018), cookies (Mert & Demirkesen, 2016), ice cream
(Zulim et al., 2013), and spreads (Patel, Rajarethinem, et al.,
2014).
Fat replacement oleogels give foods a better lipid pro-
file because of the lower levels of saturated fatty acids,
absence of trans-fats, and higher mono- and polyunsatu-
rated fatty acid content (Chaves et al., 2018). Oleogels can
have different functions during application in food systems
as reduction in saturated fat, reduce oil migration, replace-
ment of oil binder, partial replacement of palm oil, con-
trolled volatile release, and decreased oil absorption (Mat-
tice & Marangoni, 2019).
Table 1 presents some of the recent important stud-
ies of water-in-oleogel emulsions, the stages of emulsion
preparation, the structuring agents used, and their poten-
tial applications. It should be noted that although oleogels
are well accepted, more studies on the role of structuring
agents in media containing different water activities are
needed. In most studies, the evaluated emulsions have had
water contents of approximately 20%, and this is accepted
as the standard system.
Several studies have investigated the application of
oleogels in foods (Chaves et al., 2018; Mattice & Marangoni,
2019; Martins et al., 2020). In products with high water
contents, such as margarine and meat products, a sta-
ble oleogel is essential. In margarines, the difficulty in
applying oleogels is achieving a product of the correct
consistency and having an adequate distribution of water
droplets in the oil phase, which is essential for spreadabil-
ity (Hwang et al., 2013). In meat products such as sausages,
the oleogel must maintain the properties provided by ani-
mal fat, that is, remain stable during cooking and con-
sumption (Panagiotopoulou et al., 2016).
Currently, the fat mimetics available on the market are
those of the continuous aqueous phase type. Coasun™ is
a commercial example of a fat produced with monoacyl-
glycerols (3%–5%) (Marangoni & Idziak, 2010). It consists
of a structured O/W emulsion containing 35%–40% water;
 TA B L E 1 Water-in-oleogel emulsions with potential for application in food and cosmetics industry
Potential
Continuous/dispersed phase Structuring/emulsifiers Type Preparation conditions application Reference
Soybean oil (35% and 60%)water Candelilla wax, hard fat, W/O Rotor/stator at 11,000 rpm/1–2 Margarine Silva et al. (2021)
(65% and 40%) monoglycerides min
Canola oil (∼62%–65%)water Soybean oil hard fat, PGPR, GMO, W/O 200 rpm/10 min and rotor/stator Dye release Rafanan and Rousseau (2019b)
oleogel-based emulsions

(20%) GMS at 7000 rpm/3 min

Canola oilwater (10%–50%) PGPR, Rice bran wax W/O Rotor/stator at 12,000 rpm/4–6 Rheological Wijarnprecha et al. (2019)
min properties
Mineral oilWater (20%) Paraffin wax, Sorbitan monooleate, W/O Rotor/stator at 400rpm/30 min Model system Ma et al. (2017)
Span 80
Canola oilwater (20%) GMO, GMS, Soybean oil hard fat, W/O 150 rpm/10 min and Rotor/stator Rheological Rafanan and Rousseau (2019a)
PGPR at 8000 rpm/3 min properties
high-pressure homogenizer
(500, 700, and 7000 psi) and
impeller at 260 rpm
High oleic sunflower oilwater Candelilla wax, monoglycerides, W/O Rotor/stator at 10,000 rpm/3 min – Silva et al. (2019b)
(1%–30%) crambe oil hard fat
Sunflower oilwater (20%) Phytosterols, γ-oryzanol, Tween20 – Ultrassom at 20 kHz/2 min Yogurt Moschakis et al. (2017)
Rice oilwater (20%) Crude rice bran waxBleached rice W/O Ultrassom at 16,000 rpm/15 min Margarine Pandolsook and Kupongsak
bran wax (2017)
Virgin olive oilwater (24%) Beeswax, Tween 20 or 80, xanthan W/O Rotor/stator at 40,000 rpm/5 min Margarine Öğütcü et al. (2015)
gum
Canola oilwater (40%) Shellac W/O Rotor/stator at 110,00 rpm Margarine Patel, Rajarethinem, et al. (2014)
Safflower oil high in Candelilla wax, distilled W/O Homogenization at 200 bar Physical properties Toro-Vazquez et al. (2013)
trioleinwater (20%) monoglycerides, sunflower wax
Soybean oilwater (20%) Candelilla wax, distilled W/O 3000 rpm/7 min Margarine Hwang et al. (2013)
monoglycerides, sunflower wax
Canola oilwater (20%) Shellac W/O Rotor/stator at 11,000 rpm Rheological Patel, Schatteman, De Vos,
properties Lesaffer, et al. (2013)
Castor oilwater (40%) Carnauba wax, hard paraffin, W/O 10,000 g/5 min Lipstick Le Révérend et al. (2011)
microcrystalline wax, PGPR, span
80, Tween 80
Canola oilwater (20%) GMO, GMS, canola oil hard fat, W/O Rotor/stator at 27,000 rpm/1 min Salt release Ghosh et al. (2011); Ghosh and
PGPR and high-pressure Rousseau (2012)
homogenizer (69 MPa/6
cycles)
Abbreviations: GMO, glycerol monoleate; GMS, glycerol monostearate; PGPR, polyglycerol polyricinoleate.
