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Natural gums of plant origin as edible coatings for

food industry applications

Anuradha Saha, Shvetambri Tyagi, Rajinder K. Gupta & Yogesh K. Tyagi

To cite this article: Anuradha Saha, Shvetambri Tyagi, Rajinder K. Gupta & Yogesh K. Tyagi
(2017) Natural gums of plant origin as edible coatings for food industry applications, Critical
Reviews in Biotechnology, 37:8, 959-973, DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2017.1286449

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CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY, 2017
VOL. 37, NO. 8, 959–973
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2017.1286449

REVIEW ARTICLE

Natural gums of plant origin as edible coatings for food industry

applications
Anuradha Sahaa, Shvetambri Tyagib, Rajinder K. Guptac and Yogesh K. Tyagia
a
University School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Dwarka, New Delhi, India;
b
Bhaskarcharya College of Applied Sciences, University of Delhi, Delhi, India; cUniversity School of Biotechnology, Guru Gobind Singh
Indraprastha University, Dwarka, New Delhi, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Natural plant-based gums and their derivatives are widely utilized in food industries, however, Received 6 July 2016
their applications as edible coatings to extend fresh fruits and vegetable shelf-life has been Revised 11 November 2016
explored recently. These natural polymeric polysaccharides have many advantages as compared Accepted 11 November 2016
to synthetic polymers, because they are biodegradable, nontoxic, economical and easily available
in the environment. Natural gums can also be semi synthetically modified to produce derivatives, KEYWORDS
which can easily compete with the synthetic preservatives available on the food market. In this Natural gums; edible
review, the recent developments in the use of natural gums and their derivatives as edible coat- coatings; shelf life;
ings have been explored and discussed. polysaccharides;
hydrocolloids

Introduction exudates and tuber/roots. Several plants produced

The name “gum” is commonly known to represent a
class of naturally occurring polysaccharides that have
the ability to either form gels or viscous solutions with
water or stabilize the emulsion system [1,2]. Natural
gums are polysaccharides composed of sugars other
than glucose, capable of causing an increment in a sol-
ution’s viscosity even at smaller concentrations. They
are chemically inert, less expensive, biocompatible, non-
toxic, odorless and widely available. As these gums are
water soluble, they are also known as hydrocolloids.
First, they serve as sources of reserve nutrients, struc-
tural entities, and water-binding moieties. Second, they
fulfill functions in food as moieties that govern the
influence of shape, texture, water-binding and sensory
properties. Finally, polysaccharides act as nutrients and
dietary fiber sources [3]. Due to these properties, gums
have many industrial applications. They are used as gel-
ling agents, thickening agents, emulsifying agents and
stabilizers. Such properties are due to their water bind-
ing capacity, rheological properties, capacity to form
films or gels and to encapsulate different compounds
such as flavors, aromas and nutraceutical compounds
[4,5]. Most often, plant-based gums are found in the
woody elements of plants or inside the seed coatings.
Sometimes, they are found in plant cell walls, tree
these gums in response to a protection mechanism
against mechanical or microbial injury [1,6].
Gums have particularly three noteworthy characteris-
tics: (a) Remarkable ability to attract and bind water,
forming a viscous solution, (b) Limited caloric contribu-
tion due to very limited digestion and absorption in the
body, notable in the large intestine (act as a fiber), (c)
Film-forming ability. The film-forming properties of nat-
ural gums involve intermolecular forces such as cross-
linking, electrostatic, hydrophobic, ionic interactions or
intermolecular/intramolecular hydrogen bonding [2].
Sometimes, natural polymers are chemically modified
which include cross-linking of functional group and
hydrolysis of polysaccharides [7,8].
In recent years, natural gums have become a source
of interest in edible coating applications for fruits and
vegetables. It has been reported that in low relative
humidity conditions, most of the polysaccharides have
good barrier characteristics [5]. The structure of gums
contains a large number of hydrophilic moieties such as
hydroxyl functional groups and other polar groups in
their structure which forms hydrogen bonds that play
important roles on its film formation [9]. Their uniform
distribution throughout the polymer chain increases the
coating’s ability to form hydrogen bonds and their

