Food Research International 151 (2022) 110879

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Food Research International

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres

Review

Current trends in flavor encapsulation: A comprehensive review of

emerging encapsulation techniques, flavour release, and
mathematical modelling
Yashaswini Premjit a, Shikha Pandhi b, *, Arvind Kumar b, Dinesh Chandra Rai b,
Raj Kumar Duary b, Dipendra Kumar Mahato c
a
Agricultural & Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India
b
Department of Dairy Science and Food Technology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India
c
CASS Food Research Centre, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Food flavors are volatile compounds that impact the human sensory perception profoundly and find extensive
Flavor release applications in various food products. Because of their volatility and high sensitivity to pH, temperature,
Microencapsulation oxidation, and external conditions, they require adequate protection to last for a longer duration. Encapsulation
Nanoencapsulation
plays a critical role in preserving food flavors by enhancing their thermal and oxidative stability, overcoming
Controlled release
Kinetic modelling
volatility limitations, and regulating their rapid release with improved bioavailability in food products. The
current review focuses on the recent developments in food flavor encapsulation techniques, such as electro­
spinning/spraying, cyclodextrin inclusion complexes, coacervation, and yeast cell micro-carriers. The review also
comprehensively discusses the role of encapsulants in achieving controlled flavor release, the mechanisms
involved, and the mathematical modelling for flavor release. Specific well-established nanoencapsulation tech­
niques render better encapsulation efficiency and controlled release of flavor compounds. The review examined
specific emerging methods for flavor encapsulation, such as yeast cell encapsulation, which require further
exploration and development. This article provides readers with up-to-date information on different encapsu­
lation processes and coating methods used for flavor encapsulation.