*Hard fat: fully hydrogenated oil.
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2792
it is low in saturated fatty acids, has zero trans-fats, and is
highly stable on heating (Batte et al., 2007a, 2007b; Blake &
Marangoni, 2015; Lin & Appleby, 2012). The replacement
of conventional fat by Coasun in cookies and as a fat for
pastry lamination results in a reduction of 20% in satu-
rated fat and 43% in trans-fat (Blake & Marangoni, 2015;
Lin & Appleby, 2012). The performance of this fat can be
improved with the addition of waxes as components of the
oil phase (Blake & Marangoni, 2015).
Another commercial fat is Cubiq Foods’ “Smart Fat,” an
O/W emulsion containing 40%–50% water that is stabilized
with vegan ingredients and has a melting point between 60
and 80◦ C. Smart Fat is mainly as a substitute for animal
fat and coconut oil, and also reduces the number of ingre-
dients required for processed products, enabling so-called
“clean labeling” (Cubiq Foods, cubiqfoods.com).
In contrast, olegel-based emulsions have not been used
commercially yet, but they have potential for application
in several products. For example, structured emulsions
having a continuous oily phase could be used to pre-
pare healthier meat products (Jimenez-Colmenero et al.,
2015). Another example is emulsions made with shellac
oleogels, which have potential for application in spread-
able products such as margarine and spreads without the
need for emulsifiers. In chocolate spreads, shellac oleogels
can replace the oil binders and can be used as alterna-
tives for cake preparation (Patel, Cludts, Sintang, Lewille,
et al., 2014). Despite the already extensive knowledge of
the oleogels and the mechanisms involved, the addition
of water could result in even more versatile systems wide
for applications. The use of W/O emulsions in foods such
as margarine and meat products represents an expanding
trend with great potential in food technology. These food
products face questions related to the high content of satu-
rated and trans-fats, and oleogel-based emulsions are an
alternative, healthier lipid source with tunable viscosity
properties.
5 STRUCTURING AGENTS
A large number of lipid components is under study as
structuring and, in some cases, emulsification agents
for water-in-oleogel emulsions. These include myverol
(Ojeda-Serna et al., 2019), 12-hydroxystearic acid (Tamura
et al., 1997), β-sitosterol, γ-oryzanol, sterols (Sawalha et al.,
2012), monoacylglycerols, candelilla wax (Silva et al.,
2019a, 2019b; Toro-Vazquez et al., 2013), carnauba wax
(Öǧütcü & Yılmaz, 2014), rice bran wax (Hwang et al.,
2013; Wijarnprecha et al., 2019), paraffin wax (Hodge &
Rousseau, 2003), beeswax (M. C. Lee et al., 2019), sun-
flower wax (Hwang et al., 2013), shellac (Patel, Schat-
teman, De Vos, Dewettinck, et al., 2013), soy lecithin,
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oleogel-based emulsions
stearic acid (Gaudino et al., 2019), glycerol monooleate
(Rafanan & Rousseau, 2019b), sorbitan monooleate (Ma
et al., 2017), propylene glycol monostearate (Kalnin et al.,
2004), polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) (Rafanan &
Rousseau, 2019b; Wijarnprecha et al., 2019), fully hydro-
genated crambe oil, fully hydrogenated soybean oil, fully
hydrogenated palm oil (Silva et al., 2019b), hydrogenated
canola stearin, hydrogenated cottonseed stearin (Hodge &
Rousseau, 2005), and ethylcellulose (Bemer et al., 2016;
Davidovich-Pinhas et al., 2015). These structuring agents
have been applied in continuous organic phase emulsions,
and the most common agents are oils: canola, coconut,
sunflower, high-oleic sunflower, castor, high-oleic saf-
flower, virgin olive, soybean, and palm oils (Chaves et al.,
2018). In the following sections, the use of these structuring
agents in water-in-oleogel emulsions and their potential as
alternatives in food applications will be discussed in detail.