CONTACT Yogesh K. Tyagi drytyagi@ipu.ac.in University School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Sector
16C, Dwarka, New Delhi 110078, India
ß 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
960 A. SAHA ET AL.
participation in ionic interactions. Generally, polysac-
charide forms coatings by breaking down interactions
among long-chain polymer segments, thereby forming
new intermolecular hydrogen and hydrophilic bonds
upon solvent evaporation to create a coating matrix
[9]. High molecular weight polymers contain large-
chain polymeric structures, which are required for creat-
ing polymer matrices having the suitable cohesive
strength that provides mechanical strength to the
coating [10].
Edible coatings represent a thin layer of edible
material which forms a protective film/cover/layer on
the surface of the fresh fruits and vegetables to extend
their post-harvest quality and shelf life. It is simple, con-
venient, economical, environmentally favorable and
relatively inexpensive technology to reduce deterior-
ation of stored fruits and vegetables due to which, it is
relatively more accepted by consumers over other pres-
ervation methods like synthetic chemical preservatives
or irradiation [11]. Several additives when incorporated
into edible coatings maximize their beneficial effects on
quality maintenance of fresh produce. This approach
can be used to supplement refrigeration. Increasing
consumer demand for safe, good quality food products,
and edible coatings are of interest both in food indus-
tries and researchers. The suitability of natural polymers
in edible films and coatings has also been reported by
Dhall [12] and Baldwin et al. [5]. The development of
edible films has been classified into wet and dry proc-
esses. The wet process requires a suitable solvent to
uniformly spread the polymer which is followed by dry-
ing in controlled conditions for solvent removal and for-
mation of an edible film to coat the food product. This
process is not popular for industrial use as it requires
high energy input. The development of edible coatings
by a dry method involves extrusion, blow-molding and
heat pressing process which is suitable for industrial
use [13]. Addition of suitable plasticizers, surfactants
and emulsifiers are added to offer flexibility and
Table 1. Advantages and applications of plant gum-based edible coatings.
S.
No. Advantages Coated food
1. Control transfer of moisture & oxygen, better Seriguela, acerola, caja,
wet ability mango and pitanga fruits
2. Reduces weight loss, color changes and gas Cake, cheese
transfer rate
3. Reduce microbial growth, increased shelf life Cheese and cheese product
4. Improved appearance, shelf life extended Fortune mandarin
5. Improved firmness, crispness, juiciness Golden delicious apple
6. Protect against mechanical injury, decrease Apple, mango
respiration rate
7. Improvement of quality, texture Citrus fruits
improves certain properties of the edible films. Fruits
and vegetables are subjected to edible coating by dip-
ping, spraying or brushing to coat the upper surface of
the food commodity [9]. Certain properties of edible
coatings such as mechanical, barrier, rheological, light
transmission properties are studied to evaluate its per-
formance and durability [12]. Rheological properties of
polysaccharide gums are affected by its molecular size,
shape, conformation, orientation, water binding prop-
erty, concentration, degree of solubility and viscosity of
the dispersing medium [14].
Natural gum-based polysaccharides are of growing
interest to produce environmentally safe and bio-
degradable packaging materials in addition to edible
films and coatings [15]. Plant-derived gums are available
throughout the world and two or more gums can blend
together as a coating to provide synergistic effects due
to polymer–polymer interaction [16]. Due to these
unique attributes, natural gums have emerged as useful
materials for edible coatings and films (Table 1). This
review summarized mainly the plant-based natural
gums from vegetable origin and their applications as
edible coatings.
Mechanism of action of edible coatings
Edible coatings act on the surface by creating a semi-
permeable barrier around the surface of food commod-
ities. This barrier restricts gas and moisture exchange
that modifies the internal atmosphere of the fruit, which
in turn controls various metabolic changes in fruits such
as color, firmness, sensory quality, total phenolics and
antioxidant properties, which can lead to shelf life
extension. In apples, the production and consumption
of oxygen and carbon dioxide was around 50% lower in
the gum-based coatings which suggested that coatings
can reduce gas-transfer, which can be utilized as a use-
ful tool for shelf-life extension of these fruits [23].
Most of the studied edible coatings dealt with drying of
Components of coating Reference
Gum obtained from C. pulcherrima and A. [17–19]
pavonima with glycerol
Galactomannan, glycerol, oil [17–19]
Galactomannan extracted from G. triacanthos [20]
with nisin
Locust bean gum combined with beeswax [21]
and glycerol
Locust bean gum in combination with lipid/ [22]
hydrocolloid
Gum obtained from C. pulcherrima and A. [23]
pavonima with collagen protein
Guar gum, locust gum combined with wax [24]

the coating solution in which the food was dipped. The
process of coating involves first wetting of the fresh
produce by the coating solution followed by a possible
adhesion between the two components [14]. The coat-
ing of a fresh produce skin by an edible coating film
forming solution involves a process that could hypo-
thetically involve four successive steps. Dipping of the
fresh produce in an edible coating solution could take
between 1–2 min to gain a complete coating which
depends on the wettability, the composition and the
viscosity of the hydrocolloid solution, as well as on the
surface property of fruit/vegetable [14]. The second
stage in coating depends on the concentration and
temperature of the cross-linking agent if added and
the thickness of edible coating (hydrocolloid) solution.
The third stage of coating involves strengthening of the
coating layer which is usually accomplished at con-
trolled environmental condition. This is conducted to
avoid excessive loss of moisture and to achieve different
levels of mechanical strength. The fourth stage, namely
drying of the coating, could result in different film tex-
tures and structures [14].
Classification of plant-based natural gums
Natural plant-based gums can be classified according to
their origin and chemical structures. Gums are mainly
distributed in the following four groups: (a) Gums which
are derived from the endosperm of some seeds (guar
gum, locust bean gum), (b) Plant exudate gums (gum
tragacanth), (c) Tree or shrub exudates (e.g. gum arabic,
gum karaya), (d) Microbial fermentation gums (xanthan
gum, gellan gum). There are many gums known, but
only few gums are important for the food industry. In
this review, we have mainly focused on plant-based
gums of vegetable origin, which includes seed gums
and exudate gums.
Seed gums
Seed gums are a galactomannan which come under
the class of hydrocolloids to strengthen the matrix
structures, widely distributed in nature. They act as a
reserve polysaccharide extracted from the seeds. The
structure of galactomannan differs by the mannose/gal-
actose ratio and the proportion of galactose residues in
the main chain [17–19,25]. It has been found that the
variation in mannose/galactose ratio causes significant
changes in galactomannan property and its interactions
with other polysaccharides. Generally, galactomannans
with greater galactose content like guar gum are read-
ily dissolved in water [26]. The variable properties of
these gums make them indispensable for many
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 961
industrial applications [8]. The gum properties can be
altered by an interaction with other polymers, due to
the presence of numerous hydroxyl groups in galacto-
mannan structure, which interacts synergistically with
other polymers [8].
Seed gums are economically viable as these seeds
are from annual plants with a normal growing season
and are grown by normal methods. Polysaccharides are
divided into a linear branched polysaccharide and neu-
tral branched polysaccharides. Due to their strong
powers for adsorption, linear neutral polysaccharides
are good coating agents for textiles and paper. In gen-
eral, neutral polysaccharides are not tacky. Branched
polysaccharide leads to the formation of a gel. Some
polysaccharides are long chains with numerous short
branches. These polysaccharides have the properties of
both linear and highly branched molecules. Guar gum
and locust bean gum are some of the examples. Many
plant seeds contain non-starch food reserves that have
hydrocolloid properties, and when isolated, can be used
like gums. While many of these seed gums have been
studied and have been tested, only a few of them are
used in food industries. Traditionally, seed gums such
as locust bean gum and guar gum have been used for
many industrial applications in which food applications
such as edible coatings have been reported [21,27–30].
Psyllium and quince have been utilized to some extent
commercially; however, they still find their extensive
use in related cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries.
The commercial importance of seed gums is also due to
the reasons that the raw materials (locust bean, guar
gum, tara gum, flaxseed, fenugreek, tamarind etc.) have
interesting properties, and much less expensive than
other hydrocolloids such as carrageenan, gelatin, chito-
san and agar and found suitable in various food appli-
cations [8].
Locust bean gum and guar gum are two major types
of seed-based gum polysaccharides in which the man-
nan is rendered soluble by the presence of single unit
galactose side chains, which make them galacto-
mannans [31,32]. Guar gum is highly substituted with
galactose units than locust bean gum due to which,
guar gum is an efficient water binder [2,7,32]. Locust
bean gum and guar gum when combined with carra-
geenan and xanthan, a synergistic interaction takes
place among polymers due to intermolecular
associations.
Guar gum
Guar gum is a galactomannan that belongs to the
Leguminosae family and is derived from the seed of the
plant Cyamopsis tetragonolobus. The seeds of this pod
962 A. SAHA ET AL.

