International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020, 55, 1–10 1

Review
Nanoemulsion as advanced edible coatings to preserve the quality
of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables: a review

S. M. Kamrul Hasan,1,2* Giovanna Ferrentino1 & Matteo Scampicchio1

1 Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Piazza Universit
a 5, 39100, Bolzano, Italy
2 Department of Food Processing and Preservation, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University (HSTU), Dinajpur 5200,
Bangladesh
(Received 17 February 2019; Accepted in revised form 11 June 2019)

Summary The increasing consumer’s demand regarding the healthy diet has promoted the research towards novel
approaches for preserving minimally processed fruits and vegetables without the necessity of using preser-
vatives. Emulsion-based edible coatings technology is considered a valuable alternative to improve fresh-
cut fruit and vegetable quality. This review discusses some recent advances for the preservation of the
quality and safety of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables with respect to the use of nanoemulsion-based edible
coatings as carrier of functional compounds such as antimicrobial agents, antioxidants and texture enhan-
cers. It focuses especially on the use of natural functional compounds in food preservation as an alterna-
tive to synthetic additives. Moreover, the preparation and characterisation of nanoemulsion are also
reviewed.
Keywords Antimicrobials, antioxidants, fruits and vegetables, minimally processed, nanoemulsion, texture enhancers.

shorten the shelf life of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables,

Introduction
Nowadays, fruit and vegetable consumption patterns
are changing towards a healthy diet. Fresh-cut fruits
and vegetables are rich sources of biologically active
compounds and micronutrients, which provide antioxi-
dant, antigenotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic,
anticancer and antidiabetes functions (Vasco et al.,
2008). These aspects contribute to the actual global
trend towards the intake of fresh-cut fruits and vegeta-
bles. However, the quality of fresh-cut fruits and veg-
etables is unwavering based on the physical
appearance and freshness characteristics at the time of
purchasing by consumers (Kader, 2002). Fresh-cut
fruit and vegetable processing operations (i.e. cutting,
washing or peeling) alter the integrity of the product
damaging the tissues and initiating enzymatic reac-
tions. These operations induce adverse effects on the
quality of the products such as surface browning,
unexpected flavour, water loss and texture breakdown
(Oms-Oliu et al., 2010). Furthermore, the existence of
microbes on the surface of fruits and vegetables may
affect the safety of the products as they are typically
consumed without undergoing any sterilising treatment
(Berger et al., 2010). Consequently, these issues
*Correspondent: E-mail: hasan.kamrul@hstu.ac.bd
increasing the production costs and reducing consumer
acceptance.
Several antimicrobials, antioxidants and texture
enhancers from natural sources may allow retarding
the above-mentioned negative effects. These com-
pounds may improve the quality of fresh-cut fruits
and vegetables and eventually replace the use of their
synthetic counterparts (de Oliveira et al., 2015). How-
ever, the effectiveness of these functional compounds
may be restricted by their physicochemical properties,
stability or solubility when incorporated into foods.
Therefore, there is a need of encapsulating them into a
delivery system and understand how these functional
compound can be entrapped into a carrier in order to
overcome some drawbacks for their application in
foods (Galus & Kadzi nska, 2015).
Scientific findings demonstrate that edible coatings
technology can serve as alternative for food preserva-
tion (Rojas-Gra€ u et al., 2009). Edible coatings systems
have the capability to improve the quality and shelf
life of various food products by controlling physico-
chemical properties (i.e. colour, firmness, respiration,
water loss and microbial protection) (Rojas-Gra€ u
et al., 2009; Hasan & Nicolai, 2014).
Edible coatings may be defined as a thin layer of
edible material that is directly applied on the surface

doi:10.1111/ijfs.14273
© 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology
2 Nanoemulsion for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables S. M. Kamrul Hasan et al.
of foods by dipping or drenching them (Fig. 1). They
provide an additional protecting layer applied on the
surface of fruits and vegetables with a similar effect of
modified atmosphere packaging. The protecting layer
provides a barrier to oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture,
microbes and solute movement with the goal to extend
the shelf life by reducing their rate of exposure, and
physiological disorder. The application of emulsion-
based edible coatings has been known for centuries to
improve and extend the shelf life of fresh-like foods.
Emulsion-based edible coatings may be formulated
using vegetable oil, animal oil, vegetable waxes, animal
waxes, various essential oils together with emulsifier
and water (Galus & Kadzi nska, 2015; Acevedo-Fani
et al., 2017). Therefore, the formulation of the emul-
sion-based coatings approach creates a new window to
link the characteristics of lipophilic and hydrophilic
functional compounds. A number of studies on the
incorporation of functional compounds into emulsion-
based coatings appeared in recently published journals
(Perdones et al., 2014; Galus & Kadzi nska, 2015; Ace-
vedo-Fani et al., 2017).
Most of the studies indicate that nanoemulsion is
the most promising approach to enhance the quality
attributes of fresh-cut fruit and vegetables as it is able
to encapsulate antioxidants antimicrobial, nutraceuti-
cals, colour and flavour as nanocarriers (McClements
et al., 2007; McClements, 2011; Salvia-Trujillo et al.,
2017). The technology has the ability to serve as reser-
voirs of active compounds, protecting them and modu-
lating their controlled release in response to certain
triggers (Acevedo-Fani et al., 2017).
Figure 2 shows the distribution of the scientific
manuscripts published over the past few years on
nanoemulsion in the field of food processing. Among
these, just 13% of the studies are found to be reported
to improve the quality and prolong the shelf life of
fresh-cut products or fresh-like products. Due to these
Figure 1 Schematic representation of the coating process of food. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
limited studies, more researches are essential for
improving the knowledge showing the potential of this
technology for future industrial implementation.
Based on these considerations, the main goal of this
review is to update the information available on the
use of nanoemulsion as advanced edible coatings and/
or as nanocarrier of antimicrobials, antioxidants/
antibrowning and texture enhancers for fresh-cut fruits
and vegetables (Fig. 3). In addition, a short overview
to formulate and characterise the nanoemulsion is pre-
sented.
Nanoemulsion formulation and characterisation
Nanoemulsion is a heterogeneous system (Fig. 4) con-
sisting of, at least, two immiscible liquids, one being
dispersed into the other in small droplets size ranging
from 10 to 1000 nm. A typical nanoemulsion contains
an oil phase, an aqueous phase and an emulsifier. The
aqueous phase is mainly obtained with water, which
2018
2016
2014
2012
2010
Year
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Number of publication
Figure 2 The distribution of publication related to ‘nanoemulsion
on food application’ (2000–2018: Web of Science databases).
© 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Nanoemulsion for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables S. M. Kamrul Hasan et al. 3