1. Introduction approaches for increasing flavor stability and reducing degradation. It

Flavoring agents are volatile organic compounds widely used as
crucial components in the beverage, savory, snack, confectionery, frozen
products, and dairy industries (Saffarionpour, 2019). These compounds
profoundly affect the human sensory perception and influence the
product acceptability among consumers (Sultana et al., 2018). However,
since most flavors are volatile liquids that evaporate and degrade
quickly, it is critical to protect them from harsh environmental condi­
tions and undesirable ingredient interactions during storage and pro­
cessing (Kim et al., 2019a). Food processors are concerned about flavor
stability at an acceptable degree of power. Moreover, flavors are
extremely sensitive to pH, moisture, acid, salt, and enzyme action,
which can cause off-flavors (Feng et al., 2018; Fuciños et al., 2017;
Saifullah et al., 2019).
Encapsulation is one of the most efficient and widely employed
protects flavoring compounds from oxidative and thermal degradation
during processing (Feng et al., 2018). An active ingredient is encapsu­
lated within a wall material/coating material/encapsulant that protects
it from deteriorative conditions (Ocampo-Salinas et al., 2020). This
creates a protective layer around the flavor droplet, allowing it to be
covered while masking unpleasant taste (Saifullah et al., 2019).
Encapsulation also improves the product functionality by allowing
variable properties (particle size, structure, and shape), easier handling,
and controlled or triggered flavor release under predetermined condi­
tions (Kim et al., 2019a).
Microencapsulation and nanoencapsulation are the two most popu­
lar techniques of generating particles with diameters ranging from a few
nanometers to a few millimeters. These methods offer improved product
functionality by masking unpleasant flavors, increasing bioavailability,
improving encapsulation efficiency, loading capability, and longevity,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: shikhapandhi94@gmail.com (S. Pandhi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110879
Received 21 May 2021; Received in revised form 29 November 2021; Accepted 4 December 2021
Available online 9 December 2021
0963-9969/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Premjit et al.
and achieving a sustained release profile. A variety of encapsulating
materials and encapsulation techniques are required to develop suitable
flavor encapsulation systems (Samakradhamrongthai et al., 2019).
Spray drying (SD), fluidization bed coating, spray cooling/chilling, and
extrusion are mechanical microencapsulation techniques, while molec­
ular inclusion, interfacial polymerization, coacervation, and co-
crystallization are chemical microencapsulation techniques (Saini
et al., 2020).
Nanoscale delivery systems have piqued a much greater interest than
microencapsulation techniques because of their superior functional
properties, such as increased encapsulation efficiency, controlled
release, improved stability, , and increased bioavailability of in­
gredients. Nanocarriers are further classified into lipid-based nano­
carriers (nanoemulsions, nanolipid carriers), nature-inspired
nanocarriers (caseins, cyclodextrins, amylose), special equipment-based
nanocarriers (electrospinning/electrospraying, nanospray dryer,
micro-/nanofluidics), and biopolymer-based nanocarriers (single
biopolymer nanoparticles, complex biopolymer nanoparticle, nanogels,
nanotubes/nanofibrils) (Saini et al., 2020).
The controlled release method for encapsulated compounds has the
advantage of releasing active compounds at a steady rate over time
while also minimizing ingredient losses during cooking and processing.
Several studies have been conducted to investigate the flavor release
activity from encapsulated matrices. Diffusion, swelling, melting, and
decay are four common ways by which the release occurs . The encap­
sulated system stability and release properties are greatly influenced by
the choice of the wall material and storage conditions (Sultana et al.,
2018).
In the present-day context, there is an exceptional interest in
encapsulating flavoring agents and several studies have been conducted
to improve and build on existing micro- and nanoencapsulation tech­
niques in the past couple of years. Therefore, this review aims to
exhaustively compile the latest research and explore the advances in
food flavor encapsulation, emphasizing micro- and nano-encapsulation
processes, encapsulating materials, and their related release mecha­
nisms. Novel and emerging techniques, including electrospinning/
spraying, cyclodextrin inclusion complexes, coacervation, and yeast cell
microcarriers, have been detailed in the article. We also comprehen­
sively discuss the role of encapsulants in achieving controlled flavor
release along with the mechanisms of the process, besides mathematical
modelling for flavor release. While the review sheds light on certain
popular nanoencapsulation techniques, which have rendered better
encapsulation efficiency and controlled release of flavor compounds, we
also explored various emerging techniques that require further devel­
opment, like yeast cells for flavor encapsulation.
2. Characteristics of flavoring compounds and need for
encapsulation
Many volatile compounds have a distinct fragrance, making them
versatile flavoring ingredients. Owing to their high volatility and
chemical instability, many of these products are easily lost during food
processing, storage, and preparation. Light, oxygen, humidity, and
moisture negatively impact various flavor compounds. Chemical in­
teractions, oxidation, and volatilization can alter the sensory perception
of food aromas (Jedlińska et al., 2018). At high temperatures, these
components are lost easily, which results in an adverse alteration in the
taste profile and biological activity. As a result, there is growing interest
for identifying novel techniques to monitor the stability, preservation,
and release of flavors in foods (Wang et al., 2019).
The most critical reason to encapsulate flavors is their flexibility and
preservation stability. Encapsulated flavor powders have the advantage
of being less prone to contamination and microbial attacks, thereby
permitting prolonged storage. Since flavors are inherently volatile, the
encapsulation process keeps them stable and allows its controlled
release (Potdar et al., 2020). The following are some of the significant
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Food Research International 151 (2022) 110879
difficulties of encapsulating flavors (Khanum et al., 2018):
1. Flavoring compounds are primarily available as liquids.
2. Flavors are a mixture of different components with varying
physicochemical properties.
3. Flavors possess varying sensory thresholds.
4. Flavors have single release kinetics in most cases.
5. Flavors may react with specific food ingredients under certain
conditions.
6. In a water-continuous environment, flavor stabilization is difficult.
3. Role of encapsulants/coating materials
The choice of encapsulants, which play an essential role in the
encapsulation, safety, and long-term release of biomolecules, could be a
promising solution for nutraceutical formulations. Encapsulants must
possess specific characteristics, such as being food-grade, having a
Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status, being compatible with
other food matrix ingredients, having a high payload, and providing
substantial safety from degradation (Kumar et al., 2018; Pandhi et al.,
2021).
3.1. Carbohydrate-based encapsulants
Carbohydrates are popular carriers for many bioactive substances
because of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, structural flexi­
bility, and site digestion properties. They outperform lipids and proteins
in terms of thermal stability, availability, and the ability to encapsulate
hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds. Unlike proteins responsible
for colloidal aggregation and flocculation, they are less sensitive to
environmental changes (particularly pH and ionic strength) (Fathi et al.,
2021). The four main groups of carbohydrate-based delivery systems are
plant origin (starch, gum Arabic, guar gum, pectin), animal origin
(chitin, chitosan), algal origin (agar, carrageenan, alginate), and mi­
crobial origin (xanthan gum, dextran, cyclodextrin) (Kumar et al.,
2018).
Chitosan is a hydrophilic, linear polysaccharide that increases the
bioavailability of bioactive compounds by extending the residence time
of the delivery system in the gastrointestinal tract. Other widely used
polysaccharide delivery systems include alginate extracted from brown
seaweeds, carrageenan derived from marine algae, and xanthan gum
from the microorganism, Xanthomonas campestris (de Souza Simões
et al., 2017). Zhu et al. (2018) used an ultrasonic method to microen­
capsulate vanilla essential oil using various wall materials, including
jackfruit seed starch, chitosan, and cyclodextrin. They concluded that
jackfruit seed starch has immense potential as an encapsulant. Another
study by Hasanvand and Rafe (2019) identified that flax seed gum-rice
bran protein complex coacervates to make vanillin/-cyclodextrin in­
clusion complex (CD-IC) microcapsules resulted in higher thermal sta­
bility and a well-regulated vanillin release.
3.2. Protein-based encapsulants
Several critical functional properties of proteins for encapsulation
include their emulsification, foaming ability, water, and oil holding
capacity, high glass transition temperature, and decreased allergenicity,
among many others (Akbarbaglu et al., 2021). Some sources of plant
proteins include soy proteins, zein, wheat proteins, protein from le­
gumes. Research on flavor encapsulation using the corn protein, zein, by
Dehcheshmeh and Fathi (2019) revealed that a critical factor affecting
the loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency of the saffron extract
was the concentration of zein. Hasanvand and Rafe (2019) employed
rice bran protein (RBP), a by-product of rough rice milling of rough rice
along with flaxseed gum (FG) and β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) to encapsulate
vanillin. The study found that the flavor was entrapped physically
within RBP-FG coacervate, with increased thermostability of vanillin
against external factors.
Y. Premjit et al.
Some animal-based proteins as encapsulants include gelatin, milk
proteins like whey proteins (concentrate and isolate), caseinates, and
egg proteins like albumin. Whey protein isolate (WPI), a globular pro­
tein from cheese industries, is employed extensively as an encapsulant
for its physicochemical and functional properties. Tavares and Noreña
(2020) found that the best complex coacervate yields using WPI and
gum Arabic (GA) were obtained at a mass ratio of 3:1 (w/w) of WPI/GA.
Muhoza et al. (2019) developed multinuclear microcapsules by
exploiting the complex coacervation between gelatin and pectin to
protect cinnamaldehyde. They suggested that the conformation of pectin
and gelatin significantly contributed to the overall complexation and
properties of the cinnamaldehyde microcapsules.
3.3. Lipid-based encapsulants
Lipid-based nano-delivery systems are among the most successful
encapsulation systems, with unrivaled advantages over the other two
systems due to their ability to entrap materials of varying solubilities
and improve targeted delivery (Pandhi et al., 2021). Lipid-based nano­
structures can accommodate and release a broad range of bioactive
compounds (hydrophilic, lipophilic, and amphiphilic compounds) in a
controlled and sustained manner, improve hydrophobic compounds’
solubility and encapsulation efficiency, lower volatility, and improve
target specificity (Assadpour and Jafari, 2019). This method can resolve
physicochemical uncertainty, modulate delivery profiles, and impart
specific sensorial characteristics (Barroso et al., 2020). Nanoemulsions,
nanoliposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), and nanostructure lipid
carriers (NLCs) are the four central lipid-based delivery systems used
(Kumar et al., 2018).
Nanoemulsions are colloidal dispersions of liquid droplets with
diameters<100 nm. They are created by encasing bioactive ingredients
in a dispersed process that is self-stabilized in a continuous step by
surfactants/biopolymers (Pandhi et al., 2021). Nanoliposomes are
spherical complexes made of polar lipids that come together to form a
lipophilic and hydrophilic group on a single molecule. The orientation of
hydrophilic heads creates the bilayer and spherical core–shell configu­
ration of the amphiphilic liposome towards the water compartment and
the alignment of lipophilic tails away from the water towards the vesi­
cle’s base (Esfanjani et al., 2018). Solid-lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are
submicron emulsions generated by combining two immiscible phases in
the presence of an amphiphilic surfactant (Pandhi et al., 2021).
Geetanjali et al. (2020) used tween 80 as a surfactant to increase
vanillin stability during storage and processing by mixing aloe vera
mucilage in the aqueous phase with ethyl vanillin in the oil phase..
According to the stability analysis of the emulsion, the vanillin remained
stable during the study period and was successfully absorbed into a food
cream. In another study, researchers discovered that combining stan­
dard triacylglycerol oils (corn oil and MCT oil) with citrus oils (bergamot
oil and sweet orange oil) by varying the mixing ratios created a more
robust mixed oil nanoemulsion with a superior physical and electronic
sensory property than pure citrus oil emulsions (Yang et al., 2018).
Bashiri et al. (2020) studied cinnamon essential oil-loaded NLC with a
variety of liquid edible oils (corn, sesamol, sweet almond, and black seed
oil), a solid lipid (cocoa butter), and a surfactant (Tween 80). They were
screened for physicochemical stability for 40 days under varied pH
conditions (i.e., pH of milk at 6.8 and pH of certain fruit juices at 3.8)
and pasteurization treatment, with almond oil-based NLC showing
encouraging performance.
4. Encapsulation techniques for flavor compounds
4.1. Fluidized bed coating
Fluidized bed coating involves encapsulating bioactive ingredients
by suspending them into the air and then spraying the encapsulation
material to obtain particles. Some of the beneficial aspects of this
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Food Research International 151 (2022) 110879
approach include, low energy supply, high reproducibility, normaliza­
tion of the final product in terms of particle size distribution and form,
and decreased process time and expense. Nevertheless, oxidation, high-
temperature degradation, and direct exposure of bioactive compounds
to hot air are technical difficulties that could hinder the application of
this technique for susceptible compounds (de Souza Simões et al., 2017).
Various encapsulating agents and drying methods, including spray
SD, freeze-drying, and fluid bed drying, were used to test the stability of
encapsulated strawberry flavor microcapsules (Pellicer et al., 2019). SD
had the lowest moisture values, followed by freeze-drying and fluidized
bed drying, with freeze-drying having the highest drying yield. With SD,
microphotographs revealed smooth spherical crystals, while the powder
was amorphous and irregular for freeze-drying and fluidized bed drying,
respectively (Pellicer et al., 2018). Another similar study was conducted
by Kim et al. (2019) wherein peppermint flavor was encapsulated
employing SD, melt extrusion, and fluidized bed drying. The study
established that the flavors encapsulated via spray drying possessed a
more robust overall flavor perception than the same flavor concentra­
tion encapsulated by fluidized bed drying and melt-extrusion. This is
proof that varying the flavor encapsulation technology, and the particle
size could induce a varied flavor perception. The microcapsules pro­
duced in all the techniques had similar flavor loads. The ranking based
on decreasing flavor intensity was SD > fluidized bed drying–small
(<100 µm) > fluidized bed drying–large (800–1000 µm) ~ melt extru­
sion. Specifically, the fluidized bed drying with smaller particles elicited
a more robust flavor perception than larger particles.
4.2. Spray drying and spray chilling
Spray drying (SD) is the oldest and most commonly used microen­
capsulation process in the food industry. SD is a low-cost, scalable
technology that enables continuous production (Takashige et al., 2020).
It is simple to set up on an industrial scale and is less expensive than
other methods. SD ensures high-quality microparticles by atomizing a
molten liquid oil mixture or emulsion through a nozzle into a hot gas
chamber, resulting in a powder of particles. The SD procedure consists of
three steps: (i) creating an active substance dispersion or emulsion, (ii)
homogenizing the dispersion, and (iii) atomizing the resulting mixture
into the drying chamber. Because of the short time exposition and
accelerated water evaporation, the core temperature remains below
40 ◦ C despite the high temperatures widely used in this phase (Nahum
and Domb, 2021).
Jedlińska et al. (2018) examined the physicochemical properties of
spray-dried vanilla and raspberry aroma powder. They confirmed that
vanilla flavors had lower fragrance retention, while raspberry flavor
powder had poorer flow ability, lower bulk density, smaller particle size,
and a higher glass transition temperature (Tg). Furthermore, the pow­
ders obtained from the cyclone container had more moisture content
and were more active. In another study aimed at extending flavor
preservation during transportation, Kim et al. (2019b) effectively
microencapsulated the caramel flavor in coffee-containing dairy drinks
using medium-chain triglyceride and maltodextrin as coating materials.
The choice of encapsulants is a significant factor affecting the SD
process. Huang et al. (2020) reaffirmed this in a study on four different
wall materials, namely chitosan, cyclodextrin, octenyl succinate anhy­
dride, and maltodextrin, for SD encapsulation to increase the stability of
volatile yogurt-flavored bases. They observed that chitosan possessed
the best physical properties of all the materials, with enhanced encap­
sulation strength, smooth microstructure, and more excellent water
solubility and stability. Furthermore, microencapsulation via the SD
technology could store many volatile compounds with an improved
fraction of ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, and other compounds.
It is well known and documented extensively that the SD process has
a negative impact on volatile substances due to the high temperatures
employed. In this regard, an alternative approach was adopted by de
Melo Ramos et al. (2019), wherein the vacuum SD technique was
Y. Premjit et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic view of the electrospinning process for preparing flavor-cyclodextrin-inclusion complex polymeric nanofibers and flavor-CD-IC poly­
mer-free nanofibers. Adapted with permission from (Saffarionpour, 2019).
evaluated to encapsulate orange essential oil. The encapsulation per­
formance of orange essential oil employing the vacuum SD (pressure
with inlet/outlet temperatures of 190 ◦ C/90 ◦ C and 10–15 kPa pressure)
was higher (99.89%) than conventional SD process. Additionally, the
vacuum SD microparticles exhibited lower mean diameter and wetta­
bility than those from conventional SD. Nevertheless, the technique
requires further exploration and development, with more experimen­
tation to encapsulate other flavor compounds.
Spray chilling is a technique that works in the same way as SD. The
most significant distinction between the two methods is particle pro­
cessing, where the particles are created by cooling and hardening
droplets rather than solvent evaporation. Spray chilling may solve some
disadvantages of SD because it uses an opposite approach in which
bioactive substances are spread in a liquefied matrix and atomized into a
cool atmosphere like cool air. Lipids with a high melting point are often
employed as matrices. These lipids solidify at low temperatures, thereby
immobilizing labile compounds like mineral salts, enzymes, flavors, and
vitamins (de Souza Simões et al., 2017). Interestingly, a study by Günel
et al. (2021) that employed spray chilling could successfully suppress
capsaicin’s pungency, although its biological activity has been pre­
served. As opposed to pure capsaicin, the Scoville Heat Unit (SHU) of the
encapsulated capsaicin powder was reduced by 4500 times. This study
promoted spray chilling microencapsulation of capsaicin at the com­
mercial stage to make it edible for those who cannot consume it due to
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Food Research International 151 (2022) 110879
pungency aversion.
4.3. Freeze-drying
The freeze-drying process has been employed to generate powders
with complex properties. Since the feed emulsion is frozen at very low
temperatures, it is ideal for encapsulating susceptible bioactive com­
pounds. The frozen solution is then exposed to extremely low temper­
atures, which causes the ice crystals to sublimate. Since it necessitates
the use of a vacuum pump, it is a costly drying technology. Conse­
quently, the entire drying process (24–48 h) consumes a significant
amount of energy (Rezvankhah et al., 2020).
The use of freeze-drying post micro-fluidization for condensed va­
nilla extract encapsulation was performed by Ocampo-Salinas et al.
(2017), using maltodextrins with different dextrose equivalent (DE)
values as coating products. The study revealed the capacity of freeze-
drying to produce matrix-type microcapsules of vanilla extract with
high encapsulation efficiency (>95%). Freeze-drying was employed for
successfully encapsulating limonin using β-CD with a core to coating
ratio of 1:10 and 1:20 and showed an efficiency of 68.14% for 1:10 and
80.52% for the ratio 1:20.
Y. Premjit et al. Food Research International 151 (2022) 110879