5.1 Ethylcellulose
Ethylcellulose is produced through cellulose polymer
esterification. Ethylcellulose can form a gel in oil when
the solution is heated above its glass transition tempera-
ture (approximately 140◦ C), and this results in the partial
solubilization of the polymer in the oil phase (Marangoni
et al., 2020). During cooling, a network is formed by hydro-
gen bonding between the polymer chains (Gravelle et al.,
2012; Zetzl et al., 2012).
Several studies conducted with oleogels have already
demonstrated the potential of ethylcellulose structuring
in oils (Bemer et al., 2016; Davidovich-Pinhas et al., 2015;
Gravelle et al., 2012; Zetzl et al., 2012, 2014). In emul-
sions, ethylcellulose allows oil droplets to solidify and
can act as an emulsifier at high concentrations (Munk
et al., 2019). However, processing is essential to achieve
the desired properties for ethylcellulose-containing emul-
sions. On heating, ethylcellulose is directed to the oil
droplet interface. In contrast, at low temperatures, the oil
droplets are structured internally by ethylcellulose, result-
ing in a film at the oil droplet interface but without a vis-
cous structure (Munk et al., 2019).
Ethylcellulose can also stabilize Pickering W/O emul-
sions without the use of synthetic emulsifiers and could
potentially replace fats in foods (Melzer et al., 2003), such
as ice cream (Munk et al., 2019). Oleogels developed with
ethylcellulose and behenic acid (up to 6%) have been
applied in emulsions having different water contents (5%,
15%, 25%, 35%, and 45%). With increase in the water con-
tent, the volume of separated oil decreases moderately
(Ahmadi et al., 2020). This is associated with the adsorp-
tion (Melzer et al., 2003) or precipitation of ethylcellulose
in the interface, thus forming a layer on the water droplets,

oleogel-based emulsions
and is a result of changes in solubility (Ahmadi et al., 2020;
Do et al., 2010).
Melzer et al. (2003) evaluated the emulsifying potential
of ethylcellulose in W/O emulsions. Because ethylcellu-
lose has interfacial activity, it can be used as a polymeric
emulsifier, and the high stability of the resulting emulsions
is a result of the Pickering particles at the interface. The
stability of W/O emulsions formed without emulsifiers
is determined by the wettability of the adsorbed particles
(Binks & Lumsdon, 2000); therefore, the preparation
temperature of the emulsion affects the stability. However,
the solubility of ethylcellulose increases with increasing
temperature and, consequently, the affinity of the col-
loidal particles for oil also increases. Therefore, phase
inversion can occur at low temperatures (Melzer et al.,
2003).
5.2 Proteins and polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are hydrocolloids with high water reten-
tion and thickening capacity. These components display
hydrophilic characteristics and have high molecular
weights. Nonabsorbent polysaccharides (without inter-
facial properties) can be used in emulsions. In these
cases, stabilization is achieved because of the increase in
viscosity and the difficulty in droplet diffusion. Polysac-
charides widely used for application are xanthan gum,
alginate, carrageenan, hyaluronic acid, chitosan, gum
arabic, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, galactomannans,
and pectin (Bouyer et al., 2012).
High-internal-phase emulsion oleogels have been devel-
oped using carrageenan, locust bean gum, and xanthan
gum to gel the internal water droplet phase. These hydro-
colloids must have low-temperature thermoreversible
gelation characteristics, and the ideal choice is a combina-
tion of different hydrocolloids without surface activity to
prevent system inversion in continuous water gels (Patel,
Cludts, Sintang, Lewille, et al., 2014). Iqbal et al. (2019)
developed W/O emulsions (40% water) with soybean oil
and PGPR containing high-methoxylated pectin, kappa-
carrageenan, and starch and assessed their rheological and
microstructural properties.
Proteins and polysaccharides are also used as thick-
ening and gelling agents, and are ideal for low-fat
products. However, additional studies into the pro-
duction of W/O emulsions with polysaccharides and
proteins are needed. This is especially true because
these agents are highly influenced by the charac-
teristics of the medium, such as pH, ionic strength,
concentration, and electrolytes, which affect emulsion
stability.