Figure 3 Nanoemulsion system for the carrier of active compounds with potential application in edible coatings. [Colour figure can be viewed
at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Figure 4 Schematic diagram of nanoemulsion formation using the oil phase and aqueous phase through a high-energy approach. [Colour figure
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

may also be prepared with other polar compounds
including co-solvents (simple alcohols and polyols),
carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, acids and bases. The
oil phase can be prepared by formulating with various
nonpolar components such as triacylglycerols, diacyl-
glycerols, monoacylglycerols, free fatty acids, essential
oils, mineral oils, fat substitutes, waxes, weighting
agents, vitamins and lipophilic compounds (McCle-
ments, 2011).
Nanoemulsion can act as delivery systems for
important functional compounds like antioxidants,
antimicrobials, nutraceuticals, drugs and flavour
(McClements et al., 2007; Salvia-Trujillo et al., 2017).
Owing to nanosized droplets (10–1000 nm), nanoemul-
sions show several benefits. For instance, nanoemul-
sions are extremely stable to gravitational separation
as small particle size ensures that the Brownian motion
effects dominate the gravitational forces. The

© 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
4 Nanoemulsion for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables S. M. Kamrul Hasan et al.

Table 1 Summary of different functional components used as nanocarriers in nanoemulsion-based coatings and their applica-
tions

Droplet
Processing Functional Size
Technique Conditions Materials Ingredient Benefits (nm) Applications References

High-pressure 127 MPa, 1 cycle Disperse phase: Lemongrass Antimicrobial 56–88 Grape berry Kim et al.
homogeniser followed by carnauba oil and and texture (2014)
followed by Ultra- 10000 g, 1 min waxEmulsifier: carnauba enhancer
Turrax Tween-80 wax
High-pressure 300 MPa, 10 cycles Disperse phase: Mandarin Antimicrobial 176 Green bean Dons
ı et al.
homogeniser sunflower essential oil (2015)
oilEmulsifier: Tween-
20
Ultrasonicator (25 kHz, 750 W), Disperse phase: basil Oregano oil Antimicrobial 148 Fresh lettuce Bhargava
10 min oilEmulsifier: Tween- et al. (2015)
80
Ultra-Turrax 10000 g, 10 min, 3 Disperse phase: a-Tocopherol Antioxidant 174–240 Fresh-cut Zambrano-
cycles sunflower and texture apple Zaragoza
oilEmulsifier: enhancer et al. (2014)
Spanâ85/Tween-80
Ultra-Turrax 10000 g, 10 min, 3 Disperse phase: Candeuba Texture 300 Guava Zambrano-
cycles candeuba wax oil wax and enhancer Zaragoza
Emulsifier: pluronic xanthan et al. (2013)
F127 gum
Ultra-Turrax followed 13500 g, 10 min Disperse phase: Essential oil Antimicrobial 275 Carrot slices Martınez-
by stirring followed chitosan (carvacrol) and texture Herna ndez
13500 g, 30 min solutionEmulsifier: and chitosan enhancer et al. (2017)
Tween-80
High-pressure 103 MPa, 3 cycles Disperse phase: Lemongrass Antimicrobial 195 Apple Jo et al.
homogenisation followed by essential oil and and texture (2014)
followed by Ultra- 10000 g, 5 min oilsEmulsifier: Tween- carnauba enhancer
Turrax 20 wax
Microfluidisation 150 MPa, 3 cycles Disperse phase: fish Lemongrass Antimicrobial 5.50 Fresh-cut Salvia-Trujillo
oilEmulsifier: Tween- oil apple et al.
80 (2015a,2015b)
High-pressure 50–150 MPa, 1–20 Disperse phase: oil Peppermint Antimicrobial 200 Fresh-cut Liang et al.
homogenisation cycles and MCTEmulsifier: oil apple (2012)
modified starch
High-pressure 127 MPa, 1 cycle Disperse phase: Lemongrass Antimicrobial 56–87 Plum Kim et al.
homogenisation lemongrass oil and and texture (2013)
oilEmulsifier: Tween- carnauba enhancer
80 wax
High-pressure 138 MPa, 1 cycle Disperse phase: Lemongrass Antimicrobial 230–240 Grape berry Oh et al.
homogenisation by followed by lemongrass oil and and texture (2017)
Ultra-Turrax 10000 g, 1 min oilEmulsifier: Tween- chitosan enhancer
80
Ultrasonicator 20 kHz, 2 min Disperse phase: Orange peel Antimicrobial 80 Orange Radi et al.
followed by Stir and followed by 30 min essential essential oil and texture slices (2018)
Ultra-Turrax & 3000 r.p.m., oilEmulsifier: Tween- and pectin enhancer
2 min 80
High-pressure 200 MPa, 5 cycle Disperse phase: Essential oil Antimicrobial 99–188 Zucchini Dons
ı et al.
homogenisation by followed by peanut oilEmulsifier: (carvacrol) and (2014)
Ultra-Turrax 24000 g, 5 min Tween-20 antioxidant
High-pressure 200 MPa, 5 cycle Disperse phase: Essential oil Antimicrobial 99–188 Cucumber Tasßtan et al.
homogenisation by followed by peanut oilEmulsifier: (carvacrol) and slices (2017)
Ultra-Turrax 19000 g, 5 min Tween-20 and chitosan antioxidant
High-pressure 100 MPa, 2 cycle Disperse phase: corn Essential oil Antimicrobial 200 Shredded Sow et al.
homogenisation by followed by 8000 g, oilEmulsifier: Tween- (carvacrol) and cabbages (2017)
Ultra-Turrax 10 min 80 and chitosan antioxidant