Table 1
Recent advances in the micro- and nanoencapsulation of flavoring agents.
Techniques of Flavoring agent Micro/ Encapsulants Process Specifications Major Findings References
Encapsulation Nano

Bioactive Limonene from Nano High amylose corn starch HACS + limonene • Limonene-loaded amylose (Ganje et al., 2019)
nanocarrier orange peel oil (HACS) suspension sonicated for nanocarriers loaded had
9 or 18 min (power 100 high stability against acidic
w, frequency 30 kHz). conditions with < 5%
limonene release from
nanocarriers at 37 ◦ C/2 h.
• Highest EE 85% with
loading efficiency 1.63%
• High accuracy of fuzzy
models confirmed by 0.99
minimum coefficient of
determination between the
predicted and experimental
values.
Coaxial Aqueous saffron Nano Zein, Tragacanth Voltage: 11, 15, 19 and • Nanofibers diameter: (Dehcheshmeh and
electrospinning extract 23 kV; 95–271 nm. Fathi, 2019)
Nozzle-collector distance: • LC: 3.57–9.52%
14.5 cm • EE: 60.89–91.55%,
Flow rate: 0.19 mL/h. • Release of saffron extract at
21.66, 27.75, 43.88, and
16.12% in saliva, hot water,
gastric and intestinal media,
respectively.
Complex β-pinene Micro Sodium caseinate, Formulations varied by: • The retention time-course of (Koupantsis and
coacervation Carboxymethylcellulose Protein: polysaccharide; β-pinene fitted well to Avra­ Paraskevopoulou, 2017)
β-pinene: wall materials; mi’s equation.
reticulating agents: • Glycerol addition resulted in
glycerol or tannic acid. higher retention of the
volatile compound in the
powder stored at low RH
and temperature (0% RH,
25 ◦ C)
Complex Black pepper Micro β-lactoglobulin, sodium • Optimal ratio of 17:1 (Bastos et al., 2020)
coacervation essential oil (Piper alginate, transglutaminase (β-lactoglobulin: sodium
nigrum L.) (cross-linking) alginate) at a pH of 4.5 for
complex formation with EE
of 85.01%.
• Black pepper essential oil
after digestion presented
high stability (84.8%), and
bioaccessibility (31.16%).
Complex Cinnamaldehyde Micro Gelatin, High methyl pectin Emulsification: 9000 rpm • High yield of coacervates (Muhoza et al., 2019)
coacervation (HMP), low methyl pectin for 3 min (O/W). with good size and
(LMP) pH: 4.23 (G/HMP) and morphology occurred at pH
4.37 (G/LMP). 4.23 and 4.37 for G/HMP
with a ratio of 3:1 and G/
LMP with a ratio of 6:1
respectively.
• Complex coacervation using
gelatin and pectin
significantly increased the
degradation temperature
from 180 to 220 ◦ C to
350–400 ◦ C.
Complex Oregano essential oil Nano Gelatin-Chia mucilage; Homogenization: • Characteristics peaks of (Hernández-Nava et al.,
coacervation, (OEO) (Origanum Gelatin-gum Arabic. ultrasound at 20 kHz for carvacrol, one of the 2020)
spray drying vulgare) Emulsifier: Tween 80. 10 min. majority components
pH: 3.6 present in OEO.
Spray drying: inlet • the amount of emulsifier
temperatures (180 and (Tween 80) and essential oil
160 ◦ C) and feeding rates added influenced the
(5 and 7.5 g/min) formation of coacervates,
especially the particle size.
Complex Black pepper (Piper Micro Gelatin, sodium alginate, Homogenization: 10,000 • β-caryophyllene from black (Heckert Bastos et al.,
coacervation, nigrum L.) essential calcium chloride; rpm, 30 min at 25 ◦ C. pepper EO was major 2020)
freeze-drying oil Emulsifier: Tween 20. pH adjustment: 4.0 terpene identified.
• The ratio of 6:1 (gelatin/
sodium alginate) at pH 4.0
was the ideal condition.
• The encapsulation efficiency
varied from 49.13 to
82.36%,

