Environmental Pollution 283 (2021) 117071

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Pollution
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envpol

Advanced biomaterials for sustainable applications in the food

industry: Updates and challenges*
Reshmy R a, 1, Eapen Philip a, 1, Aravind Madhavan b, 1, Raveendran Sindhu c,
Arivalagan Pugazhendhi d, Parameswaran Binod c, Ranjna Sirohi e,
Mukesh Kumar Awasthi f, Ayon Tarafdar g, Ashok Pandey h, i, *
a
Post Graduate and Research Department of Chemistry, Bishop Moore College, Mavelikara, 690 110, Kerala, India
b
Rajiv Gandhi Center for Biotechnology, Jagathy, Thiruvananthapuram, 695 014, Kerala, India
c
Microbial Processes and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Trivandrum, 695 019, Kerala, India
d
Innovative Green Product Synthesis and Renewable Environment Development Research Group, Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang
University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
e
Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, 136713, 11, Republic of Korea
f
College of Natural Resources and Environment, North West A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712 100, China
g
Division of Livestock Production and Management, ICAR e Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243 122, Uttar Pradesh, India
h
Centre for Innovation and Translational Research, CSIR- Indian Institute for Toxicology Research, Lucknow, 226 001, India
i
Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, Lucknow, 226 029, Uttar Pradesh, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Maintaining the safety and quality of food are major concerns while developing biomaterial based food
Received 19 February 2021 packaging. It offers a longer shelf-life as well as protection and quality control to the food based on
Received in revised form international standards. Nano-biotechnology contributes to a far extent to make advanced packaging by
12 March 2021
developing multifunctional biomaterials for potential applications providing smarter materials to con-
Accepted 31 March 2021
Available online 5 April 2021
sumers. Applications of nano-biocomposites may thus help to deliver enhanced barrier, mechanical
strength, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties to novel food packaging materials. Starch derived
bioplastics, polylactic acid and polyhydroxybutyrate are examples of active bioplastics currently in the
Keywords:
Biomaterials
food packaging sector. This review discusses the various types of biomaterials that could be used to
Food industry improve future smarter food packaging, as well as biomaterials’ potential applications as food stabilizers,
Packaging pathogen control agents, sensors, and edible packaging materials. The regulatory concerns related to the
Polysaccharides use of biomaterials in food packaging and commercially available biomaterials in different fields are also
Proteins discussed. Development of novel biomaterials for different food packaging applications can therefore
guarantee active food packaging in future.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction food chain, including raw materials/sourcing of ingredients, food

Health and nutrition remain the primary factors for the food
industry. Significant progresses have been made in the agri-food
industry to solve the real food crisis that occurring in many parts
of the world and advanced innovations are at the heart of the entire
*
This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Jo €rg Rinklebe.
* Corresponding author. Centre for Innovation and Translational Research, CSIR-
Indian Institute for Toxicology Research, Lucknow, 226 001, India.
E-mail addresses: ashok.pandey1@iitr.res.in, ashokpandey1956@gmail.com
(A. Pandey).
1
These authors contributed equally.
processing, improving production quality assurance and packaging.
Food safety remains an important concern, as the food industry is
constantly challenged to prevent the spread of microbial contam-
inants in the food chain and to reduce the financial losses incurred
by microbial becoming spoiled (Fortunati et al., 2016; Gonzalez-
Fernandez et al., 2010). It is well known among agricultural activ-
ities that improper and unsafe use of pesticides has raised chemical
residues that are harmful to both human and environment. Plant
diseases are caused by a variety of bacteria, fungi, and viruses and
they are responsible for the destruction of agricultural crops, with
annual control costs of about $100 million. Therefore, there is
growing concern about reducing non-target organism and human

