Food Research International 137 (2020) 109376

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Food Research International

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Review

Recent advances in improving stability of food emulsion by plant T

polysaccharides
⁎ ⁎
Ping Shaoa, , Jieru Fenga, Peilong Suna, , Ning Xianga, Baiyi Lub, Dan Qiuc
a
Department of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhejiang, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
b
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, PR China
c
School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo University of Technology, Zhejiang, Ningbo 315211, PR China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Emulsion is considered to be an excellent system for delivering nutraceuticals, but instability limits the appli-
Plant polysaccharides cation of the emulsion. Adding stabilizers is an effective method to improve the stability of the emulsion. Due to
Emulsion safety concerns, stabilizers from natural resources are attracting more and more attentions in food industry.
Interface Plant polysaccharides are natural biopolymers which are widely distributed in the cells of plants. Many plant
Stability
polysaccharides have been shown good emulsifying and thickening effects, therefore, they are widely used as
Steric interactions
stabilizers in emulsions. The application of plant polysaccharides in improving emulsion stability was reviewed
Electrostatic interactions
Polysaccharide characteristics in this paper. Firstly, the factors affecting the stability of the emulsion were elaborated in detail. On this basis,
the methods of improving the stability of the emulsion were discussed. Furthermore, the effects of the plant
polysaccharide structures on emulsion stability were explained, such as the molecular weight of the poly-
saccharide, the hydrophobic group of the polysaccharide, and the protein content of the polysaccharide.
Additionally, the application of several common plant polysaccharides and their derivatives in emulsions were
introduced. It is hoped that this review can provide sufficient theoretical basis for application of plant poly-
saccharides in emulsions in the future.

1. Introduction
Many bioactive components are considered to be nutraceuticals
which are beneficial to human health. However, low oral bioavail-
ability limits their applications. Generally, bioactive components are
incorporated into appropriate delivery systems for improvement of
bioavailability. A wide range of colloidal delivery systems have been
developed to encapsulate bioactive components, such as molecular
complexes, emulsions, liposomes, microemulsions, microgels, and bio-
polymer particles. Emulsion-based delivery systems are particularly
suitable for protection of nutraceuticals because of mature application
in the food industry. However, many applications of emulsions are
limited because of their undesirable physical and chemical stabilities
(Ghosh & Rousseau, 2011; Lam & Nickerson, 2013; Narukulla, Ojha, &
Sharma, 2019). At present, the common methods that are used to im-
prove the stability of emulsions fall into the three major approaches:
chemical modification of emulsifiers, use of stabilizers, and optimiza-
tion of fabrication techniques (Burgos-Díaz, Wandersleben, Marqués, &
Rubilar, 2016; Gharibzahedi et al., 2019; Mcclements & Jafari, 2017).
Among the above methods, the use of stabilizers is the most convenient
and effective approach for improving emulsion stability. Stabilizers are
mainly classified into three types: texture modifiers, ripening inhibitors,
and weighting agents (Mcclements, 2011). Although most of these
stabilizers have no or only weak emulsifying properties, their interac-
tions with emulsifiers induce the formation of stable film at the oil and
water interface to improve the stability. The stabilizers can also prevent
flocculation by forming a gel network structure in the emulsion system
(Anal, Shrestha, & Sadiq, 2019). However, many stabilizers are derived
from toxic and synthetic materials, making them unsuitable for human
consumption. In order to develop edible emulsions for expanding their
applications in food systems, applications of natural biopolymers as
food-grade stabilizers with no or minimal toxicity concern have been
explored extensively since last decade (Wei & Huang, 2019; Wei,
Zheng, & Song, 2018; Xu, Sun, & Mcclements, 2019).
Polysaccharides are natural biopolymers with low toxicity, high
biocompatibility and biodegradability (Yang, Han, Zheng, Dong, & Liu,
2015). Natural polysaccharides can be extracted from the sources of
animals, plants and microorganisms, among which plants are the most
abundant sources for food-grade polysaccharides (Bai, Huan, Gu, &
McClements, 2016; Koen, Martens, Kevin, Jo, & Smedt, 2013). Plant