Table 2. Chemical composition of gums.

Gum Mol. Wt (KDa) Viscosity (cps) Monosaccharide present Main chain References
Larch gum 100–120 – Arabinose, galactose Arabinogalactan [33]
Guar gum 220–250 3000–6000 Mannose, galactose Galactomannan [34,35]
Locust bean gum 310 2000–3500 Mannose, galactose Galactomannan [36,35]
Tara gum 500 4000–5000 Mannose, galactose Galactomannan [37]
Cashew gum 180 100–300 Mannose, galactose, glucuronic acid Galactan [37,38]
Fenugreek seed gum 30 286 Mannose, galactose Mannan [39,40]
Tamarind gum 52.4 31.27–55.53 Glucose, galactose, xylose Glucan [41,42]
Flaxseed gum 285 – Glucose, xylose, galactose, rhamnose, Xylan [43]
Quince seed gum 150 – Galactose, arabinose, xylose Galactan [33,44]
Gum arabic 600 3.179–3.249 Galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, glucur- Galactan [34]
onic acid, 4-O-methylglucuronic acid
Gum karaya 9500 – D-Galactose, L-rhamnose, D-galacturonic Galactan [36]
acid
Gum tragacanth 840 100–3800 D-Galactose, L-fucose, D-xylose, Galactan [37]
L-arabinose, L-rhamnose
Gum ghatti 12,000 30–400 L-Arabinose, D-galactose, D-mannose, Galactan [37,45]
D-xylose, D-glucuronic acid
Corn fiber Gum 278–394 400–1200 D-xylose, L-arabinose, galactose, glucose, Xylan [39]
D-glucuronic acid
Sesbania gum 241.5–357 – Mannose, galactose Galactomannan [39,46]
Cassia tora gum 200–300 3000–12000 Mannose, galactose Galactomannan [47]

bearing, nitrogen fixing legume are made of the germ
(43.47%), hull (14.17%), and the endosperm (35.42%). In
the manufacture of guar gum, the endosperm should
be separated from the hull and germ after which it is
grounded to a fine particle size and sold commercially
as guar gum [32].
Chemical composition: The structure of guar consists
of backbone chain of D-mannopyranose units with a
sideward branching unit of D-galactopyranose on every
other unit that is it contained b-D-(1–4)-linked mannose
backbone which is linked to a-D-galactose unit in
6-O-position of specific D-mannose units (Table 2).
The presence of intensive branching in guar structure is
important for its easier hydration and formation of
hydrogen bonding with other polymers [32].
Guar gum, like other hydrocolloids, is used as a thick-
ening agent, binder, emulsifier in food industries due to
its viscosity producing property at lower concentrations.
Ghosh et al. [29], Saha et al. [28] and Saha et al. [27]
have investigated the use of guar gum as edible coat-
ings on tomato, Japanese persimmon and cucumber
respectively, and they found that tomatoes ripening
process has been delayed and persimmon and cucum-
ber shelf life has been increased due to the application
of guar gum as coatings (Table 3).
Locust bean gum
The locust or carob, tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) belongs to
the leguminosae family. It is an ancient plant which is
mostly found near East and Mediterranean regions. The
endosperm of locust bean contains the gum, which is
of commercial interest. The manufacturing of commer-
cial locust bean gum involves the separation of the
endosperm from the germ and the seed-coat which is
further processed as gum. It is a white powder with the
following composition: galactomannan (88%), pentosan
(34%), protein (56%), cellulose (14%) and ash (1%). Its
structure somewhat resembles guar gum, the difference
is the level of D-galactose side chain (lesser number of
galactose unit). The structure is composed of a linear
b-(1,4)-D-mannose units linked to C1–C4 with regular
branching on every fourth mannose unit substituted
with a small side chain of a 1,6 linked a-galactose sugar
(Table 2) [32]. Locust bean gum (LBG) is partially soluble
in water, it requires heat to have an optimum viscosity,
and it acts as a thickener. When combined with guar
gum, locust bean gum shows a synergistic effect. Like
guar gum, the viscosity and stability are very less influ-
enced by pH changes.
Rojas-Argudo et al. [21] reported that locust bean
gum, when combined with lipid, can enhance postharv-
est quality, appearance and shelf life of “Fortune” man-
darins. The quality and shelf life of apples (cv. Golden
Delicious) coated with locust bean gum/lipid has been
reported to be enhanced. It resulted in reduced gas
exchange, maintained firmness and quality during the
storage period when compared with uncoated apples
[5,22,66,67] (Table 3).
Bozdemir and Tutas [30] blended locust bean gum
with stearoptene and beeswax and water vapor perme-
ability was estimated to evaluate the film transport
properties. It has been found that the film transport
property has been improved when used in combination
with lipid (hydrophobic substances). In another study,
Martins et al. [50] reported that locust bean gum when
combined with kappa-carageenan showed a synergistic
effect in respect to good intermolecular interactions,
miscibility, cost and compatibility of the two polymers
 CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 963

Table 3. Application of plant-based gums as edible coatings in fruits and vegetables.