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 © 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology

Table 1 (Continued)
Processing
Technique Conditions Materials
High-pressure 300 MPa, 10 cycles Disperse phase:
homogeniser sunflower
oilEmulsifier: Tween-
20
Low-energy method Mixing Disperse phase:
acetoneEmulsifier:
Tween-80
bioavailability of the encapsulated components is
improved in nanoemulsions because of its high sur-
face-to-volume ratio and small particle size. The bio-
logical activity of nanoemulsion can be enhanced by
the encapsulation of compounds with improved reac-
tivity and better transfer of molecules through mem-
branes of fruit and vegetables (Salvia-Trujillo et al.,
2015a,2015b).
Despite such benefits, long-term stability of
nanoemulsion is a major restriction that limits its
extensive application. Nanoemulsions are thermody-
namically unfavourable systems due to the positive
free energy accompanied in creating the oil–water
interface, thus tend to break down over time through
flocculation, coalescence, Ostwald ripening and gravi-
tational separation mechanisms. These mechanisms
are related to the different forces in the systems such
as interparticle repulsive, attractive forces, gravita-
tional forces and flow forces (McClements, 2011). In
order to avoid rapid breakdown of nanoemulsion due
to these mechanisms, various food grade stabilisers,
emulsifier or surfactants (Table 1) are often added to
this system (Salvia-Trujillo et al., 2017).
Surfactants can be (I) ionic (negatively or positively
charged) such as sodium lauryl sulphate, diacetyl tar-
taric acid ester of mono- and diglycerides, citric acid
esters of mono and diglycerides, and lauric arginate;
(II) nonionic such as sucrose monopalmitate, sorbitan
monooleate, Tween-20 and Tween-80 spans 20, 40, 60
and 80; and (III) zwitterionic such as phospholipids.
Studies report that high molecular weight polysaccha-
rides can be used as surfactants or carriers that sup-
port active agents applied to improve the functionality
of coatings (Rojas-Gra€ u et al., 2009). Results pub-
lished by Sugumar et al. (2016) showed the possibility
to prepare nanoemulsion using essential oils and
Tween-80 as surfactant with enhanced antimicrobial
activity to prevent food spoilage caused by microor-
ganisms.
Nanoemulsion can be manufactured using two dif-
ferent approaches: high-energy and the low-energy
methods. The high-energy methods apply intense
© 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Nanoemulsion for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables S. M. Kamrul Hasan et al. 5
Droplet
Functional Size
Ingredient Benefits (nm) Applications References
Mandarin Antimicrobial 176–190 Green bean Severino et al.
essential oil (2014)
Trans- Antimicrobial 46.7  1 Fresh-cut Letsididi et al.
cinnamic lettuce (2018)
acid
disruptive forces to break up macroscopic droplets
into small droplets and are able to intermingle immis-
cible liquids using mechanical devices as high-pressure
homogenisers, microfluidisers and sonicators (McCle-
ments, 2011). Alternatively, the low-energy methods
depend on the spontaneous formation of small dro-
plets within mixed oil–water–emulsifier systems when
the solution or environmental conditions are altered.
The low-energy methods include the spontaneous and
phase inversion methods. The phase inversion method
consists of a phase inversion composition if the
nanoemulsion generation is dependent upon the water
or oil phase dilution process, and the phase inversion
temperature if the nanoemulsion generation is depen-
dent upon the changing temperature (Chu et al.,
2007).
After formation, various properties of nanoemulsion
such as droplet size, composition, stability, and mor-
phology are characterised by techniques such as
dynamic light scattering, multiple light scattering,
microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray
diffraction or infrared spectroscopy. For instance, to
measure the droplet size, dynamic light scattering
(DLS) technique using Zetasizer apparatus and multi-
ple light scattering technique using TurbiscanÒ are
commonly used (Salvia-trujillo et al., 2013; Kim et al.,
2014; Salvia-Trujillo et al., 2015a,2015b; Jo et al.,
2014; Oh et al., 2017), whereas the stability of
nanoemulsion is usually determined by zeta potential
technique (Salvia-trujillo et al., 2013; Salvia-Trujillo
et al., 2015a,2015b; Zambrano-Zaragoza et al., 2013).
Microscopy technique including transmission electron
microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) is mostly
used to get the information about microstructure of
nanoemulsion (Zhang & Zhao, 2015; Guerra-Rosas
et al., 2017). Other methods such as differential scan-
 c et al., 2013) and X-ray
ning calorimetry (Dordevi
diffraction (Chen et al., 2016) may be used to detect
the phase transitions and analyse the amount of solid
fat or ice crystals, crystallographic structure, physical
properties and chemical composition of materials.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
6 Nanoemulsion for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables S. M. Kamrul Hasan et al.
Fourier transform infrared-based technique can measure
the number of components in a mixture and determine
the consistency or quality of a sample (Zhang & Zhao,
2015; Chen et al., 2016).
Potential advantages of nanoemulsion-based
edible coatings on fresh-cut fruits
Nanoemulsion as antimicrobial agent
Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are more susceptible to
microbial contamination and proliferation than the
intact fruits and vegetables due to cutting operations.
These products are consumed raw without a lethal