(continued on next page)

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Y. Premjit et al. Food Research International 151 (2022) 110879

Table 1 (continued )
Techniques of Flavoring agent Micro/ Encapsulants Process Specifications Major Findings References
Encapsulation Nano

Complex Ginger essential oil Whey Protein isolate/gum Optimum pH: WPI/GA • Best complex coacervate (Tavares and Noreña,
coacervation, (Zingiberisrhizoma Arabic (WPI/GA); gum (3.75) and GA/C (3.6) yields (43 and 73%) were 2020)
freeze-drying L.) Arabic/chitosan (GA/C). freeze-drying: − 57 ◦ C/ obtained when using mass
pressure < 130 μmHg. ratios of 3:1 (w:w), for WPI/
GA, and of 5:1 (w/w) for
GA/CH, respectively.
• Only physical interactions
occurred between the
functional groups of ginger
essential oil and of WPI/GA
and GA/CH complexes
Complex Michelia Alba D.C. Micro Gelatin, gum Arabic (GA) Gelatin-GA complex • Optimized formulation of (Samakradhamrongthai
coacervation, flavor powder coacervation system (pH gelatin (3.00% w/v), GA et al., 2019)
spray drying (MADFP); 4, temperature 0 ◦ C) (3.73% w/v), and
Pandanflavor Spray drying inlet and pandanflavor (5.26% w/v)
infusion. outlet temperature: exhibited high yield
150 ◦ C and 50 ◦ C. recovery with low moisture
content and low water
activity.
• Multicore capsules showed
excellent EE of MADFP
Complex Vanilla oleoresin Micro Chitosan, gum Arabic Spray drying: (100 ◦ C/ • The optimal conditions for (Hernández-Fernández
coacervation, (V. planifolia 60 ◦ C inlet/outlet the complex coacervation et al., 2020)
spray drying Andrews) temperature) process were 0.34%
Chitosan: 0.25–1.0% (w/ chitosan, 1.7% gum Arabic,
v), 5.29 pH, and an oleoresin:
Gum Arabic: 1–5% (w/v) wall material ratio of 1:2.5.
pH: 2–8. • The retention and
encapsulation efficiencies
were 84.89 ± 1.94% and
69.20 ± 1.79%.
Electrospinning Tea tree essential oil Nano Polyacrylonitrile; Voltage: 15 kV. • ElectrospunPAMAM mats (Mounesan et al., 2021)
(TEO); Eucalyptus Poly-amidoamine dendritic Distance: 10 cm. Flow displayed extended releases
essential oil (EEO) compounds (PAMAM). rate: 0.8 mL/h. for TEO (6–23 days) and
EEO (5–27 days).
• Samples contacting
PAMAMpossessed more
durable antibacterial
property.
Electrospraying Mentha longifolia L. Nano Balangu seed gum (BSG), BSG: 0.25, 0.5% w/w. • Increasing the concentration (Rezaeinia et al., 2019)
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) PVA: 0.5, 1, 2%. of PVA enhanced LC
Tween-20 Tween 20: 0.06, 0.08, (77.56–84.68%) and EE
0.1%. (81.54–87.82%) of essential
Electrospraying: 1 mL/h oil.
pump flow rate; 25 kV • Mentha longifolia L.
voltage; needle tip-to- essential oil was entrapped
collector distance 150 in nanostructures without
mm. any chemical interaction
with encapsulant material
Emulsion Vanilla and Nano Galactan exopolysaccharide EPS: flavor (3:2) • Smooth, spherical (Kavitake et al., 2020)
cardamom flavors (EPS) Flavor emulsions: appearance with evenly
lyophilisationfreeze- dispersed particles.
dried (48 h) • Particle size: 202.34 nm for
encapsulated vanilla and
202.95 nm for encapsulated
cardamomflavors.
Emulsion Cinnamaldehyde Micro Chitosan, Pectin Chitosan (0.5%, w/v); • Ultrasonicated (Gong et al., 2020)
(ultrasonication- Pectin (0.5%, w/v); microcapsules showed
assisted), spray Chitosan, pectin: oil, higher flavor retention at
drying cinnamaldehyde (5:1 v/ high temperatures
v) (>150 ◦ C).
• Ultrasonication promoted
amide bonding of chitosan
and pectin leading to stable
capsules.
Emulsion Peppermint flavor Nano Gum Arabic Inlet, outlet temperature: • Ultrasound application for (Sangolkar et al., 2019)
(ultrasound- 170 ◦ C, 80 ◦ C. encapsulation enhanced EE
assisted); spray Flowrate: 5 mL/min to 87%.
drying Evaporation rate: 1.5 kg/ • Particle size after spray
h drying: 45.2–255.7 nm.
• Peppermint flavor
properties unaffected by
acoustic cavitation
Emulsion D-Limonene Nano Alyssum homolocarpum AHSG concentration: • Smooth and compact (Khoshakhlagh et al.,
electrospraying seed gum (AHSG) 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 or 1% (w/ capsules obtained from 2018)
(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued )
Techniques of Flavoring agent Micro/ Encapsulants Process Specifications Major Findings References
Encapsulation Nano

w) electrospraying of high-
Tween 20: 0.1 or 0.5% speed homogenized emul­
(w/w); sion containing 0.5% gum
D-limonene: 20% (w/w) (w/w), 20% D-limonene (w/
Homogenization: w), and 0.1% surfactant (w/
ultrasound or high-speed w) under the applied voltage
homogenizer. of 20 kV and flow rate of 0.1
mL/h.
• Average diameter: 65.68 ±
8.80 nm; EE:73.4%.
Modified CD-IC; Thymol Nano Hydroxypropyl- • Modified CD-IC were free- (Celebioglu et al.,
electrospinning β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD), standing and morphologi­ 2018b)
hydroxypropyl- cally homogenous nano­
γ-cyclodextrin (HPγCD) and fibrous webs of thymol.
methyl-β-cyclodextrin • Thymol/CD-IC nanofibers
(MβCD) exhibited antioxidant
activity with improved
water solubility and high
thermal stability of thymol.
Nanoemulsions D-limonene from Nano Oily phase: FCEO. Varying nanoemulsion • Droplet size of (Li et al., 2019)
finger citron formulations with nanoemulsions increased
essential oil (FCEO) surfactants (Cremophor from 10 to 18 nm to
EL, Tween 80®) and co- 105–1106 nm post
surfactants digestion, suggesting
coalescence or aggregation.
• Zero-order and Ritger-
Peppas model best fit models
at mouth and intestinal
stage.
β-CD-IC Vanillin Micro Flaxseed gum, Rice bran Core: Vanillin/β-CD-IC • With core: wall (1:3) and (Hasanvand and Rafe,
coacervates protein, β-CD Wall: Rice bran protein, protein: polysaccharides 2019)
Flaxseed gum, (Protein: (9:1), vanillin/β-CD-loaded
Polysaccharide ratio). microcapsules had
Core: wall (1:1, 1:2, 1:3) maximum EE of 85%.
• Increased thermostability
and shelflife of vanillin.
γ-CD-IC; freeze- Watermelon flavor Nano γ-CD γ-CD: watermelon flavor • Average particle size: 111.5 (Xiao et al., 2019)
drying mass ratio equal to 3:1 ± 6 nm; PDI: 0.237.
Pre-freeze: − 20 ◦ C/24 h • Watermelon-flavored CD-IC
Vacuum freeze-drying: had clear, uniform, and
− 50 ◦ C/24 h. unimodal particle size
distribution.
• Thermal evaporation of
watermelon flavor shifted to
higher temperatures due to
interaction in complexation.
Spray and freeze- Strawberry Micro maltodextrin, soluble fiber, Optimum conditions • Spray-dried: spherical, (Balci-Torun and
drying modified starch, were; air inlet smooth and homogeneous. Ozdemir, 2021)
β-cyclodextrin, and Arabic temperature: 190 ◦ C, • Freeze-dried: heterogeneous
gum maltodextrin: 15.30%, and spongy.
modified starch:1.83% • Particle size of the spray-
and Arabic gam: 12.87%. dried(D90 value:22.91 μm)
much lower than freeze-
dried (D90 value:326.83
μm)
Spray-chilling 2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline Micro Paraffin • Greater 2AP stability (Yin and Cadwallader,
(2AP) • Application in instant rice 2019)
• Full flavor recovery with
controlled release
Lactose-Whey Ethyl acetate Micro Lactose, WPI Lactose: WPI (0:1, 1:1, • EA particles accumulated (Huang et al., 2021)
protein isolate 1:4, 4:1) and migrated to powder
(WPI) Emulsion freezing: surface resulting in EA
microcarriers, − 24 ◦ C for 24 h and flavor release.
emulsion, freeze- − 80 ◦ C for 6 h. • Lactose crystallization
drying Freeze-drying: − 40 ◦ C for caused structural
48 h, <0.1 mbar. modification of
microparticles.