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: pingshao325@zjut.edu.cn (P. Shao), sunpl1964@163.com (P. Sun).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109376
Received 31 January 2020; Received in revised form 11 May 2020; Accepted 2 June 2020
Available online 04 June 2020
0963-9969/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Shao, et al.
polysaccharides are natural polymers and account for the largest pro-
portion of all biomass. Plant polysaccharides are widely found in the
cell walls of plants. They are composed of a variety of monosaccharides,
and their structures are quite different. Compared with other biopoly-
mers, their large number of reactive functional groups have excellent
modifiability. The common feature of plant polysaccharides is their
stable structures due to their strong intermolecular interactions, making
them difficult to be deformed with the changes of pH and temperature.
In addition, they have strong hydrophilicity and viscosity which can
change rheological properties of the fluid system. In fact, they are
biodegradable polymers with a variety of physical, chemical and bio-
logical properties. From a resource perspective, plants can be con-
sidered as one of the most important sources of polysaccharides.
Moreover, low processing cost and superior biological properties make
them suitable for use as food emulsion stabilizers. Because of these
reasons, plant polysaccharides, such as pectin, cellulose and starch are
considered as excellent emulsion stabilizers, and are widely used in the
preparation of emulsions for food applications (Bai, Greca, et al., 2019;
Bai, Lv, et al., 2019; Hu et al., 2016; Jain & Anal, 2018; Salminen &
Weiss, 2014).
In industrial production, most emulsions are stabilized by com-
bining emulsifiers with plant polysaccharides (Dickinson, 2011). Pre-
vious studies showed that different mechanisms led to different abilities
of polysaccharides for improving emulsion stability. Recent papers only
outlined mechanisms on improvement of emulsion stability by poly-
saccharides, but the characteristics of different polysaccharides were
not discussed. Plant polysaccharides are widely used in food emulsions,
so it is important to analyze the mechanism of different polysaccharides
for improving emulsion stability. It helps to provide a theoretical basis
for selection and application of suitable polysaccharides in different
emulsion systems. In order to deepen the understanding of plant
polysaccharides as emulsion stabilizers, this review focuses on the effect
of different polysaccharide characteristics on improving emulsion sta-
bility. The characteristics of gum arabic, pectin, alginate and starch and
other plant polysaccharides in emulsions were summarized separately
as well. There are many researchers conducted in-depth and completely
new research on these polysaccharides in recent years. These studies
have helped to improve their application efficiency in emulsions, so
they were also discussed. It is hoped that this review will provide suf-
ficient theoretical basis for application of plant polysaccharides in
emulsions in the future.
2. Emulsion stability
2.1. Factors affecting emulsion stability
Emulsion can be easily destabilized under various conditions during
preparation and storage. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the
factors that influence the stability of the emulsion, which is essential for
subsequent studies of emulsion stability. The factors affecting the sta-
bility of emulsions generally fall into two categories: steric interactions
and electrostatic interactions (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. The different interactions between droplets that affect the stability of the emulsion.
2
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109376
2.1.1. Steric interactions
Steric interactions are the dominant factor affecting emulsion sta-
bility which is closely related to the interfacial properties of an emul-
sion system. During the formation of emulsion, the emulsifier adsorbs
on the oil–water interface of the droplets to form a stable emulsion
(Oss, 2007). The different types of emulsifiers result in different inter-
facial layer thicknesses, which have a strong influence on the strength
of the steric interaction between the droplets. When the interfacial layer
formed by the emulsifier which has sufficient thickness, the emulsion is
stabilized by strong spatial repulsive force (Tadros, 2015). However,
when the interface layer of the droplet is not thick enough, it tends to
cause the emulsion destabilization and lose its original physicochemical
properties (Fig. 2) (Cai et al., 2018). One example of such destabiliza-
tion is the occurrence of creaming phenomenon and Ostwald ripening.
Creaming occurs when the density of the droplet (dispersed phase) is
lower than that of the continuous phase. The density of the droplet can
be explained by the following equation:
rρcore + 3δρshell
ρ=
r + 3δ (1)
where ρ is the total density of the droplets, ρcore is the density of pure oil
droplets, ρshell is the density of droplets containing emulsifiers, and δ is
the thickness of the interfacial layer. According to the above equation,
the ρ value would increase when the density of the interfacial layer
increased. Therefore, the sparse interfacial layer would lead to a re-
duction in the droplet density of the emulsion, thus triggering the
creaming phenomenon. Ostwald ripening is the key factor leading to
destabilization of emulsions (Benjamin, Monika, Lutz, & Jochen, 2012;
Suriyarak & Weiss, 2014). In the process of Ostwald ripening, smaller
droplets in the emulsion system increase the size of larger droplets at
the expense of themselves. The driving force for this process is the
higher solubility of the oil molecules in the vicinity of the smaller
droplets compared to the larger droplets due to curvature effects
(Kabalnov & Shchukin, 1992). The rate of this process can be described
by Eq. (2).
d < r >3 8γVm S∞ D
=
dt 9RT (2)
Here S∞ is the equilibrium solubility of oil phase in water phase, γ is
the interfacial tension, r is the radius of droplets, Vm is the volume of
oil phase, T is the absolute temperature, R is the gas constant, and D is
the translation diffusion coefficient of oil through water phase.
Therefore, there are a number of factors may impact the rate of Ostwald
ripening.
2.1.2. Electrostatic interactions
When the interfacial strength of the droplets is insufficient, the
electrostatic interactions will play a key role in the stability of the
emulsion. It is a short-to-long range interaction when droplets carry
electrical charges. The intensity of the electrostatic repulsion relates to
the charge density and ionic strength of the droplets. Once the elec-
trostatic interaction weakens, the emulsion may become unstable. In
this case, coalescence and flocculation are the main mechanisms of
emulsion destabilization. Their mechanisms are similar, with the
P. Shao, et al.