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2793
5.3 Shellac
Shellac is a resin purified from the secretions of the insect
Laccifer lacca and is a complex mixture of polar and nonpo-
lar components consisting of polyhydroxy polycarboxylic
esters, acids, and alkanes. Shellac has a melting point of
80◦ C because of the presence of fatty esters and alcohols;
it acts as a structuring agent through self-assembly into
colloidal structures (Patel, Schatteman, De Vos, & Dewet-
tinck, 2013; Weinberger & Gardner, 1938).
Shellac oleogels demonstrate thermoreversibility and
thixotropic behavior (Patel, Schatteman, De Vos, Lesaffer,
et al., 2013). Shellac can structure oils at concentrations
close to 2% and is a good example of a structuring agent
capable of stabilizing W/O emulsions for application in
foods (pastes, cakes, and margarines) (Patel, Rajarethinem,
et al., 2014). In emulsions, shellac has the potential to pro-
mote stability in the absence of emulsifiers because of the
high proportion of fatty alcohols having chain lengths of
C28 to C32, which increase the initial dispersion of water
droplets and the interfacial and bulk crystallization of wax
particles (Patel, Rajarethinem, et al., 2014; Patel, Schatte-
man, De Vos, Lesaffer, et al., 2013). Emulsions having 40%,
50%, 60%, and 80% fat can be obtained using shellac wax
oleogel without the use of conventional emulsifiers. Usu-
ally, the main problem in low-fat systems is that high-
performance emulsifiers are required to promote viscos-
ity and stability (Patel, Rajarethinem, et al., 2014; Patel &
Dewettinck, 2016).
5.4 Sterols
γ-Oryzanol and β-sitosterol are sterols that occur natu-
rally in many vegetable oils. Mixtures of these sterols
are known to structure edible oils and form oleogels and
β-sitosterol, and γ-oryzanol can form crystals in oil, water,
or emulsions, for example, forming tubules with the oil
phase inside and outside the tubules. However, an oleogel
is not formed immediately upon cooling, and mechanical
agitation such as shear is required to achieve an oleogel
(Dassanayake et al., 2011). In emulsions, these compo-
nents can form structured systems (den Adel et al., 2010;
Bot et al., 2009). In emulsions containing β-sitosterol and
γ-oryzanol, the water molecules bind to β-sitosterol, limit-
ing self-assembly by reducing the consistency of the system
(Sawalha et al., 2012).
W/O emulsions stabilized with β-sitosterol and γ-
oryzanol contain fibrillar crystals in the oil phase (Bot
et al., 2011), and, in optical scattering experiments, their
W/O emulsions showed spherical water droplets with Mal-
tese crosses, indicative of a radially oriented crystalline

2794
material within the dispersed aqueous phase. However, the
tubular microstructures characteristic of sterol oleogels are
not evident; instead, separate β-sitosterol and γ-oryzanol
crystals were observed (Co & Marangoni, 2012). The for-
mation of the tube structures is hampered by the binding
of β-sitosterol molecules with water, resulting in the forma-
tion of monohydrate crystals (weak gels). The promotion of
tube formation and greater firmness of the emulsion can be
achieved by the use of a lipid phase comprising less polar
oils (Sawalha et al., 2012).
Together, γ-oryzanol and phytosterols show good per-
formance for use in sausages. This kind of replacement
allows the reduction of saturated fats in meat products and
improves their lipid profile through the incorporation of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (Panagiotopoulou et al., 2016).
Crucially, emulsions based on phytosterols are rheologi-
cally dependent on the crystallization of these compounds.
The emulsification of phytosterols could be an effective
method to increase phytosterol solubility in the oil phase,
decrease crystallization, modulate the rheological proper-
ties, and increase the effectiveness of these bioactive com-
pounds (Moschakis et al., 2017).
5.5 Waxes
Waxes are defined as long-chain fatty acids that are ester-
ified with fatty alcohols having low polarities and high
melting points, properties that contribute to their excellent
crystallization in liquid oils. Chemically, waxes are com-
posed of wax esters, fatty acids, fatty alcohols, and linear
hydrocarbons. Waxes are considered the most promising
structuring agents because of their high oil-binding capac-
ity at low concentrations, low cost (ability to gel oils at
weight concentrations below 0.5%), and approval for food
use (Patel, 2015). The wax gelling mechanism is attributed
to the distribution of n-alkanes or wax esters in small
microcrystalline platelets, which form a complex three-
dimensional network after aggregation that easily entraps
liquid oil (Blake et al., 2014; Martini et al., 2015; Patel,
2015).