microbiological treatment; thus, severe safety prob-
lems can be encountered. In recent decades, public
health promotion of healthier lifestyles has led to
increased demand for fresh products in many industri-
alised nations. This trend clearly influenced the annual
average amount (by weight) of fresh products con-
sumed per person thus enhancing the risk of infec-
tions caused by microbial contaminations (Berger
et al., 2010). Therefore, seeking for innovative tech-
niques to retard microbial growth and spoilage of
fresh-cut fruits and vegetables is of great interest. Tra-
ditionally, spraying or dipping treatments using solu-
tion of antimicrobial agents are used to prevent
microbial growth and extend the product shelf life.
Food antimicrobials are chemical compounds that
may delay microbial growth or cause microbial death
when they are incorporated into the food matrix
(Davidson et al., 2013). In the last few years, there
has been a considerable interest from the consumers
to eat fresh-cut fruits and vegetables not prepared
with chemically synthesised additives. Therefore, a
complex mixture of nonvolatile and volatile com-
pounds from plants sources as essential oils has been
discovered and studied as a potential alternative to
chemical synthetic food additives (Rojas-Gra€ u et al.,
2009). The inclusion of antimicrobial compounds in
edible coatings is being used for inhibitory effects
against microorganisms (Rojas-Gra€ u et al., 2009).
Many publications reviewed the effectiveness of
antimicrobials in edible-coating systems to preserve
minimally processed fruits and vegetables. However,
the hydrophobicity nature (i.e. solubility, loss of activ-
ity) of antimicrobials makes their use problematic in
food formulations when used at high doses (Sanchez-
Gonz alez et al., 2011). Therefore, entrapping these
compounds using nanotechnology approaches may
overcome these issues and improve their antimicrobial
efficacy. Thus, nanoemulsion could be an innovative
emerging approach to encapsulate, protect and con-
trol the release of antimicrobials (Salvia-Trujillo et al.,
2015a,2015b). Moreover, small droplet size may not
only enhance the transport of active compounds
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
through the biological membrane but also increase the
surface–volume ratio, which may lead to improving
the functionality of coatings. Several researchers stud-
ied the effectiveness of natural antimicrobials encapsu-
lated in nanoemulsion systems such as oregano oil
(Bhargava et al., 2015), plant by-product extracts,
essential oils from lemongrass, clove, tea tree, thyme,
geranium, marjoram, palmarosa, rosewood and mint
(Salvia-Trujillo et al., 2015a,2015b). In these studies,
basil oil, oregano oil, lemongrass, clove, thyme-loaded
nanoemulsion showed bactericidal action against
Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella
typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus. Salvia-Trujillo
et al. (2015a,2015b) studied the effects of nanoemul-
sion-based edible coatings (0.1, 0.5 and 1% (v/v) con-
centrations of lemongrass essential oil) on fresh-cut
Fuji apples and found complete inhibition of the nat-
ural microflora for 2 weeks of shelf life using concen-
trations of 0.5 and 1% of essential oil. Radi et al.
(2018) investigated the effects of microemulsion and
nanoemulsion-based edible coatings containing 0.5
and 1% of orange peel essential oil on the microbial
quality of orange slices and noticed that sample
coated with microemulsion (1% orange peel essential
oil) and nanoemulsion (0.5% orange peel essential oil)
had lower bacterial growth than control. It was con-
cluded that the size of the emulsion droplets and its
concentrations were both effective to decrease micro-
bial growth. Nanoemulsion was formulated with the
incorporation of 0.3, 0.5, 1, 2 or 3 g/100 g of lemon-
grass oil into carnauba wax solution by Kim et al.
(2014) for coating grape berries. The results showed
the reduction of Salmonella typhimurium and Escheri-
chia coli O157: H7 more than 3.2 and 2.6 log CFU/g,
respectively, during a shelf life of 28 days at 4 and
25 °C. The inhibitory effects generally increased as the
concentration of lemongrass oil increased from 0.3 to
3 g/100 g. No inhibition was observed on the product
coated without lemongrass oil nanoemulsion. Jo et al.
(2014) reported that apples coated with nanoemulsion
containing lemongrass oil inhibited the population of
Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Listeria monocytogenes
compared to uncoated apples during 5 months of
storage. In addition, the population of yeast and
mould on the uncoated apples was 2.2 log CFU/g,
whereas yeast and mould were not detected on the
coated apples. Martınez-Hernandez et al. (2017) and
Tasßtan et al. (2017) noticed that carvacrol-loaded
nanoemulsion coatings were very effective in reducing
microbial activity on fresh-cut carrot slices and
cucumber slices than the uncoated control. Such
results were also observed by Bhargava et al. (2015)
when fresh lettuce was coated with 0.1% oregano oil-
based nanoemulsion and by Zambrano-Zaragoza
et al. (2014) for fresh-cut apples coated by nanoemul-
sion incorporating a-tocopherol.
© 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Nanoemulsion for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables S. M. Kamrul Hasan et al.
Nanoemulsion as antioxidants/antibrowning agent
The crucial quality parameters of fresh-cut fruits and
vegetables are colour and appearance. It is evidenced
that the main cause of the undesirable changes of cut
fruit and vegetable surface is the oxidation phe-
nomenon due to polyphenol oxidase enzyme, which, in