Fig. 2. Different mechanisms of emulsion instability (Creaming, Flocculation, Coalescence, Sedimentation and Ostwald ripening).
common feature that the electrostatic repulsion between droplets is not
strong enough to resist the attractive interaction (Van der Waals in-
teraction) (Delahaije, Hilgers, Wierenga, & Gruppen, 2017). In the
meantime, coalescence rupture the interfacial layer of the smaller
droplets and then they fuse together to form larger droplets.
2.2. Methods for improving emulsion stability
Based on the factors affecting emulsion stability, the researchers
have developed a number of methods to improve emulsion stability,
which have been proved to be effective. Optimization of producing
process is the most commonly used method. Energy input must be ap-
plied to obtain a stable emulsion system. Currently, emulsions are
generally prepared by high pressure homogenization, ultrasonic tech-
nology, or microchannel emulsification (MCE) (Bai et al., 2016; Khalid,
Shu, Kobayashi, Nakajima, & Barrow, 2017). The coarse emulsion is
impacted by strong mechanical force (rapid pressure drop and shock) in
the high pressure homogenizer, causing implosion of cavitation bub-
bles, resulting in breaking larger droplets (Floury, Desrumaux, &
Lardières, 2000). In addition to improving the processing method, the
most effective way to improve the stability of the emulsion is to add
stabilizers which can compensate the defects of the emulsifiers
(Mcclements, Bai, & Chung, 2017). For example, emulsifiers and sta-
bilizers with the same negative charge at the oil–water interface in-
crease the total negative charge on the droplets, thereby preventing the
droplets from coalescence to larger particles (Zhao et al., 2015). Many
researchers believe that polysaccharides are the preferred stabilizer. Xu
et al. used the soybean polysaccharide to assist sodium caseinate to
stabilize the emulsion, which formed a dense interfacial film through
electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, thereby improving emulsion
stability (Xu, Wang, & Ping, 2017). Xanthan gum is a high viscous
polysaccharide that is often added to emulsions to improve stability.
They form a network of oil droplets by increasing the viscosity of the
continuous phase and delaying the speed of creaming (Krstonošić,
Dokić, Nikolić, & Milanović, 2015). Similar polysaccharides have been
widely used in the production of food products such as ice cream,
beverages, and cakes (Cheng, Ying, Li, Yan, & Jie, 2015; Lin, Tay, Yang,
Yang, & Li, 2017; Liu et al., 2017).
3. Plant polysaccharides improve emulsion stability
Plant polysaccharides are natural macromolecular polymers that are
widely found in the cell walls of plants and have molecular weights
ranging from tens of thousands to millions Da (Yu, Shen, Song, & Xie,
3
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109376
2018). The structure of plant polysaccharides from different sources
varies greatly. They are long-chain polymers which consist of different
monosaccharides by glycoside bonds. These polysaccharides are mate-
rials that support the structure of plants. Because of their excellent
biocompatibility and biodegradability, they are often used in the pro-
duction of products closely related to human life. In addition, poly-
saccharides have high physicochemical characteristics of high hydro-
philicity and high viscosity, which can change the rheological
properties of many systems (Shao, Shao, Jiang, & Sun, 2016). According
to many research results, they also have relatively stable structures and
do not denature due to slight changes in the temperature, pH and ion
concentration of the system (Qian, Decker, Xiao, & McClements, 2011).
Consequently, plant polysaccharides have good safety and excellent
stability, they are suitable for addition to food emulsion systems.
3.1. Mechanism of polysaccharides improving emulsion stability
There are many kinds of plants on the earth, polysaccharides come
from various sources and have different structures. The physicochem-
ical properties of polysaccharides are different due to their diversified
structures, so there is a great gap between the antioxidant effect,
rheological properties and emulsifying effect of different poly-
saccharides. Accordingly, the mechanisms about stabilizing emulsions
by different polysaccharides are not the same (Bai, Huan, Li, &
McClements, 2017). In addition to hydrophilic hydroxyl groups, some
polysaccharides contain acetyl and methoxy groups, thus they are
amphiphilic (Dickinson, 2003). In this case, the polysaccharide adsorb
at the oil–water interface, reducing the interfacial tension and forming
stable droplets. The morphology of the polysaccharide at the oil–water
interface is related to its free energy of mixing with the solvent
(Kontogiorgos, 2019). They can be analyzed by the following thermo-
dynamic formulas (Eq. (3), Eq. (4), Eq. (5)).
(3)
ΔG = ΔH − T ΔS
Here, ΔG is free energy, ΔH is enthalpy, T is temperature, ΔS is
entropy.
ΔS = −k (n1lnφ1 + n2lnφ2) (4)
Here, k is Boltzmann constant, n1 or n2 is the amount of solvent or
polysaccharide molecules, φ1 or φ2 is volume fraction of solvent or
polysaccharide molecules.
ΔH = n1 φ2 χkT (5)
Here, χ is the dimensionless Flory–Huggins interaction parameter.
P. Shao, et al.
Fig. 4. The diffusion, penetration and rearrangement of proteins at the oil–water interface are promoted by gum arabic.
Therefore, χ plays a decisive role in the state of the polysaccharide
in the solvent. When χ < 0.5, the polymer can be well dissolved in the
solvent. Since the polysaccharide is adsorbed on the surface of the
droplet, it is dissolved in a solvent of χ < 0.5 while having the hy-
drophobic portion of χ > 0.5. At this time, the conformation of the
4
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109376
Fig. 3. Polysaccharides adsorb at the oil–-
water interface in different states. The hy-
drophilic chain is represented by the green
line and the hydrophobic chain is re-
presented by the red line. (a) homopolymer;
(b) diblock copolymer; (c) triblock copo-
lymer; (d) random copolymer; (e) branched
copolymer. (For interpretation of the refer-
ences to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
Fig. 5. Micrographs of complex coacervates,
coacervated microcapsules using upright
microscope. (A) Gelatin and high methyl
pectin coacervate; (B) Cinnamaldehyde
multinuclear microcapsules based on gelatin
and high methyl pectin; (C) Gelatin and low
methyl pectin coacervate; (D)
Cinnamaldehyde multinuclear micro-
capsules based on gelatin and low methyl
pectin (Bertrand et al., 2019).
polysaccharide chain at the interface can be roughly classified into five
types (Fig. 3). In one case, the molecular chains of the polysaccharide
are all closely adsorbed on the surface of the droplets (Fig. 3a). Once the
concentration of the polysaccharide reaches a certain level, they in-
evitably stick to the surface of multiple droplets, resulting in bridge
P. Shao, et al. Food Research International 137 (2020) 109376