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117071
0269-7491/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. R, E. Philip, A. Madhavan et al. Environmental Pollution 283 (2021) 117071

activity impacts on the ecosystem by developing novel plant-

derived products to ensure the safety of the environment
(Fortunati et al., 2018).
The implementation of novel biomaterials through the de-
velopments in reproductive science and technology can aid in the
conversion of food and agriculture waste into biofuels and other
valuable products through enzyme assisted biorefinery processing.
Nano-level processing; product design; methodology optimization
and ensuring food safety are foremost areas in the food industry
that are likely to be drastically improved by nano-biotechnology
(Ross et al., 2004). New materials with unique nano-scale fea- Fig. 1. Specific characteristics of different types of biomaterials used in food industry.
tures or the ability to detect pathogens and pollutants, may be a
step forward in the agricultural and food industries in the fore-
moisture/gas barrier, solubility in water or lipid, pH dependency,
seeable future (Shrivastava and Dash, 2009). Over the past few
physicochemical characteristics and non-toxicity. These character-
years, the interplay between biomaterials and renewable technol-
istics are dependent on the type of biomaterials, its derivatization
ogies has created a window of opportunity for the creation of novel
and processing technologies. During biocomposite formation,
emerging effective management. Much attention has recently been
different plasticizers, property enhancers, texture agents and cross
given to their renewable resource development, motivated by the
linking agents are added to improve the properties for specific
need to find significantly more viable alternatives to conventional
applications (Table 1). The bio-derived product development
materials. The essential need for renewable production of energy
mainly involved cohesion between the polymeric materials and
depends on the development of green technology and, significantly,
adhesion between the polymer and the substrates. The extent of
on biocompatible materials with properties comparable to those of
cohesion/adhesion influences the product qualities such as resis-
existing materials, as they are the path to a better future (Gupta
tance, permeability, porosity and flexibility. Strong cohesion de-
et al., 2016). The article provides a detailed review of the various
creases flexibility, improves porosity, and reduces gas and solute
types of biomaterials, their characteristics and applications in food
barrier properties. Excessive solvent evaporation, cooling or other
sector. The latest advancements and developments, commercially
pretreatments are usually needed during industrial scale prepara-
available biomaterials in food sector and the safety concerns are
tions to improve product quality, which can lead to premature
also discussed which may have a major impact on future foods.
immobilization of biocomposites. Polysaccharides and poly-
peptides are receiving significant attention because of their
2. Characteristics of biomaterials for food industry exceptional physicochemical and biological characteristics. The
applications specific characteristics of the two types of biomaterials used in food
industry are depicted in Fig. 1.
Biomaterials with novel functionalities are attaining immense
interest compared to conventional plastic and paper carry bags, 3. Major biomaterials in food industry
films and composites (Liu et al., 2012). Nowadays, consumers are
only demanding smart active bio-derived materials for ensuring Biomaterials can broadly be categorized as polysaccharides and
their food quality. A number of properties of biomaterials such as polypeptides. Polysaccharides can be specifically present in certain
mechanical strength, barrier to O2, CO2 and UV, temperature and plants or algae, such as alginate, cellulose, starch or in animals, such
moisture resistance, biodegradability, recyclability and shelf-life as glycogen and chitin. Bacteria and fungi are also sources of various
are making it suitable for developing different high-end products other kinds of biopolymers. Some polysaccharides, e.g., alginates,
in food sector (Tomasevic et al., 2017). Biodegradable or edible cellulose and other exo-polysaccharides, can also be generated by
products should possess several specific characteristics namely microorganisms, possibly used in the formulations of bio-

Table 1
Spectrum of biomaterials for different applications in food industry.

Source Extract Composites Properties Application Reference

Tomato Lycopene Whey protein-Sodium algenate- Lycopene Improved bioaccessibility Stabilizer Liang et al. (2020)
Sugarcane Nanocellulose Nanocellulose- Triethyl citrate- Antibacterial antioxidant Pathogen control Reshmy et al. (2021a)
bagasse Frankincense
Turmeric Curcumin PLA- Curcumin Antibacterial antioxidant Pathogen control Roy and Rhim (2020)
Jackfruit Starch Starch-PVA-ZnO pH sensing Packaging Jayakumar et al. (2019)
Citrus Pectin Pectin- marjoram oil Antimicrobial Active food Almasi et al. (2020)
packaging
Citrus Pectin Pectin- Clove oil Shelf life antibacterial Edible coating Kumar et al. (2020)
Red seaweed Carrageen Alginate-Carrageen Flavors antimicrobials antioxidants Edible film coating Tavassoli-kafrani et al.
colours (2015)
Sugarcane Nanocellulose Nanocellulose-Glycerol Biodegradable Packaging Reshmy et al. (2020)
bagasse
Potato Cellulose Cellulose- Sodium alginate- CuO Antimicrobial antioxidant Active packaging Saravanakumar et al. (2020)
Corn Starch Starch- PVA- Citric acid Antibacterial Active packaging Wu et al. (2017)
Grape fruit seed TPS PE-PLA-TPS Antibacterial Packaging Wang and Rhim (2016)
Crab shell Chitin Chitin-PVA Excellent Barrier Packaging Peng and Chen (2018)
Crab shell Chitin Chitin eCNF Biodegradable biocompatibility Packaging Hai et al. (2019)
Citrus peel Pectin Pectin e Alginate Antibacterial Packaging Makaremi et al. (2019)
Citrus Pectin Pectin e Glycerol-CMC Thermal stability Packaging Seslija et al. (2018)