Edible gums Botanical name Properties Edible coating applications in food Reference
Gum arabic Acacia arabica Excellent emulsifier, soluble in cold Tomatoes, cucumber, bananas, lemon [48,65,109–112]
water
Tragacanth gum Astragalus gummifer Acid resistant, suspending agent, Tomato, Button mushroom [11,49]
demulcent, emulsifying property,
thickener, provides texture
Locust bean gum Ceratonia siliqua L. Binder, viscosity builder, barrier Fortune mandarin [21,30,50]
property
Guar gum Cyamompsis tetraganolobus Binder, emulsifier, stabilizing agent, Cucumbers, tomatoes, prickly pear, [29,51–53]
thickener, film forming property pumpkin
Almond gum Amygdalus communis L. Thickener, stabilizer, emulsifier. Tomato, sweet cherry [54,55]
Tara gum Caesalpinia spinosa Thickening agent, stabilizer Peaches [56]
Psyllium gum Plantago ovata Thickening agent, emulsifier Papaya, strawberry [57,58]
Basil seed gum Ocimum basilicum L. Stabilizer, fat replacer, emulsifier Cheese, shrimp [59,60]
Mesquite seed gum Prosopis juliflora Emulsifier, microencapsulating agent, Persian lime, guava [61,62]
film forming property
Fenugreek gum Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Surfactant, emulsifying agent Common Fig [113]
Cordia gum Cordia myxa Emulsifying agent, binder Chilgoza (pine nuts), peanuts [63,64]
Soybean gum Glycine max Thickening agent, encapsulating Apple [65]
agent.

when blended together. Their combination of 60/40
ratio showed the best barrier and mechanical proper-
ties, thereby showing improvement in their functional-
ity. Results have reported that locust bean gum films
with two lipids presents lower water vapor permeability
values when compared with other edible films. These
coatings can encapsulate antioxidants due to which
antioxidant capacity, permeability and color changes of
the edible films have been increased [68].
Gum obtained from Gleditsia triacanthos and
Sophora japonica seed
Some galactomannan seed gums belongs to the
Leguminosae family are obtained from nontraditional
sources which can be an important substitute to con-
ventional galactomannan sources to be used in food
industries, such as that obtained from the endosperm
of the seed G. triacanthos and S. japonica [69]. The pres-
ence of gums in these seeds has been published by
Mazzini and Cerezo [70]. They are mainly found in
America, middle Europe and the Mediterranean area
[70]. Their mannose/galactose ratio resembles tara gum,
popularly used as a thickening agent and stabilizer in
food industries [17–19,71]. Bourbon et al. [69] reported
its rheological study, that galactomannan obtained
from S. japonica forms a more elastic solution, com-
pared to other studied galactomannans due to which it
can be used as a thickening agent. The gum obtained
from the seed extracts of G. triacanthos can be used in
edible packaging films for food preservation and can be
combined with antioxidant compounds for the prepar-
ation of other value added food applications
[17–19,66,67,71]. Cerqueira et al. [17–19] further
reported that these gums have a synergistic effect
when combined with other polysaccharides.
Cerqueira et al. [17–19] evaluated novel sources of
galactomannans from two different species, Caesalpinia
pulcherrrima and Adenanthera pavonina for use as
edible coatings on tropical fruits. The authors described
a method to optimize the coating composition by opti-
mizing its wettability, permeability and mechanical
properties. Lima et al. [23] also successfully developed
the composite coatings of above two galactomannans
with two different compositions of collagen protein and
glycerol. The coatings were standardized in terms of
wettability, transport and mechanical properties. These
coatings were successfully applied on mangoes and
apples to evaluate its shelf life [66,67]. Galactomannans-
based coatings also act as encapsulating agent when
nisin was added to it, and showed good performances
in decreasing surface contamination of cheese products
during storage [20].
Mesquite seed gum
Prosopis genus is a leguminous plant, that corresponds
to the Mimosoideae family. This gum is obtained from
mesquite pods. It contains a high sugar and protein
content [1]. This gum is proteinaceous in nature and its
structure is similar to that of arabinogalactan due to
which its property and composition resembles gum
arabic but it has lower viscosity than gum arabic [72].
However, Rodrigues et al. [73] reported in their study
that mesquite seed gum is a galactomannan with gal-
actose/mannose ratio of 1:1.1. It has been used com-
mercially as wheat flour, dough substitute,
confectionery products, microencapsulation, emulsifier
and binder [1,74]. Mesquite gum has also been explored
in the edible coatings of fruits. Tomas et al. [62]
reported the application of mesquite gum in combin-
ation with candelilla wax and white mineral oil as the
964 A. SAHA ET AL.