Understanding the use of waxes in emulsion systems
could increase their use because these materials have
proven efficient in oleogels. Some critical wax concentra-
tions for gel formation have been reported for canola oil
using the following structuring agents: rice bran wax (1%),
sunflower wax (1%), candelilla wax (2%), and carnauba
wax (4%) (Blake et al., 2014). The oleogels with different
water contents developed with rice bran wax and PGPR in
canola oil were assessed for their properties. System sta-
bility was provided by the wax crystal network, which pre-
vents coalescence and phase separation. In addition, it was
noted that higher water contents resulted in a weaker sys-
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oleogel-based emulsions
F I G U R E 3 Water-in-oleogel emulsions with a system of
synergism between wax and emulsifier
tem structure and less thixotropic behavior (Wijarnprecha
et al., 2019).
In structural terms, waxes have no interfacial activ-
ity. However, emulsions containing amphiphilic emulsi-
fiers can promote a synergistic effect, resulting in indi-
rect wax crystal adsorption at the oil–water interface
(Figure 3). This adsorption mechanism occurs through
the interaction of the hydrophilic part of the surfactant
with water and that of the hydrophobic part with the wax.
During emulsion formation, the emulsifier is incorporated
into the newly formed crystalline network, thus chang-
ing the lamellar size and increasing the crystalline net-
work with wax aggregates with strong bonds in the dis-
persed phase (Rousseau & Hodge, 2005). The long-chain
esters in the interface and steric stability promote high coa-
lescence stability at high temperatures (Ma et al., 2017).
Therefore, the emulsifier may act by increasing the affinity
between the wax crystal and the aqueous phase, changing
the intercrystallite interactions, or by changing the crys-
talline structure itself (Binks & Rocher, 2009; Hodge &
Rousseau, 2003).
In W/O emulsions, waxes can stabilize the system with-
out the help of other emulsifiers. Structuring and emulsi-
fication occur through van der Waals forces resulting in a
crystalline network that stabilizes the emulsion. Wax solid-
ification at the droplet interface or the migration of crystals
to the interface promotes an increase in viscosity, which
reduces diffusion and increases stability (Visintin et al.,
2008). Further, when crystals remain on the droplet sur-
faces, they provide improved stability against coalescence

oleogel-based emulsions
by reducing collisions between droplets (Ghosh et al.,
2015).
Rice bran wax can stabilize W/O emulsions without the
help of an emulsifying system. These emulsions have suit-
able characteristics for application in different types of
margarine saturated fat substitutes (at 50 and 100 wt.%)
despite having lower hardness compared to oleogels hav-
ing the same composition (Pandolsook & Kupongsak,
2017).
Oleogel-based emulsion with waxy crude oil and more
than 30% water displays an increase in apparent viscosity,
elasticity, and fluidity, in addition to increasing the stability
of the emulsion because the wax crystals cover the liquid–
liquid surface (decreasing the tendency to coalesce) and
eliminating the free droplet movements within the emul-
sion (Visintin et al., 2008).
The water content, wax content, and crystallization time
have a direct influence on the rheological properties of
W/O emulsions. For example, the elasticity increases as
the water content decreases, and the emulsion resistance
increases with storage time because of the presence of
a dense wax crystal network and the greater number of
Pickering crystals. The reduction in deformation over time
is dependent on wax crystal growth because this results
in solid bridges between existing crystals with higher
rigidity in the surrounding network (Haj-shafiei et al.,
2013).
Oleogels containing sunflower seed wax in rice bran oil
and interesterified fat were used to formulate W/O emul-
sions with 20% water. The differences in the melting prop-
erties and chemical composition of the wax esters and
fat revealed a complex crystallization system (Doan et al.,
2017), the interactions between the wax crystals resulted in
the increased stiffness of the network, and the crystalliza-
tion rate in the continuous phase rendered the emulsion
stable (Rousseau & Hodge, 2005).
Sausages developed with rice bran wax oleogel showed
similar characteristics to fat-containing sausages in firm-
ness, chewiness, and springiness, without perceptible
changes in flavor and aroma (Wolfer et al., 2018). The
increase in the concentration of monoacylglycerols causes
a reduction in particle size because of their interfacial
activity and the lower degree of coalescence resulting from
droplet immobilization by the wax-based crystal network.