presence of oxygen, converts phenolic compounds into
dark colour pigments (Zawistowski et al., 1991). The
common way to control this undesirable colour is the
direct immersion of cut fruits and vegetables in an
aqueous solution of antioxidant/ antibrowning agents.
The most extensively used antioxidant is ascorbic acid
to control the enzymatic browning of cut fruits and
vegetables (McEvily et al., 1992). However, the effec-
tiveness of such surface treatment is not free from
drawbacks. For instance, limitations are caused by the
loss of the functional compounds, limited solubility,
limited adsorption and diffusion into the fruit and veg-
etable surface, their loss due to oxidation reaction with
oxygen of the environment when they are directly
applied on fruit and vegetable surfaces.
Therefore, the design of new systems in order to
reduce their dose to be incorporated in fresh-cut fruits
and vegetables is a current challenge. Based on these
aspects, immobilisation of nanodroplets on the surface
of fresh foods through nanoemulsion could be a
promising approach. Nanoemulsion-based edible coat-
ings is an effective system for encapsulation of natural
antioxidant or antibrowning compounds such as carote-
noids, a-tocopherol in the oil phase (McClements et al.,
2007), which may reduce the browning index of fresh-
cut fruits and vegetables compared to the use of antiox-
idant applied alone (Rojas-Gra€ u et al., 2009). Zam-
brano-Zaragoza et al. (2014) noticed that the particle
size of the emulsion droplets is an important parameter
to have a regular and homogeneous coating. They
observed that when larger particles were used system
aggregation and irregular coatings were obtained. More-
over, they demonstrated that the inclusion of chitosan
and a-tocopherol in nanoemulsion-based edible coatings
was an effective barrier to oxygen to restrict the action
of polyphenol oxidase on apple, reducing the browning
index significantly and preserving the colour during stor-
age compared to the conventional edible coatings. Jo
et al. (2014) reported that carnauba–shellac wax-based
nanoemulsion containing lemongrass oil coatings was
effective to reduce the colour changes of ‘Fuji’ apples
during 5-month storage. Salvia-Trujillo et al.
(2015a,2015b) also noticed a lower browning index on
fresh-cut Fuji apples coated by lemongrass essential oil
nanoemulsion than the uncoated control sample. Several
authors (Martınez-Hern andez et al., 2017; Radi et al.,
2018) also noticed a lower colour changes on carrot
and orange slices during storage when coated by
nanoemulsion thanks to their oxygen barrier properties.
© 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology
7
Nanoemulsion as texture enhancer agent
A decrease in consumer acceptability of fresh-cut fruits is
also related to losses of texture and cell wall integrity during
storage due to the enzymatic degradation (Alandes et al.,
2006). Nanoemulsion-based edible coatings show good
properties as texture enhancers on fresh-cut fruits and veg-
etables. For examples, xanthan gum, a carbohydrate-based
texture enhancer, has been used to formulate nanoemul-
sion. Results showed that the nanoemulsion containing
xanthan gum is effective to retard firmness loss of fresh-cut
apples (Zambrano-Zaragoza et al., 2014). Xanthan gum
and carnauba wax based nanoemulsion were able to pre-
serve the texture of guava up to 30 days at 10 °C and 85%
relative humidity (Zambrano-Zaragoza et al., 2013). The
study of Zambrano-Zaragoza et al. (2014) and Garcıa-
Betanzos et al. (2017) also showed that pectin methylester-
ase and polyphenol oxidase activity decreased in fresh-cut
apples and guava coated with nanoemulsion containing
xanthan gum, a-tocopherol and nopal mucilage extracts.
The activity of the enzyme is related to the softening of
fruits. The higher is the activity, the faster is the softening
of the fruits. The application of nanoemulsion containing
xanthan gum modified the metabolism of cell wall degrada-
tion of apple and guava fruit resulting in a delay of the
enzyme activity and higher firmness retention. Moreover,
the nanosized droplets of nanoemulsion may act at the
molecular level of the cell wall of fresh-cut fruits giving bet-
ter functionality in comparison with conventional coatings
(Zambrano-Zaragoza et al., 2013; Salvia-Trujillo et al.,
2015a,2015b). Similar results were obtained by Salvia-Tru-
jillo et al. (2015a,2015b) and Jo et al. (2014) applying
nanoemulsion enriched with texture enhancers on fresh-cut
apples. The changes in texture of fresh-cut fruits and veg-
etables are also associated with the loss of water, which
decreases the turgidity in the cell. Chitosan-based
nanoemulsion coatings were effective in preventing the
water loss and the reduction of texture loss in green bean
(Severino et al., 2014; Dons
ı et al., 2015), zucchini (Dons
ı
et al., 2014) and strawberry (Eshghi et al., 2013). Neverthe-
less, to modulate nanoemulsion rheological characteristics,
the incorporation of different substances known as stabilis-
ers (xanthan, pectin, carrageenan, alginate, gelatine, whey
protein isolate, esters gum) is needed. These substances also
greatly contribute to the retention of the texture by prevent-
ing water loss and forming a cross-linked network that
increases the mechanical strength of the products.
Organoleptic and toxicity aspect
The fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are usually con-
sumed with coating materials. Therefore, the incorpo-
ration of antimicrobials, antioxidants and texture
enhancers should not affect consumer acceptance. The
incorporation of essential oil as antimicrobial in con-
ventional edible coatings to preserve fresh-cut fruits