lipid phase on the guava fruits extended the postharv-
est life of guava fruits at 20  C by delaying its softening,
weight loss, ripening and maintained natural shine of
the fruits. Oses et al. [75] developed a mesquite gum
and whey protein-based composite edible film in which
the authors found enhanced mechanical and water
vapor permeability properties than whey protein only
film. Mesquite gum-based emulsion coatings were also
set up to be successful in bringing down the decay loss
of Persian lime and thereby extending its shelf life [61].
Mesquite seed gum in combination with palm oil,
edible films have been prepared and its properties were
evaluated [73]. The authors suggested that the above
combination has a potential for food applications as an
edible coating, it can provide a good moisture barrier
and can provide a glossy appearance to yellow and
orange fruits (Table 3).
Tara gum
Tara gum is also a seed gum derived from the seed
endosperm of the tara tree. It is also a type of galacto-
mannan. Galactose: mannose is in the ratio of 3:1. It is
more viscous than guar gum at the same ratio. It is
used as a good thickening and stabilizing agent, but
due to lower galactose ratio in its structure, it has low
mechanical and moisture barrier properties which
serves as a major limitation in its use as an edible coat-
ing [76]. He further reported that the mechanical, phys-
ical and antimicrobial properties have been improved
by incorporating chitosan nanoparticles in tara gum
film which in turn showed improved functionality for its
use in food industries.
Tamarind gum
Tamarind gum is obtained from Tamarindus indica
seeds that belong to the Leguminosae family. It is a
derivative of galactoxyloglucan, isolated from its seed
kernel. Tamarind seed gum is a highly branched poly-
saccharide consisting of glucose, galactose and xylose
in the molar ratio of 3:2:1 [1]. It is mainly used as a sta-
bilizer, thickener, binder and gelling agent in the food
and pharmaceutical industries. It is partly dissolved in
water, however, it swells to form a sticky solution on
heating. It has been widely used in drug delivery sys-
tems [1].
Sesbania gum
Sesbania seed gum is derived from the endosperm of
sesbania seeds, it also belongs to family Leguminosae. It
contains high molecular weight polysaccharides com-
posed of galactan and mannan units. The structure is
quite similar to guar gum [77]. The sesbania gum is a
white powder, soluble in water but insoluble in other
organic solvents. Unlike locust bean gum, the sesbania
gum powder can easily dissolve in water to form a vis-
cous solution. The viscosity of sesbania gum powder is
higher than other gums. It is also a commercial galacto-
mannan with a galactose/mannose ratio of 2.2:1.2. It
has been used as a replacement for gum arabic in some
food applications. It is used in food industries as a sus-
pending agent, thickener and stabilizer. It is also stable
at a wide range of temperatures [77].
Fenugreek seed gum
The galactomannan derived from the fenugreek seed
consists of galactose and mannose in a ratio of 5:6
[8,78]. The polysaccharide was completely methylated
and hydrolyzed [8]. It is a highly branched seed galacto-
mannan. Its main chain is made of b-D-(1–4) mannose
units with a-D-galactose residues attached at various
intervals to the O-atoms of C-6 of mannose. The man-
nose to galactose ratio is approximately 1:1 [8,79].
Galactomannan substitution renders fenugreek soluble
in water, and it hydrates well in cold water like other
gums. However, higher galactose substitution weakens
intermolecular bonding among polymer chains. Thus, it
is not able to form stable films, due to which it has less
application in food industries as compared to other
seed gums (Table 3). Fenugreek paste is sometimes
used as edible coating material in meat products [79].
Cassia gum
Cassia gum is extracted from the endosperm of Cassia
obtusifolia and belongs to the Leguminosae family. This
gum is extracted by the wet method from whole seed
powder which involves aqueous ethanol solvent extrac-
tion methods. Cassia seeds are much larger compared
to guar and fenugreek seeds. The mannose: galactose
ratio is close to 3:1 like that of tara gum. Similar to other
gums, it also shows synergistic properties. It has a lower
galactose substitution unlike fenugreek, lower solubility
than locust bean gum and lower water solubility com-
pared to other seed gums. Some of the properties of
cassia gum resembles locust bean gum. However, they
are not readily available like guar and locust bean gum,
as the cost of production is relatively high. It is not used
extensively commercially, but is sometimes used as a
thickener and gelling agent in food industries [79].
Psyllium seed gum
It is a novel mucilaginous gum derived from the seeds
of the Plantago ovata (psyllium seed). Currently, it is
used as a stabilizer or a gelling agent and has many