2
R. R, E. Philip, A. Madhavan et al. Environmental Pollution 283 (2021) 117071

packaging due to their gel-forming ability. Some of these poly- create gels depending on pH, charge density and counter ion.
saccharides with thin film-forming properties are described here. Alginic acid is an anionic polysaccharide which is found in a
In general, it is well reported that polysaccharide-based films particular class of brown algae. Alginate is a binary linear copol-
exhibit strong gas permeability and low moisture barrier properties ymer of a-guluronic acid and b-mannuronic acid that are (1 / 4)
due to their hydrophilic characteristics and also because of the glycosidically connected. Extensive studies of this polysaccharide
structure of the polymer chains that play a key role in food pres- have been carried out, with particular focus on its biodegradability
ervation (Coma, 2013). It is suitable for producing biodegradable (Bouhadir et al., 2001; Tomasevic et al., 2017).
materials from natural polymers. The major polypeptides used in
the food industry are soy protein, corn protein, gluten, casein,
3.2. Polypeptides (proteins)
collagen and gelatine (Liu et al., 2012). The main factors affecting
the degradation of these types of biomaterials are physiochemical
Proteins are polymeric materials with the potential to develop
and biological properties.
stable 3D structures through non-covalent interactions. The func-
tional properties are mainly dependent on temperature, hydro-
3.1. Polysaccharides (plants)
philicity and structural heterogeneity (Duro-castano et al., 2014).
Numerous animal and vegetable proteins are commonly utilized as
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) is a type of polysaccharide that can
biopolymers. The water soluble albumin and salt soluble globulin
be moulded to different kinds of products (Huang et al., 2014).
present in wheat proteins can be separated during the processing of
Starch in the form of gelatin describes the fragmentation of starch
gluten. Gliadin is essential for wheat flour dough extensibility
granules within the molecular arrangements through the in-
serving as filler that dilutes glutenin interactions (Eatemadi et al.,
teractions between starch and water (Almasi et al., 2010). These
2014; El-wakil et al., 2015). Soybeans possess a major role in the
starch films could be used in the manufacturing of packaging,
production of edible oils and other edible products (Liu et al., 2012).
compostable bags, carry bags and other moulded products in food
Soy protein contributes to improve certain physiological properties
industry (Xiong et al., 2008).
such as emulsification, foaming, adhesiveness, solubility, cohe-
Naturally occurring lignocellulosic fibres consists of lignin,
siveness, shippability and dough formation. These films show an
pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose and waxy materials (Kabir et al.,
excellent elasticity, transparency and homogeneity on comparing
2012; Reshmy et al., 2021b). Cellulose is made up of polymer
to other protein based films (Swain et al., 2004). Collagen, a protein
chains that are composed of unbranched D-glucopyranosyl units
present in animal and human systems, is similar to cellulose in
connected by b-(1 / 4) linkages (Deepa et al., 2015). Cellulose
plants can also be utilized as a source for bioplastics (Zhang et al.,
bundles can be defibrillated to microfibrils and further to cellulose
2014). It is an almost 300 nm long rod-shaped polymer (Hu et al.,
nanofibers (CNF) (Deepa et al., 2011; Hamad, 2006; Mathew et al.,
2014). The enzymatic degradability of collagens make it suitable
2010). The unique functional properties associated with the
for developing edible bioplastics with distinct chemical, mechani-
chemical structure of cellulose provide many special features dur-
cal and biological properties (Hanani et al., 2014).
ing derivatization (Tomasevic et al., 2017). Since cellulose occurs
Casein is a stable protein present in milk that is also commonly
along with hemicellulose and lignin, the biodegradation of cellu-
used in food industry. Whey proteins are another protein present in
lose is difficult; but pure cellulose easily decomposes (Reshmy et al.,
the milk serum extracted by adjusting the pH during the processing
2020). Research shows that cellulose fermentation is a possible
of casein (Sarode et al., 2016). Whey proteins can be used in the
route for the production of many valuable chemicals namely bio-
development of edible film packaging have many environmental
ethanol, acetic acid, furfural, cellulase, etc but this has not reached
benefits because of their ability to regulate oxygen, moisture, lipid,
into commercially feasible large-scale production (Ahmad et al.,
carbon dioxide, taste, aroma transfer and biodegradability (Gounga
2018; Schutyser et al., 2018). By enzymatic action, lignocellulose
et al., 2007; Ozdemir and Floros, 2008). There are several other
can be separated into lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose (Charreau
proteins elastin and keratin have also been used as biopolymeric
et al., 2020; Kargarzadeh et al., 2017; Lu et al., 2016; Phanthong
products in different applications (Ferraro et al., 2016). Elastin is a
et al., 2018). In food industry, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) has
smart biomaterial undergoes a folding phase when the tempera-
several applications to act as a barrier against various contaminants
ture reaches 25  C (Mithieux et al., 2004). Numerous plant derived
(Ghanbarzadeh et al., 2010).