PDI: Polydispersity index; EE: Encapsulation efficiency, CD-IC: Cyclodextrin inclusion complex; LC: Loading capacity.

4.4. Electrospinning/electrospraying
Electrohydrodynamic techniques employed for encapsulation
include electrospinning and electrospraying that use high voltage elec­
trostatic fields on polymer solutions to produce continuous sub-micron
or nanoscale fibers and capsules, respectively (Castro Coelho et al.,
2021). An electrospraying/spinning set-up includes a high voltage
source, a syringe pump, a blunt-end stainless steel needle, and a
grounded collector, as observed in the schematic diagram depicting the
electrospinning process in Fig. 1 (Frakolaki et al., 2020). The jet exits as

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Y. Premjit et al.
a fiber at a high polymer solution concentration (electrospinning),
leading to solid nanofibers deposition. At lower concentrations (elec­
trospraying), droplet formation occurs wherein, upon solvent evapora­
tion, solidifies to deposit nanoparticles and nanoclusters on the collector
(do Evangelho et al., 2019). Coaxial electrospinning/spraying comprises
an outer and inner capillary tube or needle, each fed with two different
polymer solutions (Gómez-Mascaraque et al., 2019).
Electrospinning/spraying technique generates nano/microstructures
with increased surface-area-to-volume ratio, high inter-intra pores, and
encapsulation efficiency, improved physical and functional character­
istics, and enhanced protection of compounds of interest (Castro Coelho
et al., 2021; Dehcheshmeh and Fathi, 2019; Gómez-Mascaraque et al.,
2019). Aside from being cost effective, it does not involve heating, and
maintains the bioactive components’ properties (Castro Coelho et al.,
2021). The advancements in electrospinning are numerous in terms of
controlled and sustained release, tunable porosity, mechanical endur­
ance, biocompatibility, and high loading capacity (Balusamy et al.,
2020).
The research conducted by Rezaeinia et al. (2019) studied the elec­
trospraying of Lallemantia royleana (Balangu) seed gum for Mentha
longifolia L. essential oil release. The best-suited jet mode for electro­
spraying was the cone-jet mode, since it had higher stability and spray
ability. This mode was noticed when the essential oil emulsion formu­
lations comprising 1% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), 0.25% Balangu seed
gum, and 0.08% Tween-20 were electrosprayed. An increase in PVA
concentration from 0.5 to 1% improved encapsulation efficiency and
loading capacity of flavor nanocapsules from 81.54 to 87.82% and 77.56
to 84.68%, respectively. It could be stipulated that increased emulsion
viscosity improved the stability, loading capacity, and encapsulation
efficiency.
Another recent study by Wu et al. (2020) employed PVA for
obtaining electrospun nanofibrous films composed of menthol/β-CD-ICs
for smoke filtration and flavor retention. After storage for 22 days, the
menthol retention in PVA films was 74%. Furthermore, the stable in­
clusion of menthol in host molecule β-CD ensured a sustained release
profile from the nanofiber films, vital for volatile flavor retention.
Doping menthol/β-CDICs into the PVA nanofiber films by electro­
spinning could further decrease the menthol release rate.
Other instances of electrospinning/spraying for flavor encapsulation
have been mentioned in Table 1.
4.5. Coacervation
Mixing two opposite polyelectrolytes results in an electrostatic
complex formation that may be insoluble or soluble. Based on the type
and characteristics of polyelectrolytes, insoluble complexes form ag­
gregates or coacervates (Muhoza et al., 2020). Coacervation, or liquid­
–liquid phase separation, is a spontaneous process wherein a
homogenous colloidal solution separates into two immiscible liquid
phases in one solvent. Coacervate is the dense phase containing higher
amounts of colloids, whereas the one with lesser colloids in equilibrium
with the dilute liquid phase is the equilibrium phase (Zhou et al., 2020).
Coacervation is induced by altering the pH, temperature, ionic strength,
solubility, stirring rate, biopolymer ratio, molecular weight, and
biopolymer concentration (Timilsena et al., 2019; Muhoza et al., 2020).
Simple coacervation consists of a single biopolymer whereas, com­
plex coacervation comprises two or more biopolymers (Samakradham­
rongthai et al., 2019). Complex coacervation deals with associative
interactions between oppositely charged polymers (protein and poly­
saccharide), promoted by H-bonding, hydrophobic, and electrostatic
interactions (Lemos et al., 2017). Various advantages include high
encapsulation efficiency, low encapsulant concentration, appreciable
encapsulant integrity, and employing a wide range of biopolymers as
encapsulants (Heckert Bastos et al., 2020). Hernández-Nava et al. (2020)
investigated the encapsulation of oregano essential oil focussing on
gelatin-chia mucilage encapsulation system and compared it with the
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gelatin and GA system. The Gelatin-chia system had a higher encapsu­
lation efficiency at 160 ◦ C than gelatin-GA at 180 ◦ C. This variation was
explained by the lower mass transfer rate required for the gelatin-chia to
permit the water bound to the mucilage gel to evaporate and form
capsules with a smooth surface. Contrarily, there is an increased need for
the mass transfer rate permitting rapid encapsulant drying in the gelatin-
GA system. Nevertheless, the feeding rate would have permitted enough
moisture into the capsule to prevent surface cracks in the gelatin-GA
system.
The complex coacervation process for protein and polysaccharide-
based encapsulants occurs over a narrow pH range between the pKa of
reactive groups along the anionic polysaccharide backbone and iso­
electric point (pI) of the protein (Heckert Bastos et al., 2020). Micro­
capsule formation occurs due to protonated amino groups (protein) and
the de-protonated carboxyl group (polysaccharide) interactions. In this
regard, Heckert Bastos et al. (2020) emphasized the protein-
polysaccharide interaction of encapsulants to protect black pepper
essential oil and its terpenes. The study employed sodium alginate and
gelatin as encapsulants for complex coacervation. Gelatin has a pI of 5.0,
and sodium alginate has a pKa between pH 3.4–3.7. At pH < pKa, the
turbidity noticed results from the protonation of sodium alginate’s
carboxylic group (–COO– → –COOH+) besides aggregation. The pH
4.0 was favorable for complex coacervate formation between gelatin
and sodium alginate at 6:1 ratio, which was indicated by increased
turbidity (65.2 ± 0.24).
4.6. Emulsification
Emulsification is employed as a preparatory step for other encapsu­
lation techniques, such as SD, electrospraying, and freeze-drying (Sai­
fullah et al., 2019). Emulsions usually involve two immiscible liquids,
where one is dispersed as spherical droplets within the other (Cox et al.,
2020). An oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion is the dispersion of oil droplets
in an aqueous continuous phase, whereas a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion
occurs when the continuous phase is fat, and the dispersion phase is
water. For O/W emulsions, flavor components are transferred from oil
droplets to the aqueous phase before release from the aqueous phase
into an air (vapor) phase (Tamaru et al., 2018). Other complex emul­
sions include oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) and water-in-oil-in-water (W/
O/W) double emulsions that comprise other emulsions inside the
droplets given their compartmentalized structure (Yang et al., 2021).
While conventional emulsions require only one emulsifier, double
emulsions need a lipophilic emulsifier for water droplets and a hydro­
philic emulsifier for oil droplets (Leister and Karbstein, 2020).
Pickering stabilization is based on the interfacial adsorption of bio­
logical particles rather than synthetic surfactants. They are highly
resilient to coalescence during storage and post oral administration and
have high interfacial area and increased stability against coalescence
(Troise et al., 2020; Guan et al., 2021). To increase the free fatty acids
flavor release for low-fat cheeses during lipase hydrolysis, Guan et al.
(2021) immobilized lipases on α-lactalbumin nanotubes (lipase-nano­
tubes) for stabilizing O/W Pickering emulsions. The study found that
lipase-nanotube emulsions improved the lipase catalytic efficiency and
hydrolyzed the release of 1.5 times higher quantities of free fatty acids
flavor than free lipases with similar triglycerides. The Pickering emul­
sions significantly enhanced the interfacial area between lipases and the
oil phase, leading to a higher hydrolysis efficiency.
To enhance the heat stability of cinnamon flavor during baking,
Gong et al. (2020) employed an ultrasonication-assisted microencap­
sulation technique with chitosan and pectin using the induced cross­
linking approach. Ultrasonication employs high-intensity sonic waves of
frequencies at 20 kHz or more to produce agitation. The agitation gen­
erates cavities of gas or liquid within the system with the capacity of
implosion. The energy released from cavitation induces water to
generate free radicals that further aid in the chemical bonding of
encapsulants for microcapsule formation. The study found that with
Y. Premjit et al. Food Research International 151 (2022) 110879