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
8 Nanoemulsion for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables S. M. Kamrul Hasan et al.
and vegetables presents serious drawbacks due to their
strong flavour and potential toxicity at high doses
(Sanchez-Gonz alez et al., 2011). Rojas-Gra€ u et al.
(2007) evaluated the sensory quality of fresh-cut apples
coated with edible coatings based on apple puree and
alginate containing lemongrass oil and oregano essen-
tial oil. Sensory analyses indicated that oregano essen-
tial oil led to a decrease in the overall preference of
samples. Residual aromatic herbal taste was detected
after 2 weeks of storage, despite the low concentration
of oregano oil used (0.1% w/w). Raybaudi-Massilia
et al. (2008) mentioned that the incorporation of cin-
namon oil leads to a lower acceptance of fresh-cut
melon in comparison with palmarosa or lemongrass
oil. On the opposite side, Radi et al. (2018) observed
higher scores in the ranking of sensory attributes when
orange slices were coated with nanoemulsion contain-
ing 1% orange peel essential oil compared to the
uncoated sample and the sample coated with
microemulsion containing 0.5% essential oil. Kim
et al. (2014) reported that the concentration of lemon-
grass oil in nanoemulsion did not affect the flavour of
grape berry thanks to the nanotechnological solution
used for the production of nanoemulsion-based coat-
ings where small doses of functional compounds are
required. In a recent study of Robledo et al. (2018),
edible coating with thymol nanoemulsion represented
the best compromise to mask the strong odour, low
water solubility, high volatility and decreasing of the
antimicrobial activity over time of thymol. The flavour
and aroma of the coated strawberries were initially
affected, although his sensory appreciation was
improved from the fifth day of storage and showed
similar scores than the controls, with better aroma
score at day 12 of storage.
Concerning the potential toxicity of food grade
nanoemulsion, at the moment there are no defined
standardised checking protocols. However, factors
such as droplet size, emulsifier, charge and concentra-
tion of bioactive compounds can affect nanoemulsion
toxicity. The few studies published so far revelled that
nanoemulsion made of essential oils at concentrations
compatible with antimicrobial efficacy was biocompati-
ble with four dissimilar human epithelial cells, that is
HEp-2, Caco-2, McCoy and WKD (Bonferoni et al.,
2017), or did not show any toxicity effect on peripheral
blood mononuclear cells (de Godoi et al., 2017). How-
ever, these are just preliminary studies, which cannot
give deep insights on this aspect. Further researches
are needed to get more knowledge about the safety
and toxicity of nanoemulsion.
Conclusion
The development of food grade nanoemulsion able to
encapsulate and improve the functionality of some
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
types of active ingredients is an evident interest for a
new generation of products. Antimicrobials, antioxi-
dants and texture enhancers from natural sources are
the potential alternative of chemical additives, repre-
senting a promising strategy to satisfy the consumer’s
claim. The results of the recent studies so far point out
the potential benefits of using nanoemulsion-based
coatings formulated with natural active compounds
over conventional emulsion-based edible coatings to
improve the quality, safety and shelf life of fresh-cut
fruits and vegetables. Nevertheless, most of the studies
discussed in this review have been performed at a lab-
oratory scale. Therefore, further researches are needed
at a commercial scale in order to provide more realis-
tic information using nanoemulsion-based coatings on
fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. In addition, natural
functional compounds from plant extracts such as
essential oils, organic acids and salts, reducing agent
and others need to be characterised in order to under-
stand their interactions with nanoemulsion composi-
tions and their application on the fruit and vegetable
surface. Moreover, considering the potential toxicity of
nanomaterials, further studies should encompass the
gastrointestinal behaviour of food products treated
with nanoemulsion-based edible coatings. In addition,
a broader research of the effect of these coatings on
the sensorial attributes of the products is required.
Despite these limitations, food industries are looking
for such innovative technology that can be used on a
broad spectrum of foods adding value to their prod-
ucts, while maintaining their quality and extend the
shelf life.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Free University
of Bolzano, Italy, and Hajee Mohammad Danesh
Science and Technology University, Dinajpur-5200,
Bangladesh, for supporting this work.
References
Acevedo-Fani, A., Soliva-Fortuny, R. & Martın-Belloso, O. (2017).
Nanostructured emulsions and nanolaminates for delivery of active
ingredients: Improving food safety and functionality. Trends in
Food Science & Technology, 60, 12–22.
Alandes, L., Hernando, I., Quiles, a., Perez-Munuera, I. & Lluch,
M.A. (2006). Cell wall stability of fresh-cut fuji apples treated with
calcium lactate. Journal of Food Science, 71, S615–S620.
Berger, C.N., Sodha, S.V., Shaw, R.K. et al. (2010). Fresh fruit and
vegetables as vehicles for the transmission of human pathogens.
Environmental Microbiology, 12, 2385–2397.
Bhargava, K., Conti, D.S., da Rocha, S.R.P. & Zhang, Y. (2015).
Application of an oregano oil nanoemulsion to the control of
foodborne bacteria on fresh lettuce. Food Microbiology, 47, 69–73.