proteins have also been used in food industry including pistachio,
Chitin is another polysaccharide found in various crustaceans
rye, sunflower, barley, pea, corn, sorghum and peanut proteins. The
and also produced through fermentation in fungi. Chitosan is a
use of these biomaterials in edible food packaging has some
partially deacetylated derivative of chitin consists of D-glucos-
drawbacks, such as mild allergic reactions that can cause health
amine and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine randomly linked to b-(1 / 4)
problems. A combination of physical and thermal pretreatments
(Barikani and Oliaei, 2014). The native form chitin exhibits insolu-
can be utilized to suppress this allergenicity (Tomasevic et al.,
bility, but chitosan is water soluble. Chitosan is a FDA-approved safe
2017).
food additive for human oral intake. Crystalline structure and the
degree of acetylation are the major factors deciding the rate of
chitosan degradation. It can be chemically processed to form a wide 4. Application of biomaterials in food industry
range of biomaterials with excellent physiochemical properties.
Applications of chitosan in different forms such as fibres, films, 4.1. Packaging application
powder and gels have been evaluated for scaffolds, encapsulation,
membrane barriers, food packaging materials, etc. (Lopez et al., The advances in biomaterials allow the identification of patho-
2014). gens easier and faster and provide excellent barrier while food
Pectin is a complex anionic polysaccharide which finds diverse packaging are being designed. Biomaterials would be utilized to
applications in the food industry, including gels, thickeners, boost physiochemical characteristics and barrier stability, and
emulsifiers, and stabilizers. It aids in the management of blood probably to improve the biodegradable nature of common pack-
pressure, diabetes, constipation, and skin care (Seslija et al., 2018; aging. The general characteristics of biomaterials for food pack-
Tharanathan, 2003; Xiao and Anderson, 2013). Gums are another aging applications are shown in Fig. 2. In the future, the usage of
class of polysaccharides that in solutions have the potential to nano-biocomposites would have a huge impact on food packaging
3
R. R, E. Philip, A. Madhavan et al.
Fig. 2. Characteristics of biomaterials for food packaging.
(Choudhury et al., 2020; Die guez et al., 2014; Fabra et al., 2013;
Gonzalez and Igarzabal, 2015; Liu et al., 2014; Vilarinho et al., 2017).
Biomaterials must, in particular, perform an important task in order
to avoid a gradual degradation in quality that ensures shelf life of
food products and eventually avoids huge losses of useful food
stuffs (Babu et al., 2013). There are now a number of bioplastic
materials available with characteristics close to those of fuel-based
polymers. Many of these types of products are generally accessible
on the market, such as bio-derived starch, pectin, cellulose, gelatin,
chitosan, zein, collagen, casein, TPS, polyethylene (PE), poly-
trimethylene terephthalate (PTT), polyp-phenylene (PPP), poly-
lactic acid (PLA) and polybutylene succinate (PBS) (Selvaraj et al.,
2020; Steinbuchel, 2010; Tomasevic et al., 2017). Biopolymers
such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and natural waxes finds
numerous applications in packaging industry due to their diverse
structural variations (Bari et al., 2019; Dietrich et al., 2016; Fabra
et al., 2013; Gumel and Annuar, 2015; Sindhu et al., 2016).
Starch polymers are highly moisture sensitive, with high
permeability to water vapour and low mechanical properties that
restrict their use in packaging (Bersaneti et al., 2016; Jayakumar
et al., 2019; Pilla, 2011; Shirai et al., 2013). To overcome these
limitations normally starch are plasticized with suitable plasticizers
to produce TPS (Machado et al., 2015; Mendes et al., 2016; Shirai
et al., 2013). Thermal, physical and chemical properties of the end
products are strongly determined by the form and quantity of
plasticizer used during TPS processing and used in flexible and
durable packaging production market (Byun and Kim, 2014a,
2014b; Mendes et al., 2016). In several instances, other ingredients
or various structural enhancers, such as fibres, CMC, microcrystal-
line cellulose (MCC), nano-clays, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), have
been applied to the polymer-starch matrix to alter the properties of
TPS (Girone s et al., 2012; Ma et al., 2008; Müller et al., 2011).
Different forms of this reinforced starch have already been applied
in the packaging of fruits, vegetables, bread and meat products
processed under normal conditions (Chauvet et al., 2017).
A variety of cellulose derivatives are nowadays available in the
market namely CMC, cellulose acetate (CA), ethyl cellulose (EC),
hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), methylcellulose (MC) and hydroxyl
propyl cellulose (HPC) (Pastor et al., 2011). Even CA is commonly
used in food packaging with regard to the derivatives reported
(Malmiri et al., 2011). While developing emulsified biofilm from
corn starch, MC and soybean oil that increased the shelf-life of
packaging stored at various physical parameters compared to
conventionally packed ones. A number of cellulose derivatives
exhibit great film-forming capabilities, but they are just too costly
for wide commercial application. In order to overcome this limi-
tation, successful manufacturing technologies for low-cost pro-
duction of food packaging materials developed in laboratory scale