flocculation (Adachi & Xiao, 2013). In another case, part of the mole-

Yang, Liu, & Han, 2017

Fioramonti et al., 2019
cular chains of polysaccharides are adsorbed on the oil–water interface.

Yesiltas et al., 2018

Iqbal et al., 2019
Zhao et al., 2018 A random copolymer like that illustrated schematically in Fig. 3d has

Sato et al., 2014

Dai et al., 2018

several separate regions available for anchoring to the surface. Fig. 3b
Reference

and c show the structures of the diblock copolymer and the triblock
copolymer which are adsorbed at the interface, and the repulsive force
between the polymers makes the system spatially stable. Some poly-
saccharides have multiple branches, and the system is stabilized by one
Stronger electrostatic complexes were formed by whey protein isolate and sodium alginate, forming a rigid emulsion

The presence of alginate increased the viscosity of the emulsion, delayed the diffusion of oxygen within the system,
When the pH of the emulsion reduces to 4–5, sodium alginate will adsorb on the protein layer to form the double

of the hydrophobic branched chains adsorbed at the interface (Fig. 3e).

The zein-propylene glycol alginate particle forms a densely packed layer around the surface of the oil droplets to
The modified alginate increased the stability of the emulsion and the emulsion had a lower creaming index. In addition to the polysaccharides mentioned above, some poly-
saccharides have poor lipophilic properties and cannot be adsorbed at
the oil–water interface, but they still function to stabilize the emulsions.
Although these polysaccharides are difficult to adsorb on the oil–water
interface, they can wrap on the droplet surface. Therefore, poly-
saccharides and emulsifiers stabilize the emulsion through electrostatic
interaction and steric interaction (Xu, Luo, Liu, & Mcclements, 2017).
The remaining polysaccharides are dispersed in the continuous phase,
they have the ability to thicken or form a three-dimensional gel-like
The particle size of emulsion droplets under microscope is small and uniform.

droplet network, thereby hindering the movement of the droplets to

Alginate improved emulsion freeze–thaw stability by inhibiting coalescence.

interfacial layer and increase the absolute value of the emulsion potential.

prevent aggregation.

3.2. Effect of polysaccharide characteristics on improving emulsion stability

3.2.1. Molecular weight of polysaccharides

Molecular weight is the most significant characteristic of poly-
saccharides. Therefore, molecular weight is crucial for the stabilization
effect of polysaccharides on the emulsion. Generally, for polysaccharide
with emulsifying properties, the lower the molecular weight it has, the
faster it adsorbs to the oil–water interface. Li et al. used the xylanase to
thus prevented oxidation of the grease.

hydrolyze Artemisia sphaerocephala Krasch polysaccharide. They found

ensure the stability of the emulsion.

that the interfacial tension was significantly reduced by the low mole-
cular weight polysaccharide, which helped to reduce the free energy on
the interface (Li et al., 2016). Degradation of polysaccharides by Fe,
H2O2 and vitamin C showed that polysaccharides with low molecular
weight were easier to migrate to the interface. According to the de-
scription in Section 3.1, the polysaccharide that does not adsorb on the
interface may also play a role in preventing the emulsion from desta-
Stability

bilization. In this case, the higher molecular weight allows the poly-
saccharide to have a stronger ability to stabilize the emulsion. For ex-
gel.