Bonferoni, M.C., Sandri, G., Rossi, S. et al. (2017). A novel ionic
amphiphilic chitosan derivative as a stabilizer of nanoemulsions:
Improvement of antimicrobial activity of Cymbopogon citratus
essential oil. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 152, 385–392.
© 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Nanoemulsion for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables S. M. Kamrul Hasan et al.
Chen, H., Hu, X., Chen, E. et al. (2016). Preparation, characteriza-
tion, and properties of chitosan films with cinnamaldehyde
nanoemulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 61, 662–671.
Chu, B.-S., Ichikawa, S., Kanafusa, S. & Nakajima, M. (2007).
Preparation and characterization of b-carotene nanodispersions
prepared by solvent displacement technique. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, 55, 6754–6760.
Davidson, P.M., Critzer, F.J. & Taylor, T.M. (2013). Naturally
occurring antimicrobials for minimally processed foods. Annual
Review of Food Science and Technology, 4, 163–190.
Dons
ı, F., Cuomo, A., Marchese, E. & Ferrari, G. (2014). Infusion
of essential oils for food stabilization: Unraveling the role of
nanoemulsion-based delivery systems on mass transfer and antimi-
crobial activity. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies,
22, 212–220.
Dons
ı, F., Marchese, E., Maresca, P. et al. (2015). Green beans
preservation by combination of a modified chitosan based-coating
containing nanoemulsion of mandarin essential oil with high pres-
sure or pulsed light processing. Postharvest Biology and Technol-
ogy, 106, 21–32.
 c, S.M., Radulovic, T.S., Cekic, N.D. et al. (2013). Experi-
Dordevi
mental design in formulation of diazepam nanoemulsions: physico-
chemical and pharmacokinetic performances. Journal of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, 102, 4159–4172.
Eshghi, S., Hashemi, M., Mohammadi, A., Badie, F., Mohammad
hosseini, Z. & Ahmadi, K. (2013). Effect of nano-emulsion coating
containing chitosan on storability and qualitative characteristics of
strawberries after picking, nsft.ir. Iranian Journal of Nutrition
Sciences & Food Technology, 8, 9–19.
Galus, S. & Kadzi nska, J. (2015). Food applications of emulsion-
based edible films and coatings. Trends in Food Science & Technol-
ogy, 45, 273–283.
Garcıa-Betanzos, C.I., Hernandez-Sanchez, H., Bernal-Couoh, T.F.,
Quintanar-Guerrero, D. & de la Luz Zambrano-Zaragoza, M.
(2017). Physicochemical, total phenols and pectin methylesterase
changes on quality maintenance on guava fruit (Psidium guajava
L.) coated with candeuba wax solid lipid nanoparticles-xanthan
gum. Food Research International, 101, 218–227.
de Godoi, S.N., Quatrin, P.M., Sagrillo, M.R. et al. (2017). Evalu-
ation of stability and in vitro security of nanoemulsions contain-
ing Eucalyptus globulus oil. BioMed Research International, 2017,
10.
Guerra-Rosas, M.I., Morales-Castro, J., Cubero-Marquez, M.A.,
Salvia-Trujillo, L. & Martın-Belloso, O. (2017). Antimicrobial
activity of nanoemulsions containing essential oils and high meth-
oxyl pectin during long-term storage. Food Control, 77, 131–138.
Hasan, S.M.K. & Nicolai, B. (2014). Quality of pears with perme-
ability of Bio-FreshTM edible coatings. African Journal of Food
Science, 8, 410–418.
Jo, W.-S., Song, H.-Y., Song, N.-B., Lee, J.-H., Min, S.C. & Song,
K.B. (2014). Quality and microbial safety of “Fuji” apples coated
with carnauba-shellac wax containing lemongrass oil. LWT - Food
Science and Technology, 55, 490–497.
Kader, A.A. (2002). Quality parameters of fresh-cut fruit and veg-
etable products. In: Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables (Pp. 20–29).
CRC Press.
Kim, I.H., Lee, H., Kim, J.E., Song, K.B., Lee, Y.S., Chung, D.S. &
Min, S.C. (2013). Plum coatings of lemongrass oil-incorporating
carnauba wax-based nanoemulsion. Journal of food science, 78(10),
E1551–E1559.
Kim, I.-H., Oh, Y.A., Lee, H., Song, K.Bin. & Min, S.C. (2014).
Grape berry coatings of lemongrass oil-incorporating nanoemul-
sion. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 58, 1–10.
Letsididi, K.S., Lou, Z., Letsididi, R., Mohammed, K. & Maguy, B.L.
(2018). Antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects of trans-cinnamic acid
nanoemulsion and its potential application on lettuce. LWT, 94, 25–32.
Liang, R., Xu, S., Shoemaker, C.F., Li, Y., Zhong, F. & Huang, Q.
(2012). Physical and antimicrobial properties of peppermint oil
© 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology
9
nanoemulsions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60,
7548–7555.
Martınez-Hernandez, G.B., Amodio, M.L. & Colelli, G. (2017). Car-
vacrol-loaded chitosan nanoparticles maintain quality of fresh-cut
carrots. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 41, 56–
63.
McClements, D.J. (2011). Edible nanoemulsions: fabrication, proper-
ties, and functional performance. Soft Matter, 7, 2297–2316.
McClements, D.J., Decker, E.A. & Weiss, J. (2007). Emulsion-based
delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive components. Journal of
Food Science, 72, R109–R124.
McEvily, A.J., Iyengar, R. & Otwell, W.S. (1992). Inhibition of enzy-
matic browning in foods and beverages. Critical Reviews in Food
Science & Nutrition, 32, 253–273.
Oh, Y.A., Oh, Y.J., Song, A.Y., Won, J.S., Song, K.Bin. & Min,
S.C. (2017). Comparison of effectiveness of edible coatings using
emulsions containing lemongrass oil of different size droplets on
grape berry safety and preservation. LWT-Food Science and Tech-
nology, 75, 742–750.
de Oliveira, T.L.C., Ramos, A.L.S., Ramos, E.M., Piccoli, R.H. &