should be brought to industrial scale (Bravin et al., 2006; Sauperl
4
Environmental Pollution 283 (2021) 117071
et al., 2009).
Chitosan based biofilms are also reported to be a powerful
packaging materials with wide range of mechanical properties are
identical to fuel-derived polymers. To decrease the water vapour
permeability of the chitosan coatings and films, numerous other
biopolymers can be incorporated into chitosan to produce stable
and mechanically feasible films such as proteins and other poly-
saccharides (Bonilla et al., 2012; Kabir et al., 2018; Lizardi-Mendoza
et al., 2016). Caseinate-based or chitosan-based emulsion films
have been effectively implemented to dried fruit items and to
various cereal products (Talens et al., 2012). Baran and Mentes re-
ported a surface modified chitosan biopolymers using pincer type
PdII catalyst to enhance shelf life and properties (Baran and Menteş,
2017). This novel material, like traditional plastics, can be easily
moulded into various forms, but without any natural hazards.
Chitosan biopolymers could be used as low cost and ecofriendly
alternative to conventional plastics. They could also be used for the
development of various types of diapers, bags and food packaging
in various shapes that will biodegrade within weeks and release
rich nutrients essential for agriculture.
PLA is a reusable biopolymer, thermoplastic, biodegradable
obtained from the lactic acid (LA) monomer polymerization pro-
cess. In food industry, PLAs are proved to be highly suitable for use
as a biopolymer for developing active and hygiene food packaging
(Jonoobi et al., 2010; Simangunsong et al., 2018). It is stated that this
material is readily polymerized, easily processed and highly flexible
(Avinc and Khoddami, 2009; Shirai et al., 2013; Wang and Rhim,
2016; Wang et al., 2005). The PLA composite produced with 2-
methacryloyloxyethyl isocyanate (MOI) polymer modification
greatly enhanced the mechanical and thermal characteristics of the
finished biocomposites (Chen et al., 2012). The composite of the
MOI-PLA showed 20 times improved stretching strength compared
to pure PLA. The physical properties of PLA increased significantly
when copolymerized with certain other bio-polyesters (Koh et al.,
2018; Laadila et al., 2017; Sodergard and Stolt, 2002; Wang et al.,
2005). Frick et al. reported the synthesis of thermoplastic poly-
isoprene/polylactide elastomers with different compositions and
found great elastomeric and stretching properties due to the co-
polymers (Frick et al., 2003). The use of PLA polymers as food
contact materials in the fatty, aqueous and acidic foods up to 60  C
and for beverages up to 90  C are widely accepted as healthy
(Yokesahachart and Yoksan, 2011). It is a versatile polymer that is
rigid, flexible and foaming packaging suitable for a broad spectrum
of applications (Koh et al., 2018; Shirai et al., 2013; Tsuji, 2013). PLAs
are currently using as packaging for organic salads, lettuce, yogurt
cup, fresh fruits and vegetables. Also, by implementing PLA pack-
aging, a European company Nature works Ingeo developed a 25%
reduced carbon footprint packaging and that resulted in 40%
reduction in the consumption of fossil raw materials (Tomasevic
et al., 2017).
PHAs are other biopolymers that are very suitable for food
packaging applications due to their high moisture barrier compared
to traditional packaging (Dietrich et al., 2016; Dutt and Ajay, 2012;
Okolie et al., 2020; Sivagurunathan et al., 2018). Polymers of PHAs
can vary in their characteristics depending on different functional
groups attached to carbonyl linkage (Lee, 1996). They are insoluble
in water and large surface energy is depended on the type of
thermoplastic biopolymer. PHAs based packaging is easily dye
printable and have high oxygen and UV barrier so it is more