ample, β-glucan contains only hydrophilic groups, whereas the higher

molecular weight oat β-glucan has a better thickening effect than barley
double-layered O/W

β-glucan (Karp, Wyrwisz, & Kurek, 2019). Therefore, the emulsion

Emulsion type

which had oat β-glucan added has a higher viscosity and a better sta-
bility.
O/W

W/O

O/W

O/W

O/W
O/W

3.2.2. Lipophilic groups of polysaccharide

Some plant polysaccharides in nature not only have hydrophilic
Octyl-grafted alginate-amide gel particle
Zein - propylene glycol alginate particle
Sugar ester and alginate, Tween 20 and
The application of different alginates in emulsion preparation.

groups, but also are connected with lipophilic groups. These poly-
Whey protein and Sodium alginate

Sodium caseinate and succinylated

saccharides have the possibility of adsorbing at the emulsion droplet

Whey protein isolate and Sodium

interface because of their lipophilic groups. Together with other

Gelatin and Sodium alginate

emulsifiers, they reduce the interfacial tension and stabilize the emul-
Emulsifiers and stabilizers

sion. The spruce galactoglucomannans obtained from the spruce saw-

dust is the good natural emulsifier because they are highly acetylated
(Bhattarai et al., 2018). In addition to natural amphiphilic poly-
saccharides, other polysaccharides can be further chemically modified
to covalently attach hydrophobic groups. It confers to the poly-
alginate

alginate

alginate

saccharide macromolecules the capacity to strongly adsorb at oil/water

interfaces. Amphiphilic alginates can be obtained by covalently cou-
pling dodecanol with sodium alginate via ester functional groups, ef-
Propylene glycol alginate

fectively reducing the interfacial tension (Yang, Jiang, He, & Xia, 2012).
Octyl-grafted alginate
Succinylated alginate

In addition, the nature, amount and substitution pattern of attached

Sodium alginate

Sodium alginate

Sodium alginate

hydrocarbon groups, may have a significant effect on the stabilizing

Alginate type

properties of these derivatives of polysaccharides. For example, it has

Alginate

been proved that amphiphilic dextran derivatives can be obtained by

Table 1

connecting various amounts of hydrocarbon aromatic groups to the

dextran chain. Dynamic interface tension measurements showed that

5
P. Shao, et al. Food Research International 137 (2020) 109376

Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of the emulsifying and stability mechanism of OSA-starches with multi-scale structures (Zhao et al., 2018).

dextran derivatives with 20% degree of substitution could reduce the 4. Application of plant polysaccharide in improving emulsion
interfacial tension more effectively than other dextran derivatives stability
(Desbrières et al., 2017).
At present, natural plant polysaccharides have been widely used in
emulsion productions. Gum arabic, pectin, sodium alginate and starch
3.2.3. Protein content of polysaccharide are all abundant plant polysaccharides in nature, and their different
There are also some polysaccharides that contain proteins in their structural characteristics lead to different application effects. This re-
structure, which give them excellent emulsifying properties. These view will describe the structural characteristics of different poly-
polysaccharides have the following characteristics at the oil–water in- saccharides and summarize their recent application trends in emul-
terface. The protein-rich parts of the polysaccharide chain adsorb on sions, which provides evidence for future emulsion research.
the oil surface, while the hydrophilic parts protrude into the aqueous
solution. As the size is usually big, the polysaccharide chains adsorb
4.1. Gum arabic
slowly to the interface. Once at the interface, the protein portions are
unraveled to expose buried hydrophobic amino acids and then these
Gum arabic is a natural polysaccharide derived from acacia senegal
proteins realign themselves within the oil phase to develop a viscoe-
or acacia seyal. They are widely used in the food industry due to their
lastic film along with carbohydrate moieties within the aqueous phase
excellent emulsifying properties. The gum arabic is characterized by a
(Jin et al., 2017). The Ulva fasciata polysaccharide is derived from a
highly branched structure with a core of β1,3-linked galactose residue.
marine algae plant. The purified polysaccharide contains 0.81% pro-
Gum arabic contains a small amount of protein. Researchers have
tein, which gives it a certain emulsifying ability to prepare stable
confirmed that it is an arabinogalactan-protein complex, an extra-
emulsions (Shao, Qiu, Xiao, Zhu, & Sun, 2017). Sun et al. studied the
cellular proteoglycan involved in plant growth and development
amphiphilicity of flaxseed gum and found that it played a stabilizing
(Mahendran, Williams, Phillips, Al-Assaf, & Baldwin, 2008). In view of
role in emulsion, which was probably owing to its emulsifying proteins.
such characteristics, the emulsion was stabilized by gum arabic and
And the abundant hydrophobic amino acids in flaxseed gum contribute
emulsifiers which were adsorbed at the interface. With regard to the
to protein emulsification, the content of hydrophobic amino acids in
application of gum arabic in emulsions, the focus is now on improving
flaxseed gum is about 24% of total amino acids (Sun, Liu, Feng, Xu, &
the stability of protein-stabilized emulsions. This is due to the fact that
Zhou, 2019). Polysaccharides of this type have been widely used in the
emulsions prepared from proteins with excellent biological properties
food and pharmaceutical fields to deliver bioactive compounds.
are more suitable for human use. A solely protein system is generally