Table 2
Application of flavor encapsulation systems in food.
Techniques of Flavor agent Specifications of encapsulation Food-based Salient Findings References
Encapsulation system applications

Pickering emulsions Lipases α-lactalbumin nanotubes Low-fat cheeses • Promotion of free fatty acidflavor release observed upon (Guan et al.,
lipase-nanotubes emulsion addition in low-fat cheeses. 2021)
• Lipase-nanotubes emulsion addition resulted in enlarged
interfacial area.
Emulsions, freeze- Cardamom and Galactan exopolysaccharide (EPS)- Muffins • Galactan (EPS)-based vanilla incorporation reduced (Kavitake
drying vanilla based emulsion-lyophilization. hardness, increased springiness, and cohesiveness of et al., 2020)
muffins.
• Enhanced acceptability and positive valorization of the
galactan-EPS based vanilla muffin
Electrospinning Cinnamic Needle-less electrospun zein Sausages • Improved antioxidant activity observed in electrospun (Karim et al.,
aldehyde nanofibers of cinnamic aldehyde zein nanofibers containing cinnamic aldehyde during 2021)
storage.
• Enhanced anti-bactericidal effects against E. coli O157:H7
and S. aureusPTCC 1337 observed in electrospun, encap­
sulated cinnamic aldehyde.
• No adverse effects on color, texture profile, and sensory
properties of sausages.

cavitation and free radical presence, aqueous chitosan and pectin could
suitably form linkages and encapsulate the hydrophobic cinnamalde­
hyde. The study also established that, since chitosan and pectin possess
good emulsifying properties, there was increased flavor retention in a
stable cinnamaldehyde emulsion. Other instances of the applications of
flavor encapsulation in food systems have been summarized in Table 2.
4.7. Cyclodextrins inclusion complexation
Cyclodextrins (CDs) are cyclic oligosaccharides (α-CD, β-CD, and
γ-CD), composed of six, seven, or eight glucosyl units (Perinelli et al.,
2020). They possess a hollow structure and are shaped like a truncated
cone. CDs are composed of glucose units covalently bound and linked by
oxygen and held together by H-bonding between hydroxyl groups at the
cavity with a wider rim (Saffarionpour, 2019). CDs characteristically
possess a hydrophobic internal cavity for complex formation with guest
molecules for encapsulation structure formation (Carneiro et al., 2019).
This is also suitable for inclusion complexation with several non-polar
moieties without covalent bonding (Saffarionpour, 2019). Addition­
ally, aggregates with smaller molecules influence their solubility and
interactions with other molecules in complex matrices (Radić et al.,
2020). CD-based encapsulation enhances the stability of bioactive

Fig. 2. Depiction of encapsulation employing CPF technology with LCY, hydrated as limonene content of the emulsion-loaded yeast cells and LCY, dried the
limonene content of the dried limonene-filled yeast cells. Adapted with permission from (Errenst et al., 2021).