Although the crystallization of candelilla wax and monoa-
cylglycerols occurs independently (without mixed crystal
formation), monoacylglycerols affect the intercrystal inter-
actions in oleogels and emulsions (Toro-Vazquez et al.,
2013).
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2795
5.6 Monoacylglycerols
Monoacylglycerols are fatty acid monoesters with glycerol
and have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. They are
considered excellent emulsifiers (Ferretti et al., 2010). In
addition to their emulsifying potential, these components
can act as structuring agents in oils, and emulsions can
form a lyotropic crystalline phase that is assembled at the
oil–water interface (da Silva et al., 2019). Monoacylglyc-
erols have polymorphic and mesomorphic properties, so
that systems structured with monoacylglycerols can occur
in sub-α, α, β, liquid crystal lamellar and cubic phases
(Batte et al., 2007b; Wang & Marangoni, 2014). During
the emulsification of oils by monoacylglycerols, the liquid
crystalline lamellar phase encapsulates the oil and creates
a material having the functionality and properties of a fat
(Marangoni et al., 2007).
The crystallization mechanism of monoacylglycerols
occurs through the growth of a laminar crystal network.
During monoacylglycerol heating (above the Krafft tem-
perature) in water, the molecules are arranged in a lamel-
lar phase. After homogenization, the oil phase is added
to the water, promoting the formation of a self-assembled
system of monoacylglycerols in the crystalline phase. The
structuring of oils by monoacylglycerols occurs mainly via
hydrogen bonds. After cooling (below the Krafft tempera-
ture), monoacylglycerols form a lamellar phase. This phase
is densely packed with hexagonal order in the middle of the
bilayers, and the hydrocarbon chains lose their mobility,
beginning a transition to the α-gel phase. Below the crys-
tallization point, the lamellar phases are transformed into
a sub-α crystalline phase with aliphatic chains packed in
an orthorhombic configuration. Monoacylglycerol crystal-
lization involves the polymorphic transformation of lamel-
lar monoacylglycerols (liquid-crystalline state) through
the α-gel to form the oleogel and β-gel laminar crystals in
water (a coagel) (Bin Sintang et al., 2017; Chen & Terent-
jev, 2009; Dassanayake et al., 2011; Lopez-Martínez et al.,
2015; Wang et al., 2016; Wang & Marangoni, 2014). Gela-
tion occurs via the rapid crystallization in the lateral direc-
tion that occurs after monoacylglycerol crystal nucleus for-
mation, thus forming the first space-filling network. This
is followed by the formation of stacks of crystalline bilay-
ers (Bin Sintang et al., 2017; Chen & Terentjev, 2009; Das-
sanayake et al., 2011; Lopez-Martínez et al., 2015; Wang
et al., 2016).
The exploration of the properties of the long-chain sat-
urated monoacylglycerol gel phases is essential for under-
standing the structure of these compounds in edible oils
(Batte et al., 2007b; Heertje et al., 1991). During processing,

2796
some steps may lead to the formation of emulsions with
greater stability. For example, lower cooling rates increase
the stability of the α-gel phase, providing more time to form
fully hydrated lamellar structures. Shearing, in turn, accel-
erates the polymorphic transition by disturbing the forma-
tion of hydrated lamella. In contrast, storage at low tem-
peratures slows the polymorphic transition (Wang et al.,
2016). When small amounts of water are added to oleogels
containing monoacylglycerols, the structure and function-
ality of these systems change depending on the behavior of
the mesomorphic phase (Vereecken et al., 2010).
Goldstein et al. (2012) observed that structured monoa-
cylglyceride gels have greater stability and form two poly-
morphs: α and β. The use of shear provides greater water
mobility within the gels, and the polymorphic transforma-
tion from the α-gel phase to the coagel phase in emulsions
with monoacylglycerols results in the destabilization of the
emulsion and water syneresis (Wang & Marangoni, 2015b).
The α-gel phase has superior functionality for a variety of
applications because it has a water-rich lamellar structure
(Wang & Marangoni, 2015a). Thus, the α-gel phase is the
most favorable structure for structuring water in glycerol–
water monostearate systems and is capable of forming a
thermally reversible and metastable sub-α-gel phase when
cooled below 13◦ C (Wang & Marangoni, 2014).