medicinal uses. Chemically, psyllium gum is a non-
starch polysaccharide which contains highly branched
acidic arabinoxylan. It is reported that psyllium polysac-
charide contains L-arabinose, D-xylose, D-glucuronic acid
and D-galacturonic acid in the ratio of 4:10.8:3.3:0.7 and
a molecular weight of 1.5 million. Ahmadi et al. [80]
studied the physical, thermal and mechanical properties
of this hydrocolloid and it was found that it has good
potential to be used as edible films. Banasaz et al. [81]
studied the use of psyllium seed gum as edible coatings
in red delicious apple in three different concentrations
(0.05, 0.1, and 0.2%) and its effect has been compared
with chitosan. The authors found that psyllium gum
(0.2%) showed similar effect as that of chitosan in pre-
venting enzymatic browning and maintenance of the
texture of apples.
Other seed gums
Durian seed gum
Durian seed gum is a non-starch galactomannan poly-
saccharide, derived from the durian fruit seed obtained
as an agricultural biomass. It has a polysaccharide-
protein structure and its chemical composition is
D-galactose, glucose, arabinose and xylose. Mirhosseini
and Amid [82] evaluated its functional properties like
flow characteristics, solubility, water and oil holding
capacities and they found that it has good characteris-
tics, which can be utilized as biodegradable film
packaging.
Epsina corona gum
Epsina corona gum (ECG) is extracted from Gleditsia
amorphoides seeds and is used as an additive in the
food industries. Its chemical structure is similar to that
of a galactomannan. Perduca et al. [83] compared ECG
with guar gum and several properties such as rheo-
logical properties, viscoelastic behavior, effect of salt
addition, temperature and stability found similar which
indicates that this kind of gum can also be used as pro-
tective films as an edible coating for fruits and vegeta-
bles [84]. Spotti et al. [84] combined whey protein with
epsina corona gum and found that addition of epsina
corona gum improves the mechanical and color proper-
ties of whey protein films.
Malva nut gum
Malva nut fruit belongs to the Sterculiaceae family. The
seed of this fruit contains large amounts of mucilagi-
nous substances and have been used as a medicine in
South-East Asia. It can be extracted by chemical meth-
ods using different organic solvents. It consists of
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 965
galactose, arabinose and rhamnose in the ratio of
1:1.1:1.01 with a molecular weight of 16.2 KDa. This
gum is slightly acidic in nature due to the presence of
uronic acid, which contains a relatively lower concentra-
tion than that in flaxseed gum [85]. However, infra-red
spectroscopic studies have shown that the structural
property of this gum matches with that of gum arabic
[85]. Malva nut gum can be used as a substitute for
other seed gums like guar gums and locust bean gum.
It is not commonly used in food industries.
Sage seed gum
Wild sage seed gum is a new hydrocolloid obtained
from Salvia macrosiphon seed. Razavi et al. [86] and
Razavi et al. [15] found that the sage seed gum is a gal-
actomannan where the mannose-galactose ratio is
1.78–1.93:1 containing 28.2–32.2% uronic acids which
show stronger viscosity, pseudoplasticity and elasticity
compared with other galactomannans. Razavi et al.
[87,88] also reported that sage seed gum can be used
as a stabilizer, thickener and for its emulsifying proper-
ties. Razavi et al. [15] also studied its physicochemical,
mechanical, surface and thermal properties in combin-
ation with different proportions of plasticizers and they
found that sage seed gum is a possible source of edible
coating for food applications.
Cress seed gum
Cress seed mucilage (Lepidium sativum L.) is a hydrocol-
loid substitute, that can be used for food applications.
It belongs to the Cruciferae family, and grows widely in
the Middle East, Europe and US. It becomes viscous
when combined with water to give thickening and gel-
ling effects. It showed lower viscosity than other food
grade gums but has desirable rheological and emulsify-
ing properties. The viscosity of cress seed gum is
increased by heat treatment. Consequently, the gum
properties could be used as a good choice for heat
treated food, or for its edible coatings application in
high temperature storage conditions [89].
Chia gum
Chia gum has been extracted from chia seeds (Salvia
hispanica L.) which belong to the Lamiaceae or Labiatae
family. It has great potential for industrial use
especially for food industries because of its slimy and
mucilaginous nature at low concentration [90]. Chia
gum consists of b-D-xylopyranosyl, a-D-glucopyranosyl,
and 4-O-methyl-D-glucopyranosyluronic acid unit in the
ratio 2:1:1 [91]. The polysaccharide seems to consist of a
repeating unit.
966 A. SAHA ET AL.
Flaxseed gum
Flaxseed gum also called linseed gum is a white, pow-
dery material that hydrates slowly to form a milky dis-
persion of relatively low viscosity at lower
concentration. So far it is not used in foods, but it has
commercial importance in pharmaceutical industries
due to its demulcent and emollient effects. Flaxseed
gum contains L-arabinose, D-xylose and D-galactose in a
proportion of 3.5:6.2:1.0 [92] and L-rhamnose, L-fucose,
L-galactose and D-galacturonic acid in a molar ratio of
2.6:1.0:1.4:1.7 [90,92]. It is found to be arabinoxylan with
terminal arabino-pyranosyl units. The acidic fraction
contains flaxseed gum that can be used in the food
preservation as an edible coating. Flaxseed gum-based
edible film has been prepared and analyzed by Wang
et al. [93] and Chen et al. [94]. Li et al. [95] reported that
the addition of flaxseed gum improved the mechanical
properties of starch edible films.
Basil seed gum
Basil (Ocimum basilium L.) is an aromatic, flowering
herb popularly grown in India and Iran and derived
from various species of herbs and shrubs. Basil seed
gum is traditionally used to cure health ailments. The
extract of this gum has been found to consist of glu-
cose/mannose in a ratio of 10:2, glucomannan (43%),
1–4 linked xylan (24.29%) and minor fraction of glucan
(2.31%) [96,97]. Basil seed gum contains highly
branched arabinogalactan. Khazaei et al. [96] reported
that this gum has great potential to be utilized as bio-
degradable films, stabilizing and thickening ingredient
in food systems. Investigations regarding its rheological
and mechanical properties showed that this gum dem-
onstrates a non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic behavior
and good mechanical properties. Like other gums, this
gum also has a low production cost, biocompatible,
hydrophilic and film forming properties. They further
concluded that basil seed gum can produce good
edible films and coatings with excellent moisture bar-
rier properties, physical properties and mechanical
properties. Moreover, when it is combined with plasti-
cizers, it becomes flexible and its properties improved.
This gum can be used as an alternative for synthetic
packaging [96,97].
Quince seed gum
This gum is derived from the seed of Quince fruits
which is native to central Asia and is found abundantly
in Northern Iran. Chemically, quince seed gum is com-
posed of a combination of cellulose component and
readily hydrolyzable polysaccharide composed of
glycuronoglycans. It readily hydrates in water to form a
highly viscous solution so much that at concentrations
higher than 2%, it is difficult to disperse. Quince seed
gum is primarily utilized in cosmetic and pharmaceut-
ical formulations and has few applications in the nutri-
ent industry.
Corn gum
Corn gum is a type of hemi-cellulose gum with proper-
ties similar to exudate gums. It is completely water sol-
uble and has uniform composition. Because of its
thickening, emulsifying, and stabilizing properties, it has
been used in foods, cosmetics and pharmaceutical
industries. It contains xylose, galactose, arabinose, and
glucuronic acid [37].
Marigold flower gum
The gum is extracted from marigold seed petals by hot
water and contains arabinose, galactose and glucose in
the ratio 15:3:7. It has emulsifying properties but rela-
tively lower than gum arabic [98].
Soybean gum polysaccharide
Soybean gum is extracted and refined from soybean. It
is a water-soluble polysaccharide that contains galact-
ose, arabinose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid and 9%
protein components. Its property is similar to that of
gum arabic. It is used mainly for encapsulation [99]. It is
also a possible source of edible coating applications
(Table 3).
Grewia gum
Grewia gum polysaccharide is derived from the inner
stem bark of the plant Gewia mollis, Juss. Its structure
consists of glucose, rhamnose, arabinose, xylose and
galactose and galacturonic acid [100]. This gum can be
an alternative to other gums, polysaccharide or other
synthetic gums for its use in food industries [100].
Lepidium perfoliatum seed gum
Lepidium belongs to the Cruciferae family and is popu-
larly found in Egypt, Arabia, Iraq, Iran and Pakistan.
Locally, it is called Qodume shahri [101]. Gum extracted
from the seeds of Lepidium perfoliatum seeds was inves-
tigated as an alternative source of hydrocolloid for
applications in the food industry. It can be utilized as
potential thickening, viscosity builder and stabilizing
agent [102,103]. Viscosity and solubility of this seed
gum is lower than guar, almost similar to xanthan gum
and higher than locust bean gum [101]. Fatty acids like