Cristianini, M. (2015). Natural antimicrobials as additional hurdles
to preservation of foods by high pressure processing. Trends in
Food Science & Technology, 45, 60–85.
Oms-Oliu, G., Rojas-Gra€ u, M.A., Gonzalez, L.A. et al. (2010).
Recent approaches using chemical treatments to preserve quality of
fresh-cut fruit: A review. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 57,
139–148.
 Vargas, M., Atares, L. & Chiralt, A. (2014). Physical,
Perdones, A.,
antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of chitosan–cinnamon
leaf oil films as affected by oleic acid. Food Hydrocolloids, 36, 256–
264.
Radi, M., Akhavan-Darabi, S., Akhavan, H. & Amiri, S. (2018).
The use of orange peel essential oil microemulsion and nanoemul-
sion in pectin-based coating to extend the shelf life of fresh-cut
orange. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 42, e13441.
Raybaudi-Massilia, R.M., Mosqueda-Melgar, J. & Martın-Belloso,
O. (2008). Edible alginate-based coating as carrier of antimicrobials
to improve shelf-life and safety of fresh-cut melon. International
Journal of Food Microbiology, 121, 313–327.
Robledo, N., L opez, L., Bunger, A., Tapia, C. & Abugoch, L.
(2018). Effects of antimicrobial edible coating of thymol nanoemul-
sion/quinoa protein/chitosan on the safety, sensorial properties,
and quality of refrigerated strawberries (Fragaria9 ananassa)
under commercial storage environment. Food and Bioprocess Tech-
nology, 11, 1566–1574.
Rojas-Gra€ u, M.A., Raybaudi-Massilia, R.M., Soliva-Fortuny, R.C.,
Avena-Bustillos, R.J., McHugh, T.H. & Martın-Belloso, O. (2007).
Apple puree-alginate edible coating as carrier of antimicrobial
agents to prolong shelf-life of fresh-cut apples. Postharvest Biology
and Technology, 45, 254–264.
Rojas-Gra€ u, M.A., Soliva-Fortuny, R. & Martın-Belloso, O. (2009).
Edible coatings to incorporate active ingredients to fresh-cut fruits:
a review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 20, 438–447.
Salvia-trujillo, L., Rojas-gra€
u, M.A., Soliva-fortuny, R. & Martın-
belloso, O. (2013). Food Hydrocolloids Effect of processing
parameters on physicochemical characteristics of microfluidized
lemongrass essential oil-alginate nanoemulsions. Food Hydrocol-
loids, 30, 401–407.
Salvia-Trujillo, L., Rojas-Gra€ u, A., Soliva-Fortuny, R. & Martın-
Belloso, O. (2015a). Physicochemical characterization and
antimicrobial activity of food-grade emulsions and nanoemulsions
incorporating essential oils. Food Hydrocolloids, 43, 547–556.
Salvia-Trujillo, L., Rojas-Gra€u, M.A., Soliva-Fortuny, R. & Martın-
Belloso, O. (2015b). Use of antimicrobial nanoemulsions as edible
coatings: Impact on safety and quality attributes of fresh-cut Fuji
apples. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 105, 8–16.
Salvia-Trujillo, L., Soliva-Fortuny, R., Rojas-Gra€ u, M.A., McCle-
ments, D.J. & Martın-Belloso, O. (2017). Edible nanoemulsions as
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
10 Nanoemulsion for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables S. M. Kamrul Hasan et al.
carriers of active ingredients: A review. Annual Review of Food
Science and Technology, 8, 439–466.
S
anchez-Gonz alez, L., Vargas, M., Gonzalez-Martınez, C., Chiralt,
A. & Ch afer, M. (2011). Use of essential oils in bioactive edible
coatings: a review. Food Engineering Reviews, 3, 1–16.
Severino, R., Vu, K.D., Dons
ı, F., Salmieri, S., Ferrari, G. &
Lacroix, M. (2014). Antibacterial and physical effects of modified
chitosan based-coating containing nanoemulsion of mandarin
essential oil and three non-thermal treatments against Listeria inno-
cua in green beans. International Journal of Food Microbiology,
191, 82–88.
Sow, L.C., Tirtawinata, F., Yang, H., Shao, Q. & Wang, S. (2017).
Carvacrol nanoemulsion combined with acid electrolysed water to
inactivate bacteria, yeast in vitro and native microflora on shred-
ded cabbages. Food Control, 76, 88–95.
Sugumar, S., Singh, S., Mukherjee, A. & Chandrasekaran, N.
(2016). Nanoemulsion of orange oil with non ionic surfactant pro-
duced emulsion using ultrasonication technique: evaluating against
food spoilage yeast. Applied Nanoscience, 6, 113–120.
€ Pataro, G., Dons
ı, F., Ferrari, G. & Baysal, T. (2017).
Tasßtan, O.,
Decontamination of fresh-cut cucumber slices by a combination of
a modified chitosan coating containing carvacrol nanoemulsions
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
and pulsed light. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 260,
75–80.
Vasco, C., Ruales, J. & Kamal-Eldin, A. (2008). Total phenolic com-
pounds and antioxidant capacities of major fruits from Ecuador.
Food Chemistry, 111, 816–823.
Zambrano-Zaragoza, M.L., Mercado-Silva, E., Ramirez-Zamorano,
P., Cornejo-Villegas, M.A., Gutierrez-Cortez, E. & Quintanar-
Guerrero, D. (2013). Use of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) in edi-
ble coatings to increase guava (Psidium guajava L.) shelf-life. Food
Research International, 51, 946–953.
Zambrano-Zaragoza, M.L., Mercado-Silva, E., Del Real, L.A.,
Gutierrez-Cortez, E., Cornejo-Villegas, M.A. & Quintanar-Guer-
rero, D. (2014). The effect of nano-coatings with a-tocopherol and
xanthan gum on shelf-life and browning index of fresh-cut “Red
Delicious” apples. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technolo-
gies, 22, 188–196.
Zawistowski, J., Biliaderis, C.G. & Eskin, N.A.M. (1991). ‘Polyphe-
nol oxidase’, Oxidative enzymes in foods. Pp. 217–273 London:
Elsevier.
Zhang, H. & Zhao, Y. (2015). Preparation, characterization and
evaluation of tea polyphenol–Zn complex loaded b-chitosan
nanoparticles. Food Hydrocolloids, 48, 260–273.
© 2019 Institute of Food Science and Technology