acceptable for commercial purposes. Poly (3-hydroxybutyrateco-3-
hydroxyvalerate) is ideal for heat-shaping and for manufacturing
flexible bioplastics. Currently, a number of PHAs are utilized as
packaging for high-oil foods, frozen foods and organic foods
(Innocentini-Mei et al., 2003; Shen et al., 2009). PHA products were
first introduced commercially by molding using extrusion coating
R. R, E. Philip, A. Madhavan et al.
and cast films technologies. Other existing potential applications
include stretch films, mulch films, various bag forms, and soluble
packaging of surfactants. Several massive global PHA-based com-
modity manufacturers with primary world market shares are the
Tianan Biologic Material Co. (China), Kaneka Corporation (Japan),
Meridian are (Bainbridge, GA) and GreenBio (China) (Modi et al.,
2011). While using PHAs for food packaging, the basic condition
imposed should be avoiding direct food contact. PHAs are natural
materials with a fully renewable life cycle and completely degraded
by microorganisms (Sindhu et al., 2016, 2019).
Other biomaterials, such as PTT, are a form of bio polyester that
has outstanding physicochemical properties, processability and
thermal stability. Around 70% terephthalic acid (TPA) and 30%
ethylene glycol (EG) form the main chemical composition of yet
another polymer, namely polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (Shen
et al., 2009). A recyclability performance that is as complete as a
traditional one is one of the most significant benefits of “Plant-
Bottle” introduced by Coca-Cola in 2009. Coca-Cola also developed
completely bio-based terephthalic acid (TPA) from natural mate-
rials such as stem, peel and bark of trees (Chen, 2014). Changes in
retail trends such as longer delivery and significant changes in re-
quirements of customers led to eventually create new and
enhanced packaging concepts with improved shelf-life during
preserving the protection and established feature of packaged
goods.
4.2. Biomaterials as food stabilizers
Polymers used in industrial practice include additive packages
that are practically often customized to the application, and stabi-
lizers are typically one of the most significant components of such
packages (Burgos-díaz et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2015). The key factors
influencing degradation during processing are shear forces,
elevated temperature and the amount of oxygen present (Gol and
Zaikov, 1987). Depending on availability of oxygen, exposure to
these factors initiates thermo-mechanical or thermo-oxidative
degradation. Stabilizer packages shielding polyolefin primarily
contain an impaired main phenolic antioxidant and a hydroper-
oxide decomposer of the phosphorous or sulphuric form, which
greatly enhance the thermo-oxidative efficiency of the polymer
melt (Klemchuk and Horng, 1984). Conventional phenolic antioxi-
dants are also used as natural antioxidants for stabilizing the food
quality are being reported (Brocca et al., 2002; Reshmy et al.,
2021a). The idea of using natural antioxidants instead of syn-
thetic compounds as stabilizers initially appeared in the food in-
dustry to prevent food and beverage degradation (Embuscado,
2015).
The oxidation of lipids results in odour, colour and altered
texture of food products, which may be impeded by the proper
application of antioxidants (Alamed et al., 2009). In various foods
such as drinks, marinades, desserts, sauces, spice blends and dairy
products, carotenes are commonly added as natural yellow, orange
or red dyes (Scotter, 2009). Due to their susceptibility to oxygen and
UV radiation, carotenes are seldom used alone, leading to undesired
colour loss (Boon et al., 2010). Cerruti et al. reported tomato skin
and seed extract for improving polypropylene (PP) processing
stability because lycopene effectively scavenges alkyl radicals