stearic and palmitic acids when added into this seed
gum improve its moisture, physical and barrier proper-
ties which make it suitable for application as edible
films and coatings [104]. This seed gum has a synergis-
tic effect when used in combination with pea protein
isolate to produce compatible composite films which
improves its mechanical, water barrier and physical
properties [105].
Plant exudate gums
Plant exudate gums are released from bark, branch, and
fruit of trees in response to protect the trees against
mechanical damages or microbial attacks. Exudates
gums are the oldest types which are usually used as
thickener, stabilizer, rheology modifier, dietary fiber and
fat replacers.
Karaya gum
Karaya gum is produced as an exudate from the
Sterculia urens tree. The gum composition depends on
the species from which it is derived. Chemically, karaya
gum is an acid polysaccharide composed of the galact-
ose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid (Table 2). It is used
as both a thickener and laxative. Its property is similar
to that of gum tragacanth. Gum karaya has low solubil-
ity due to which it is not much useful for edible coat-
ings. Due to its emulsifying property, this gum can be
used in dairy products, bakery industries and pharma-
ceutical industries. It can also be used as thickeners in
textile industries [1].
Cashew gum
Cashew gum is obtained from the cashew tree
(Anacardium occidentale L). Addition of plasticizer and
surfactants to cashew gum coating solution decreases
its surface tension, opacity and improves wettability
due to which it has been made suitable to apply for
minimally processed fruits like golden apples due to
which compatibility between the coating solution and
fruit skin surface increased [106]. Edible coatings based
on cashew gums have been applied to mango
(Magnifera indica var. Tommy Atkins) due to which the
shelf life of mango had increased [107]. Chemical com-
position of cashew gum is mentioned in Table 2.
Arabic gum
Gum arabic is an edible, dried exudate derived from the
plant Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal [2]. The terms
gum arabic and gum acacia have been conventionally
used as synonyms, derived from same above sources.
Gum arabic has been widely used as a stabilizer,
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 967
thickening agent, emulsifier in food industry and has
varied use in the pharmaceutical industry. Gum arabic is
a branched-chain polysaccharide that exists as a cal-
cium magnesium or potassium salt of arabic acid. The
backbone and side chain of gum arabic is composed of
1, 3-linked b-D-galactopyranosyl units, joined to the
main chain by 1, 6-linkages. Idris et al. [108] reported
that gum arabic comprised of 39–42% galactose,
24–27% arabinose, 12–16% rhamnose, 15–16% glucur-
onic acid, 1.5–2.6% protein, 0.22–0.39% nitrogen and
12.5–16.0% moisture which varies according to the
source, climatic conditions and age of the tree.
Properties: Gum arabic (GA) has film forming proper-
ties and is also a good emulsifier due to which it is suc-
cessfully used as edible coatings. Its emulsification
power comes from the existence of hydrophobic
regions in its structure [5] which also give rise to flavors
and aroma encapsulation [5]. Gum arabic (10%) has
been successfully used as an edible coating on toma-
toes at ambient storage conditions which had delayed
the ripening process and prolonged the shelf life of
tomatoes by twenty days while maintaining their anti-
oxidant activity and other quality characteristics [48].
Maqbool et al. [109] studied the composite combination
of gum arabic with chitosan on the quality of banana
fruits and they found that 10% gum arabic and 1% chi-
tosan was an effective edible coating that can be used
commercially for extending the storage life of banana
fruits for up to 33 days at 13 ± 1  C and 80 ± 3% relative
humidity [109]. The combination of gum arabic (10%)
and chitosan (1%) has also been found to act as bio-
fungicide as it controls the anthracnose (a fungal dis-
ease) in banana and papaya fruits during cold storage
for 28 days [110]. El-Anany et al. [65] studied the arabic
gum in combination with soybean gum on “Anna”
apples which showed that the shelf life and quality of
apples has been improved by edible coatings at cold
storage (Table 3). Arabic gum has also been used in
combination with lipid such as olive oil in sweet lemon
fruit [111]. Al-Juhaimi et al. [112] reported that arabic
gum coating extend the storage life of cucumber up to
16 days while maintaining its sensory characteristics at
both 10 and 25  C.
Almond gum
Almond gum is also a type of gum exudates extracted
from the trunk of almond tree (Prunus dulcis). This gum
exudate contains 2.45% protein, 0.85% fats and 92.36%
carbohydrates. It also contains arabinose, xylitol, galact-
ose and uronic acid (46.8:10.9:35.5:6.0 mass ratio) with
traces of rhamnose, mannose and glucose [113]. It is
likewise applied in food industries as emulsifier.
968 A. SAHA ET AL.
Mahfoudhi and Hamdi, [55] reported that almond gum
when used as edible coatings delays the ripening of
sweet cherries and prolonged its shelf life by 15 days at
2  C without spoilage or off-flavour. It reduces the gas
exchange and ethylene production. Almond coating
has also been found to enhance the post-harvest shelf
life of tomatoes [54] (Table 3). It can also be used as a
natural, edible coating substitute for synthetic
packaging.
Cordia gum
Cordia myxa is a deciduous tree which grows all over
the Indo-Pak subcontinent. Gum cordia is derived as an
extract from C. myxa tree. It has emerged as novel
edible coatings when used in combination with a nat-
ural antioxidant such as vitamin E. It has been found to
increase the shelf life of Chilgoza (Pinus gerardiana) and
it was found better when compared with carboxy-
methyl cellulose as edible coatings on these fruits [63].
Moreover, cordia gum coatings has been reported to
prevent peanut oxidation [64].
Tragacanth gum
Gum tragacanth (GT) is a dried exudate derived from
the stems of Asiatic species of Astragalus leguminosae.
Its chemical composition is described in Table 2. GT
swells rapidly in both cold and hot water. In industries,
it is commercially used as a natural emulsifier and thick-
ener in drug and allied industries due to its stability in a
wide range of temperature and pH like that of gum
arabic and its effectiveness as an emulsifier [49,11]. It
also displays unusual stability towards microbial attack,
has thickening properties and it acts as an emulsion sta-
bilizer. Because of these attributes, it is widely applied
in food industries. Gum tragacanth when used in com-
bination with aloe-vera enhanced the shelf life of the
button mushroom in cold storage conditions [11].
Ghatti gum
Gum ghatti is a translucent exudate containing a com-
plex polysaccharide derived from the plant Anogeissus
latifolia, a deciduous tree of Combretaceae family which
is mainly found in India [5]. This gum is partially soluble
in water, but swells to form dispersions due to which it
is not as useful in food industries as other gums.
Moreover, its film is brittle in nature. However, it is used
in drug delivery. Gum ghatti closely resembles gum
arabic in viscosity and emulsifying properties. However,
its viscosity is lower than that of gum karaya.
Gum ghatti is compatible with other plant hydrocol-
loids, however, due to the low solubility and brittleness
of its films, it finds less use as edible coatings in food
industry [5].
Persian gum
It is a type of exudate gum which secretes from the
bark or branches of almond trees. Currently, it is poten-
tially used in foods, pharmaceuticals and other indus-
tries as suspending or emulsifying agents in
combination with other gum exudates like arabic gum
or gum tragacanth in edible coatings and other com-
mercial uses [114].
Larch gum
Larch gum is an arabinogalactan obtained from the
wood of the plant Larix occidentalis. Like other tree exu-
dates, larch gum exists as densely branched polysac-
charide with a molecular weight ranging from 10 to
120 KDa [79]. Due to its properties, it is not of significant
use in food industries. However, these newly derived
gums are being widely explored for their use as edible
coatings [1].
Effect of gum structure on its properties
The structure of gum significantly affects its mechanical,
thermal, rheological, optical and film forming proper-
ties. Changes in the sugar composition (mannose to
galactose ratio), distribution, presence/absence of
branching, functional group changes the solubility, vis-
cosity, interaction with other polymers, mechanical and
thermal properties which in turn play an important role
in its application as edible coatings [26,68]. The man-
nose to galactose ratio depends upon the gum source
[115]. Stronger and flexible films are required to coat
the food commodity that can protect and preserve the
food which can be obtained by varying the degree of
substitution of galactose, mannose and degree of poly-
merization. Mikkonen et al. [115] enzymatically modified
guar and locust bean gum and compared the mechan-
ical properties based on the degree of enzymatic
hydrolysis. The authors further reported that galacto-
mannan with a lower degree of substitution of galact-
ose (2 galactose) has greater water content, more
stronger and flexible than galactomannan with higher
degree of substitution of galactose (6 galactose).
Removal of the galactose substituent in the galacto-
mannan structure and the addition of plasticizers in film
forming solution increased its mechanical properties
such as tensile strength and elongation at break.
Reduction of the degrees of polymerization and substi-
tution also improves the mechanical properties by
increasing the film’s elongation at break and its thermal