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Y. Premjit et al.
agents in the gastrointestinal tract by decreasing the rate of hydrolysis,
oxidation, racemization, stearic rearrangement, enzymatic decomposi­
tion, or complex formation with other food components that signifi­
cantly affects bio-accessibility (Carneiro et al., 2019; Saffarionpour,
2019). The complex formation of CDs is exploited for flavor encapsu­
lation and preservation (Saffarionpour, 2019).
Celebioglu et al. (2018a) employed modified cyclodextrins inclusion
complexes (CD-IC) Hydroxypropyl-β-CD-IC (HPβCD-IC), HPγCD-IC for
electrospinning cineole, and p-cymene to produce nanofibrous webs
without employing polymeric carrier matrices. A general trend observed
when solutions with high conductivity and low viscosity are electrospun
is the formation of thinner fibers, because of increased stretching of the
jet. A similar outcome was observed in this study for CD-IC-nanofibers
where p-cymene/HPβCD-IC (550 nm) had the lowest average diameter,
and the cineole/HPγCD-IC (785 nm) possessed the highest average
diameter. A key difference between the two nanofibers was that p-
cymene/HPβCD-IC had lower viscosity (~0.30 Pa.s), enabling greater
stretching and resulting in thinner fibers production during
electrospinning.
Although CDs are considered GRAS, its type and mode of adminis­
tration significantly influenced its safety and toxicity. They are practi­
cally non-toxic, because of their bulky and hydrophilic nature. When
administered orally, there is negligible absorption in the gastrointestinal
tract. Nevertheless, high doses of CDs might be harmful and cause
irreversible kidney damage and dysfunction (Carneiro et al., 2019).
4.8. Yeast cell microcarriers
Implementing cell-based micro-carriers for encapsulation is
increasingly prevalent for several food-grade substances in the past few
decades. Of these, yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) are predominant
as a low-cost encapsulant, with their cell envelope playing the role of
coating material (Karaman, 2020). Yeast has a simplified structure
considering its lack of complexity, no additive requirements, and
cell–cell binding (Young et al., 2020; Karaman, 2020; Sultana et al.,
2018). They possess a phospholipid membrane that acts like a liposome
for successfully encapsulating both hydrophobic and hydrophilic mol­
ecules (Fu et al., 2021). The cell wall of yeasts provides good mechanical
strength and permits molecules up to 400 kDa to move freely. In this
regard, flavor compounds can pass through the lipid bilayer membrane
with ease, as the molecular weight of flavoring agents is lower than 400
kDa (Sultana et al., 2018). Furthermore, yeasts are easier to the culture
at an industrial scale (Young and Nitin, 2019).
Using condensed powder type (CPF) technology, Errenst et al. (2021)
successfully encapsulated limonene flavor into yeast cells. This high-
pressure spray process is appropriate for loading flavors under particu­
larly mild conditions, like an inert gas atmosphere and low tempera­
tures. Fig. 2 depicts the yeast cell encapsulation schematically. A thin
film is formed on the surface of the agglomerated yeast cells by the fine
spray produced in the CPF process. This facilitates the contact between
the emulsion and the yeast cell wall. Water hydration leads to cell wall
swelling, further permitting the permeation of limonene into the inte­
rior. This water is removed by the drying processes, which ensures the
closure of the cell wall’s biopolymer network, resulting in the successful
encapsulation of the flavors within yeasts. The study established
encapsulation efficiencies of ~85.9% for the CPF spraying process.
Similarly, in another study by Sultana et al. (2018), the release
behavior of the flavoring compounds D-limonene (hydrophobic) and
ethyl hexanoate (hydrophilic) was studied after yeast cell encapsulation.
Comparisons were made between the oxidative stability of D-limonene
in yeast and maltodextrin encapsulation systems. Interestingly, both
flavors were retained at ~85% under dry heating at 140 ◦ C after 1 h
incubation. This higher retention capacity of yeast cells could be
attributed to β-glucans, a water-soluble carbohydrate fiber on the yeast
surface, which acts as a wall material. Another interesting property of
β-glucans is its ability to transform from a hard, glassy state to a soft,
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soluble, and gelatinized polymer under wet conditions. This phenome­
non was observed with the rapid release of both flavors within 10 min
upon water addition at 105 ◦ C. This study correlated the flavor release
behavior using Gaussian distribution of activation energy of the first-
order release rate constant. The activation energy ranged at 50–55 kJ/
mol and 76–116 kJ/mol for both flavors under wet and dry conditions,
respectively.
5. Controlled release of flavor compounds
Controlled release and stability are essential features of encapsula­
tion systems. Controlled release ensures that compounds of interest are
liberated at a specific rate over a prolonged duration, reducing core
compound loss during processing operations (Sultana et al., 2018).
Evaluating the controlled release of encapsulated flavors is ideal for
predicting the flavor availability throughout the process or storage
period (de Souza et al., 2018). The flavor release rate is defined as flavor
molecules migrating from one environment/state to another over a
certain time. Monitoring the flavor and aroma compounds’ release rate
is highly essential for food products. Consumers can perceive the taste
and quality of food products even before direct consumption. This is
because the volatile flavors combined with the air molecules enter the
nasal cavity, contact the olfactory epithelium receptor cells via the ortho-
nasal route, and the human brain perceives the quality and taste of food
(Saifullah et al., 2019).
5.1. Role of encapsulants in flavor compounds release from encapsulation
systems
Since the effectiveness of encapsulation structures rely on the sta­
bility of encapsulants chosen, the choice of coating materials employed
determine the overall success of the process. The primary role of
encapsulants is to protect the core compound by acting as a barrier
against external factors and preventing reactions with other compo­
nents. Encapsulants should also possess properties suitable for the cho­
sen method of encapsulation; for instance, attaining a high stability and
flavor release at specific durations and desired locations (Balci-Torun
and Ozdemir, 2021). Encapsulants comprise of hydrophilic and hydro­
phobic polymers that form polymeric networks to hold the core com­
pound within the matrix. A combination of polymers is chosen, since it
guarantees improved barrier properties compared to a single polymer
(de Souza et al., 2018).
In flavor and aroma encapsulation, the encapsulant primarily in­
fluences the total aroma recovery. While encapsulating strawberry fla­
vor, Balci-Torun and Ozdemir (2021) found that the total aroma
recovery was high at constant inlet temperature when maltodextrin was
mixed with GA, modified starch, and soluble fiber. However, when
modified starch was increased, and GA or soluble fiber was decreased,
the total aroma recovery also increased. In this study, maltodextrin,
modified starch, soluble fiber, GA, and β-CD were optimized to produce
minimum aroma release from strawberry-based microcapsules. The re­
searchers also maximized the drying efficiency, solubility, and recovery
of the aroma post-dissolution of microcapsules in water. Rezaeinia et al.
(2019) electrosprayed Lallemantia royleana (Balangu) seed gum for
Mentha longifolia L. essential oil release. A faster release of the essential
oil was observed in distilled water media. This was attributable to the
increased water solubility property of Balangu gum and PVA, resulting
in higher solubility and swelling degree of nanocapsules.
Zarandona et al. (2020) developed CD-ICs to monitor the release of
2-phenyl ethanol from chitosan films. β-CD was chosen to develop CD-
ICs as it exhibited a greater retention yield (45%) than γ-CD (40%)
and α-CD (32%). The relatively lower retention values could be because
of a single hydroxyl group on 2-phenyl ethanol for its attachment to CDs
and, weakening the interaction. The results showed that 2-phenyl
ethanol evaporated with only 8% retention in the films without ICs,
whereas >90% retention was seen in films with ICs. Furthermore, the
Y. Premjit et al.
Fig. 3. Different release profiles for encapsulated systems. Adapted with
permission from (Boostani and Jafari, 2021).
fast flavor release occurred 4 h after immersion in 95% ethanol,
attributable to the weak interactions with β-CD. Huang et al. (2021)
studied the release of ethyl acetate from lactose-whey protein isolate
matrices, which was based on the lactose crystallization and micro­
structure of the particles. They observed that microparticles with high
lactose exhibited the lowest flavor retention, whereas rapid flavor
release was seen at high relative humidity conditions. This could be
explained by the crystallization stage of lactose, during which the
lactose molecules released water molecules and were converted to
α-lactose monohydrates. This was observed by the increase in size and
and structural modifications of lactose particles from needle-shapes to
rectangular structures. This phenomenon may have increased their
volume and brought about the disruption of encapsulation structures.
Due to powder surface and internal matrix restructuring, the flavors
accumulated into large agglomerated particles and were prone to
migration from the core to the surface. Therefore, the study established
that the lactose content, surrounding humidity, and storage time
significantly affected the flavor retention and crystallization behavior.
5.2. Mechanisms of release of flavor compounds
Various studies have explored flavor release behaviors from encap­
sulation systems. Mechanisms of the release include diffusion, swelling,
melting, and degradation (Sultana et al., 2018). Flavors diffusing
through particle-matrices into the external/surrounding medium caused
diffusion, a predominant flavor release mechanism from encapsulation
systems. The particle–matrix may be intact throughout or alter its
properties (erosion, fragmentation, or dissolution). The flavor release
rates from encapsulation systems rely on its relative solubility in the
particle–matrix, the surrounding liquid and its diffusion coefficient
through the matrix (Bastos et al., 2020).
Samakradhamrongthai et al. (2019) developed a multi-core encap­
sulated flavor powder using gelatin, GA, infused with Pandan flavor. The
release rate constant of Pandan was calculated by employing Avrami’s
equation (Weibull distribution function). The Avrami’s parameter, ‘n,’
ranged from 0.25 to 3.74, suggesting that the flavor release mechanism
could be molecular diffusion (n < 1), the first-order mechanism (n = 1),
and rapid release with an induction period (n > 1). The n values in the
study ranged from 0.14 to 0.45, implying that the diffusion mechanism
governed the flavor release.
Sultana and Yoshii (2019) analyzed the release profile of flavoring
compounds d-limonene and ethyl hexanoate using a complex vapor
sorption method. The flavors were spray-dried and encapsulated using
yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), from which β-glucan was partially
extracted. Although the study successfully encapsulated the flavor in
yeast cells, not all flavors could penetrate the lipid bilayer membrane,
with some flavor retained near the yeast cell wall. The mode of flavor
release from the encapsulated yeast cells could either be by its evapo­
ration through holes or diffusion through the cell wall. The study found
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that moisture sorption of the yeast cells led to the swelling of the cell
wall’s protein layer, which then generated holes and perforations. This
mechanism facilitated the release of volatile flavor compounds from the
cells. Nevertheless, the moisture absorption of the external layer resul­
ted in its uncontrolled swelling, causing the breakdown of cell protec­
tion and permitting the exchange of flavor with the outside media.
5.3. Controlled-release kinetic models
5.3.1. Burst release
The various release models for the controlled release from encap­
sulation systems can be found in Fig. 3. The rapid release of the core
compounds from encapsulation systems in a short duration comprises
burst release (Boostani and Jafari, 2021). In a mathematical and fuzzy
model release study conducted on amylose nanostructures containing
limonene, Ganje et al. (2019) observed that by increasing the amylose
nanocarrier’s size from 5.65 to 41.9 nm, the quantity of limonene
released in the intestinal environment declined from 79 to 40%, which is
approximately a 50% decrease. Reducing the nanocarriers size resulted
in a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio, increased enzyme availability
for amylose helix deconstruction, thereby increasing the limonene
release rate. Decreasing the amylose levels resulted in an increased in­
testinal enzyme sensitivity and the release took place with a greater
slope with higher ingestion. The mechanical stress increased the limo­
nene release rate in all samples by augmenting the sonication time. This
is because increasing the process duration aggravated the particle wall
deterioration, which made the enzymes increasingly accessible. In this
study, the burst release index, defined for the initial time of entry into
the small intestine, exhibited an ascending trend with increased nano­
carriers size. The limonene trapped between the amylose helices was
responsible for the initial burst release. This was because larger nano­
particles have more limonene molecules between the amylose helices
than smaller particles. Therefore, a higher initial burst release was
observed for the former.
5.3.2. Sustained release
In a study by Xiao et al. (2019), the inclusion and sustained release
behavior of watermelon flavor encapsulated in γ-CD was investigated.
They found that the molecular structures of the flavors significantly
influenced both inclusion and release behavior. The descending order of
flavor inclusion efficiency was alcohols > aldehydes > esters. The
release ratio declined with an increase in the hydrophobicity of flavor
compounds, attributable to the differing affinities of hydrophobic fla­
vors to γ-CD. The study speculated that γ-CD and watermelon flavor
interactions led to flavor compounds’ protection, possessing lower
boiling points from rapidly evaporating. The study also concluded that
the immense potential for the sustained-release characteristics of
watermelon flavor-CD-ICs was as expected.
5.3.3. Delayed release
In the delayed-release design, the aim is to release separate com­
pounds at later times. The release of the encapsulated compounds is
delayed from a limited lag time until the release is found suitable and
desirable (Boostani and Jafari, 2021). Wang et al. (2019) showed that
the encapsulation of allyl methyl disulfide-loaded lipid droplets in
biopolymer-based microgels delayed flavor release appreciably up to 3-
fold longer. Theoretically analyzing the flavor release suggested that its
retention was enhanced with an increase in the microgel size or oil
droplet concentration. The microgels diameter (270 μm) were initially
>1000-fold greater than the lipid droplets diameter (0.26 μm) in the
emulsions, causing a much slower release rate. Furthermore, the phys­
ical interactions of the flavor molecules with the biopolymer network
results in binding, which causes slower release and leads to delayed
release mechanism.
 Table 3