6
P. Shao, et al. Food Research International 137 (2020) 109376

highly susceptible to environmental damage. In order to prevent or

Shrestha et al., 2018

Consoli et al., 2018

Chung et al., 2014

Zhong et al., 2018

delay this phenomenon, another biological macromolecule poly-

Li et al., 2019
saccharide is selected to add to compensate for protein defects. Dif-
ferent from other surfactants, protein adsorption at the oil–water in-
Reference

terface is divided into three stages (diffusion, penetration and

rearrangement). Gum arabic interacts with proteins to form the com-
plex through electrostatic interaction, thus promoting the adsorption of
Protein-polysaccharide conjugates have lower interfacial tension, and the conjugates formed by heating
The emulsion prepared from the conjugate has better creaming stability than the emulsion containing

proteins at the interface (Shao, Feng, Sun, & Ritzoulis, 2019). As shown
Starch plays a decisive role in the rheology of the emulsion, increasing the viscosity of the emulsion.

in Fig. 4, during the slow adsorption of proteins at the interface, gum

arabic acted as a promoter, allowing more protein to adsorb at the
oil–water interface. In addition, the preparation of protein-gum arabic
Starch increases the environmental stability of the emulsion at high ion concentrations.

conjugates by Maillard reaction is also an effective method. Zha et al.

The nanogel is adsorbed at the oil–water interface to form a dense interfacial layer.

incubated pea protein isolate and gum arabic to form Maillard reaction
products (Zha, Dong, Rao, & Chen, 2019). The formation of conjugates
greatly improved the solubility of proteins. At the same time, the ne-
gative charges around the protein molecules and the conjugated layer
promoted the electrostatic and steric repulsion between droplets, in-
creasing thermal stability of the emulsion. It is worth noting that due to
the highly branched structure and lowe molecular weight, gum arabic
does not significantly increase the viscosity of the emulsion. According
to this characteristic of gum arabic, it can be applied to suitable sys-
tems.
improve their ability to stabilize emulsions.

4.2. Pectin

Pectin is widely distributed in the cell wall of plants and the middle
layer of higher plants, which forms compact plant tissues by combining
with cellulose (Luo et al., 2017). Pectins sold in the market are mainly
extracted from by-products of citrus, sugar beet and apple. Due to the
wide range of the sources, the structures of pectins have large differ-
ences. D-galacturonic acid (D-GalA), an isomer of d-glucuronic acid (D-
only protein.

GlcA) is found to be a major constituent of all pectins (Marić et al.,

Stability

2018). According to the degree of methylation (DM) of C-6 carbox-

ymethyl group of GalA, pectin is classified into high DM pectin (HMP)
or low DM pectin (LMP). The methoxy group attached to the pectin
Emulsion type

chain is a hydrophobic group resulting in the certain emulsifying

property. When the hydrophobic group and the hydrophilic group
reach to a suitable ratio, it will provide good emulsifying property. The
O/W

O/W

O/W
O/W

O/W

pectins of three DE values (DE = 55, 70 and 84%) were analyzed for
interfacial and emulsifying properties. With the increase of DE, the
Tween 80, modified corn starch and locust bean gum
Sodium caseinate-corn starch hydrolysates conjugate

characteristic droplet size D90,3 of the emulsion decreased significantly

Culled banana resistant starch-soy protein isolate

(Schmidt, Schütz, & Schuchmann, 2017). The results indicated that

Phosphatidylcholine and OSA-modified starch
Chitosan hydrochloride/carboxymethyl starch

pectin with high esterification had stronger adsorption capacity at the

interface. Pectin has been used to prepare composite coagulants with
gelatin to encapsulate cinnamaldehyde. The particle size of the micro-
capsules encapsulated by HMP was smaller than LMP (Bertrand et al.,
The application of different starches in emulsion preparation.

2019) (Fig. 5). This was attributed to the fact that HMP adsorption
Emulsifiers and stabilizers

increased the emulsification effect of the emulsifier at the interface. The

findings have also shown that HMP inhibited flocculation of droplets
because of its high viscosity. LMP has the higher charge density and
stabilizes the emulsion by electrostatic interaction between the dro-
plets, which is not as effective as HMP. The W1/O/W2 nano-emulsions
conjugate

complex

prepared from whey protein-pectin complex and Tween 80 were com-

pared (Gharehbeglou, Jafari, Hamishekar, Homayouni, & Mirzaei,
2019). The change in the creaming index over time showed that the
Waxy maize modified corn starch

pectin added to the continuous phase increased the viscosity of the

Culled banana resistant starch

emulsion and reduced the creaming rate. Therefore, both HPM and LPM
have the ability to improve emulsion stability. HPM improves the
Corn starch hydrolysates

emulsion stability by reducing interfacial tension and increasing system

Carboxymethyl starch

OSA-modified starch

viscosity. LPM carries a lot of electric charge, and it inhibits the ag-
gregation of droplets through electrostatic interaction. However, LMP
Starch type

can easily cause the emulsion to form the gel structure, and the system
environment should be paid attention to when it is used.
Table 2