properties by increasing its glass transition temperature
[115]. Rheological and thermal data when taken with
various galactomannans indicated that the higher the
mannose/galactose ratio of galactomannan, the higher
the synergistic interaction. The molecular weight of
polymer gum is directly proportional to its solution vis-
cosity. The viscosity also increases resulting in a thicken-
ing effect. It further influences its Newtonian and non-
Newtonian behavior [116]. Cerqueira et al. [17–19]
studied new sources of galactomannans to be used as
coatings, the authors optimized the composition of
these gums to optimize their wettability, barrier and
mechanical properties. They also found that an increase
of plasticizer concentration increases the water vapor
and oxygen and decreases the carbon dioxide perme-
ability values [9].
Conclusion
The purpose of this review is to give deep insight on
the relevant work conducted in the area of edible films
and coatings obtained from natural plant-based
gums of vegetable origin and to explore further its
potential in food industries. When compared to syn-
thetic packaging materials, plant-based gums are
improved alternatives as they are readily available,
economical and bio-degradable, and successfully
completed the demands of consumers for consumption
of fresh fruits and vegetables. Extensive research is
ongoing in the area of active edible packaging and
films containing various bio-active agents which can
enhance the nutritional, sensory and organoleptic prop-
erties of fresh food commodities. However, further
research is required to optimize their barrier, mechan-
ical, rheological, and optical properties so that it
can serve as a major vehicle for the food packaging
industries and value-added products in terms of safety,
quality, protection and preservation of food.
Disclosure statement
The authors report no declarations of interest. The Authors
are thankful to the Director, Research and Consultancy,
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi, India,
for providing the University Research Fellowship and neces-
sary facilities for carrying out this work. We are grateful to
Miguel A. Cerqueira-International Iberian Nanotechnology
Laboratory, Portugal, for reviewing this manuscript and pro-
viding his valuable suggestions.
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