Y. Premjit et al.
Empirical and semi-empirical models for fitting the release of flavoring agents from encapsulation systems.
Kinetic model Equation Specifications Salient features References

Zero order C=Kt C = amount of released
flavor at time, t;
K = Kinetic constant
First order Ln C = K t C = amount of released
flavor at time, t;
K = Kinetic constant
Higuchi C = K t0.5 C = amount of released
flavor at time, t;
K = Kinetic constant
Ritger-Peppas C = K tn C = amount of released
flavor at time, t;
K = Kinetic constant
n = release power
Peppas-Sahlin C = k1 tm + k2 t2m C = amount of released
flavor at time, t;
k1 = diffusion rate
(Fickian) constant.
k2 = erosion rate constant
m = purely Fickian
diffusion exponent for a
system of any
configuration.
Weibull log (-ln (1- C)) = b (log(t) C = amount of released
12
(Li et al., 2019; Ganje et al., 2019; Dehcheshmeh and Fathi, 2019; Bastos et al., 2020)
Release of loaded (Ganje et al., 2019; Dehcheshmeh and Fathi, 2019; Bastos et al., 2020; Rezaeinia et al., 2019)
compounds from porous
structures.
(Dehcheshmeh and Fathi, 2019; Bastos et al., 2020)
• n < 0.45: release (Li et al., 2019; Bastos et al., 2020; Dehcheshmeh and Fathi, 2019)
mechanism is Fickian
diffusion;
• n > 0.89: swelling-
controlled system;
• 0.45 < n < 0.89:
diffusion and swelling
• To evaluate the (Dehcheshmeh and Fathi, 2019; Rezaeinia et al., 2019)
mechanism of Fickian
and non-Fickian trans­
fer from the structure
of delivery systems.
• k1/k2 > 1: diffusion
• k1/k2 < 1: erosion.
• k1/k2 = 1: both
Fickian diffusion and
erosion mechanisms.
(Sultana and Yoshii, 2019)

– log (a)) flavor at time, t;

a, b = shape parameters
of Weibull model
Koptcha C = A(t)0.5 + B(t) C = amount of released
flavor at time, t;
A, B = kinetic constants
• To evaluate the release (Dehcheshmeh and Fathi, 2019; Rezaeinia et al., 2019)
of bioactive
compounds from
delivery systems by
diffusion or erosion
mechanisms.
• The A/B ratio is used to
predict the dominant
mechanism of flavor
release.
• A/B > 1: diffusion.
• A/B < 1: erosion.

Food Research International 151 (2022) 110879

Avrami equation
Y = 1 − exp (ktn)
Y = release fraction of
flavor from encapsulation
system;
t = release time;
k = release rate constant;
n = Avrami parameter
(release mechanism).
• A/B = 1, both diffusion
and erosion.
• n = 0.54: diffusion- (Xiao et al., 2019; Koupantsis and Paraskevopoulou, 2017)
limited release.
• n = 0: Zero-order
release kinetics (gentle
release throughout the
release process).
• n = 1: First-order
release kinetics (im­
mediate release in the
initial stage and a mild
(continued on next page)
Y. Premjit et al. Food Research International 151 (2022) 110879

5.4. Empirical and semi-empirical models of flavor release

Mathematical modelling is an appropriate method for determining

and designing formulations and further evaluating the release of com­
ponents in vitro and in vivo conditions. It aids in determining vital
physical parameters and fitting experimental data with intended models
appropriately. It is employed for theoretically predicting the factors
affecting controlled disassembly, including the type of bioactive com­
ponents and encapsulants, and the shape and size of the network (Ganje
et al., 2019).
The kinetic data on the release behavior of different flavors from
encapsulation systems are evaluated by employing theoretical, empir­
ical, or semi-empirical equations (Flores and Kong, 2017). Several
equations are reported extensively in studies, including zero-order, first-
order, Higuchi, and Korsmeyer-Peppas equations, and described in
Table 3. Flavor release kinetics follows the application of mathematical
models, such as Avrami’s equation. This equation was initially devel­
oped for the crystallization process but has been found to suitably
correlate retention with the release time in storage of various flavor
encapsulation systems (Koupantsis and Paraskevopoulou, 2017).

6. Conclusion
(Li et al., 2019)

(Li et al., 2019)

Flavors are commonly used in various food commodities and play an

References

essential part in everyday life. Flavors, made of volatile aroma com­

pounds, do not last long in the air, particularly at high temperatures.
Several studies have established that encapsulation techniques permit
the increased stability of flavoring compounds for suitable food-based
applications. The present review concluded that nanoencapsulation al­
lows for improved loading capacity, encapsulation efficiency, stability,
mechanism of release

and well-regulated flavor release profile than conventional microen­

release in the later

capsulation techniques. It is essential to point out that some microen­

prolonged stage).

• Estimation of the

from polymeric

capsulation techniques, such as spray chilling and yeast carriers, are

Salient features

gaining significant traction for their improved effect compared to the

systems

conventional techniques. Nanoencapsulation employing electrospraying

and electrospinning seems to be a more promising approach for
improving the flavor encapsulation efficiency. Another trend is the
combined application of two encapsulation techniques to attain specific
characteristics, such as emulsification or coacervation with SD, freeze-
drying, electrospraying, or electrospinning, for better effects.
Q = fractional release of

Q = fractional release of

7. Future directions
k = rate constant;

k = rate constant;
flavor in time t;

flavor in time t;
Specifications

b = constant.

b = constant.

Layer-by-layer self-assembly technology, a strategy that enables the

encapsulation of substances wherein the thickness can be controlled, is
becoming more common in developing multilayer controlled delivery
systems at the micro and nanoscale. Several novel methods of flavor
encapsulation, such as yeasts as flavor carriers, need further exploration.
Despite the potential of yeast as carriers, not much research has been
conducted to examine if these cells structures have a prophylactic effect
(100 − Q)1/3 = − kt + b

(100 − Q)1/2 = − kt + b

against thermally- or oxidatively-induced degradation of encapsulated

bioactive compounds. Further studies could emphasize various flavor
release mechanisms and the suitability and efficiency of application in a
wide variety of food systems or simulated food models. It is evident that
the breakdown dynamics of food in the mouth influences the release rate
Equation

of flavors during chewing.. Future research could be focussed on

exploring the exact mechanisms and oral phase simulations for encap­
sulated flavor release. Detailed analysis of the storage behavior of flavor
encapsulated powder is also required for integrating it with the latest
advances in commercialization.
Table 3 (continued )

Declaration of Competing Interest

Hixon-Crowell
Kinetic model

Neibergull

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

13
Y. Premjit et al.
Acknowledgement
The authors are highly grateful to their respective departments for
support and cooperation. No external funding was received for this
review.
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