7
P. Shao, et al.
4.3. Alginate and its derivatives
Algae plants are widely distributed in waters, and alginates are rich
in their cells to form cell wall components or stored inside cells
(Tavassoli-Kafrani, Shekarchizadeh, & Masoudpour-Behabadi, 2016).
Alginate is characterized by an unbranched block copolymer containing
homopolymeric or heteromeric blocks of mannuronic acid and gu-
luronic acid units (Shanura, Daekyung, Jae-Woon, & You-Jin, 2019).
Since alginates can be obtained from different algae varieties, they can
have different physicochemical properties. Different composition and
arrangement of uronic acid residues lead to their physicochemical
properties. They are anionic polysaccharides with no emulsifying ac-
tivity. They stabilized emulsion droplets primarily by electrostatic in-
teractions in the continuous phase. In order to expand the application of
alginate in emulsion, recent researches have focused on the preparation
of amphiphilic alginate. The main chain of the alginate is attached with
a number of hydroxyl groups and carboxyl groups, so that it is easy to
obtain various derivatives by chemical modification (Yang, Xie, & He,
2011). The hydroxyl group of the alginate can be oxidized to form the
aldehyde group (Boontheekul, Kong, & Mooney, 2005). Then the al-
dehyde group can be modified to produce an amphiphilic alginate de-
rivative by reductive-amination (Kang, Shin, & Yang, 2002). The car-
boxyl group of the alginate is always modified by chemical methods
such as esterification, georgy reaction and amidation so that the hy-
drophobic group is added to the skeleton of the natural alginate. These
modifications change the solubility, hydrophobicity and other physi-
cochemical properties of alginates. These modified alginates have been
used in the preparation of emulsions, and the applications of alginate
and modified alginate in emulsions was summarized in Table 1
(Fioramonti, Stepanic, Tibaldo, Pavon, & Santiago, 2019; Iqbal, Xu,
Huang, & Chen, 2019; Sato, Moraes, & Cunha, 2014; Yesiltas et al.,
2018; Zhao, Zhigang, & Tao, 2018). The results in Table 1 show that
succinylated alginate, octyl-grafted alginate and propylene glycol al-
ginate all contribute to the stability of emulsions. Compared with al-
ginate, amphiphilic alginate derivatives effectively reduce the inter-
facial tension of the emulsion and improve emulsion stability.
Therefore, we can have a positive expectation for the future application
of alginate derivatives in emulsions.
4.4. Starch and its derivatives
Starch is one of the most common polysaccharides and the most
abundant carbohydrate in human staple foods. They exist in various
organs of higher plants in the form of granules as energy reserves of
plants. Starch is generally divided into two types: amylose and amy-
lopectin. The difference between the two is that amylose is a long-chain
polysaccharide linked by the α-(1-4)-glycosidic bond of the D-glucose
unit. On the other hand, amylopectin has the structure of highly
branched by α-(1-6)-glycosides. Starch is widely used to prepare
Pickering emulsions because of its granular nature. However, natural
starch tends to be hydrophilic and insufficient in hydrophobicity, so it is
not possible to stabilize the emulsion for a long period of time. In recent
years, researchers have focused on the modification of starch to give
them better performance. Both physical (non-solvent precipitation,
ultra-sonication, ionic gelation, milling, high-pressure treatment) and
chemical (otenyl succinic anhydride) modifications have been shown to
be effective in increasing the stability of Pickering emulsions.
Compared with natural starch, the granules of milled starch decreased
from micron to nanometer (Lu, Xiao, & Huang, 2018). At the same time,
starch structure was destroyed and with the decreased molecular
weight. All these made the emulsifying ability of milled starch sig-
nificantly enhanced. The granule stabilization mechanism of high-
pressure treated starch is different from that of milled starch. Results
from Villamonte et al. indicated that high-pressure treated starch was
gelatinized, double helix structures were formed by amylose and
amylopectin chains and the presence of starch-lipid complex were the
8
Food Research International 137 (2020) 109376
determinant of particle stability (Villamonte, Jury, & de Lamballerie,
2017). Some gelatinized starch can act as an emulsifier, such as waxy
rice starches, corn starches, wheat starches, and waxy corn starches
(Luría, Carter, Ramirez, & Sosa, 2019). During gelatinization, the starch
granules absorb water, which leads to both swelling and melting of the
crystallites of starch granules (Ratnayake & Jackson, 2006). The per-
formance of gelatinized starch acting as an emulsifier relies upon the
degree of gelatinization. Emulsions prepared from starch with a high
degree of gelatinization had the smaller particle size and higher stabi-
lity (Yulianingsih & Gohtani, 2019). Starch with a high degree of ge-
latinization formed more the melted starch polymer in emulsions. The
polymer network, exhibiting steric repulsion, was thought to play an
essential role in emulsion stabilization. Modification of octenyl succinic
anhydride is the research trend of starch in recent years. As for the
emulsification of the octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) modified starch,