Saturated monoacylglycerols can form firm gels in
water because of the formation of a network. Unsaturated
monoacylglycerols, in contrast, are mainly used in phar-
maceutical applications. In foods such as margarine, the
ideal combination of saturated and unsaturated monoa-
cylglycerols may result in appropriate melting profiles
(Vereecken et al., 2010).
Lupi et al. (2011) formulated water-in-oleogel emulsions
of myverol (mono- and diacylglycerol) with olive oil (high
oleic-acid-containing oil) and cocoa butter. The obtained
emulsions were compared with commercial margarine
types and found to have suitable rheological properties for
application as solid fats.
6 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
Oleogels have been widely studied; however, they are
widely consumed in foods as emulsions. Like oleogels,
emulsions have excellent technological and nutraceutical
potential, and waxes and monoacylglycerols are examples
of systems that act synergistically to produce structures
with different rheologies. The main stabilization mecha-
nisms for structured W/O emulsions are Pickering and net-
work stabilization. Pickering stabilization prevents droplet
coalescence by steric repulsion. In contrast, network sta-
bilization reduces the droplet spread in the medium. This
results in a kinetically stable system with easily modula-
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oleogel-based emulsions
ble rheological properties. Some of the ingredients used
in emulsions with oleogels come from natural sources
such as proteins, sterols, monoacylglycerols, and waxes.
An example of a structuring agent derived from renew-
able resources is ethylcellulose, and studies have shown its
effectiveness in oleogels. The main applications of water-
in-oleogel emulsions are in different types of margarine
because margarines are emulsions with different water
contents. Furthermore, the use of emulsions as vehicles for
functional components, dyes, or nutraceuticals is impor-
tant. There are no specific process conditions for obtaining
water-in-oleogel emulsions, but the most commonly used
method is high-intensity, high-energy homogenization.
The limitations of these fats are the requirement to
modify pre-established technological processes, need to
maintain the sensory characteristics typical of the prod-
ucts, regulatory issues, achieving thermal and mechanical
resistance, and resistance to oil migration, oxidation, and
seasonality problems associated with some structuring
agents. Currently, a significant limitation is finding
structures that promote viscosity and stabilize emulsions,
thus avoiding problems such as water or oil syneresis,
and provide these characteristics at low concentrations.
Studies of water in oleogels are usually focused on the
80:20 standard system (oleogel:water), but other ranges of
water contents should be studied because increasing the
water content yields new structures.
Consumers and regulatory agencies are increasingly
concerned with the healthiness of food, especially issues
such as the absence of trans-fats, reduced saturation, and
“clean label” products. In particular, the development
of products without artificial additives, simple process-
ing, and the use of ingredients of sustainable origin is a
major trend. Oleogel-based emulsions can reduce the sat-
urated fat content in water-containing foods, provide func-
tional ingredients, and are a technological option for food
adaptation to the clean label concept. This is important
because the clean label market has shown high growth
driven by consumer desire for more natural products.
However, understanding the structuring mechanisms of
oleogel-based emulsions with different structuring agents
is still a challenge. The addition of water to oleogels causes
changes in rheological and stability properties that still
need to be better understood. Synergism between struc-
turing agents is a current trend and aims to improve the
properties of emulsions without high levels of structur-
ing agents. Finally, a significant challenge is the evalua-
tion of these emulsions in foods such as meat products and
margarine.
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
This work was financed in part by the Coordenação de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil

oleogel-based emulsions
(CAPES - Brazil) - Finance Code 001. The authors also
thank the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cien-
tífico e Tecnológico-Processo: 303429/2018-6; Chamada
CNPq N◦ 09/2018 Modalidade: PQ. Categoria/Nível: 2, and
the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico-Projeto Universal Processo: 423082/2018-3.
AU T H O R CO N T R I B U T I O N S
Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investi-
gation, writing-original draft, and writing-review and edit-
ing: Thais J. Silva. Conceptualization, supervision, and
writing-review and editing: Daniel Barrera-Arellano. Con-
ceptualization, supervision, validation, visualization, and
writing-review and editing: Ana Paula B. Ribeiro.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
ORCID
Thais J. Silva https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5818-2802
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How to cite this article: Silva, T. J.,
Barrera-Arellano, D., & Ribeiro, A. P. B.
Oleogel-based emulsions: Concepts, structuring
agents, and applications in food. J Food Sci. 2021;86:
2785–2801. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15788