the hydrophobic OSA is grafted to the starch chain to enhance the
hydrophobicity of the starch. It is noteworthy that the difference of
molecular weight and degree of substitution of starch result in different
emulsifying stability of OSA modified starch (Zhao et al., 2018) (Fig. 6).
These natural and modified starches all have the effect of promoting
emulsion stability. The effect of several starches on emulsion stability
was shown in Table 2 (Chung, Degner, & McClements, 2014; Consoli
et al., 2018; Shrestha, Sadiq, & Anal, 2018; Zhong, Wang, & Qin, 2018).
Compared with other plant polysaccharides, starch is rarely used as a
stabilizer in emulsions, although it promotes the stability of the emul-
sion.
4.5. Other plant polysaccharides
Besides the polysaccharides discussed above, many other plant
polysaccharides are also considered as effective emulsion stabilizers.
Inulin, the reserve polysaccharide in plants, has been shown to have
biological activities such as anti-cancer and immune regulation. Inulin
has been used in emulsions stabilized by β-lactoglobulin. Low con-
centrations of inulin promote protein adsorption at the oil–water in-
terface, while high concentrations of inulin have thickening ability
(Luisa, Carlos, Sixto, & Cecilio, 2019). Guar gum is derived from guar, it
has a rod-like structure and is one of the most common sources of ga-
lactomannan. It has been added to the emulsion stabilized by soy so-
luble polysaccharide (Chivero, Gohtani, Yoshii, & Nakamura, 2015).
Due to the high viscosity characteristics of guar gum, the viscosity of
the continuous phase increased and the movement of droplets was in-
hibited. Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) is an emulsifying
cellulose derivative with methoxy and hydroxypropyl groups. For ex-
ample, the emulsion stabilized by HPMC and sodium caseinate was
more stable than the emulsion stabilized by sodium caseinate alone
(Alizadeh, Abdolmaleki, Nayebzadeh, & Bahmaei, 2019). The HPMC
and protein adsorbed at the droplet interface acted together to reduce
the interfacial tension and delay the speed of phase separation.
5. Conclusion and future outlook
This review summarizes the recent application of plant poly-
saccharides on stabilizing food emulsion. Their physicochemical prop-
erties make them suitable for the stabilization of food emulsions.
Different polysaccharides have different mechanisms for inhibiting
emulsion instability. Some polysaccharides are directly added to the
aqueous phase to form a complex with the emulsifier, which prevents
the coalescence of the droplets through electrostatic interaction and
steric hindrance. The polysaccharides with emulsifying ability generally
decrease the tension at the oil–water interface together with the
emulsifier, and maintain the stability of the droplets. Other poly-
saccharides increase the viscosity of the emulsion by thickening,
thereby preventing droplets from coalescing. Chemical modifications
may be applied to plant polysaccharide to alter their structural prop-
erties for further improvement in their emulsion-stabilization
P. Shao, et al.
functionality.
The safety of food emulsion has been paid special attention by re-
searchers. The excellent biocompatibility and low toxicity make some
plant polysaccharides become safe emulsion stabilizers. However, the
safety of some natural plant polysaccharides is not yet clear, there are
certain risks in their application. In addition, since polysaccharide de-
rivatives have become a research trend for several years, they have
received widespread attention. The polysaccharide derivatives pre-
pared by chemical modification, their toxicity to the human body also
needs further research in the future. After being proved to have reliable
human safety, these plant polysaccharides have the application value in
food emulsions.
In addition, the current research on the mechanism of improving the
stability of emulsions by plant polysaccharides is not thorough enough.
Conformations of the polysaccharides dissolved in solvent have great
influences on the oil–water interfacial tension and steric interactions,
according to the mechanism of improving emulsion stability by poly-
saccharides. Therefore, they could be the key to determine the stabili-
zation ability of a polysaccharide. But the current research has not fo-
cused or discussed in depth in this aspect. Owing to the long-chain
structure of polysaccharides, their conformations in the solvent are
complicated, which brings inconvenience to related research. The au-
thors in this review suggest that in the future, more attention should be
paid to explore suitable methods to study the conformations of plant
polysaccharides in emulsions, as this may be helpful in improving the
ability of polysaccharides to improve emulsion stability.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Zhejiang province key research and
development program (No. 2019C02070, No. 2018C02012, No.
2018C02005), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
21706232, No. 31671813, No. 31901636), Public Applied Research
Programs of Technology of Zhejiang Province (LGN18B060002).
Science and Technology Project of Hangzhou (2019010A15). We con-
firm that there is no conflict of interest.
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