(Cerruti et al., 2009). The stabilizing efficacy of b-carotene in an ABS
copolymer was studied by Abdel-Razik (1989). Different forms of
tocopherols, flavonoids and tocotrienols are used as food stabi-
lizers, while curcumin is an additional stabilizing natural colorant
(Carocho et al., 2015; Kaewprachu et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2014).
Zaharescu et al. reported the effectively stabilized ethylene-
propylene-diene terpolymer with naringenin and caffeic acid
together with selenium against g-radiation (Zaharescu et al., 2013).
5
Environmental Pollution 283 (2021) 117071
Also under irradiation with a sterilization dose, both antioxidants
hindered the polymer’s oxidation (Kirschweng et al., 2017).
Tasneem et al. reported the effect of incorporating omega-3 fatty
acids into low-fat milk (Tasneem et al., 2013). The proper use of a
stabilizer device consisting of mono- and di-glycerides of guar gum,
fatty acids, carrageenan and sodium alginate were used to stabilize
this widely viable omega-3 milk (McClements and Decker, 2000).
Sodium alginates are especially adaptable as emulsifiers among the
polysaccharides because they offer the possibility of forming a va-
riety of textures, based on the type of alginate. Natural and modi-
fied gums, gelatin and extracts of seaweed are some of the
stabilizers used in yoghurts. As these additives are capable of
forming gel networks, their incorporation enables yoghurt pro-
duction to be produced, with a firm texture and excellent barrier to
syneresis, and lower milk solids levels (Guinee, 2017). At both the
air/water and fat/water interfaces, mono-glycerides interact with
milk proteins and are liable for partial fat emulsion destabilization
(Lal et al., 2006). Pickering stabilizers possess unusual interfacial
properties, but the food industry has only small forms of these
particles. The AluProt-CGNA® pickering stabilizer was derived from
the protein-richer lupin. The findings are of great importance for
the growth of Lupin protein aggregate particle based emulsions
with enhanced properties and will also significantly increase the
use of lupin proteins in the food sector (Burgos-díaz et al., 2018).
4.3. Biomaterials for pathogen control
Food contaminants have grown out of control, necessitating the
development of new biomaterials to inhibit microbial growth in
order to ensure the quality and safety of food, especially in the last
few decades. Applying antimicrobial thin films to the surface of a
product is one of the current ways to preserve foods. Several studies
reported that antimicrobial coatings and films are very powerful in
reducing the growth of harmful microbes (Alboofetileh et al., 2014;
Ali et al., 2015; Gyawali and Ibrahim, 2014; Li et al., 2010; Otoni
et al., 2014; Pintado et al., 2009). Coma et al. reported that addi-
tion of these types of useful microbes to the cheese surface; chi-
tosan wrappers containing 1% acid hinder the growth of
L. monocytogenes and L. innocua (Coma et al., 2002). Chen et al.
described a set of antimicrobial methylcellulose/chitosan (3:2)
films consisting 2, 4 or 5% sodium benzoate for active pathogen
control (Chen et al., 1996). Nowadays, a significant number of
natural antimicrobial thin film polymers are used namely proteins
such as soy, wheat gluten, pea protein, triticale protein, fish protein
and polysaccharides including chitosan, starch, HPC and CMC
(Pereda et al., 2011; Ramos et al., 2012).
The utilization of bacteriophages has developed as an alterna-
tive to improve the protection of these foods because of the lack of
sufficient methods to control and avoid contamination in fresh
products and the market demand for natural products. The pro-
duced phage-based materials, when introduced to artificially
infected foods, have demonstrated a major antimicrobial effect and
can be utilized as prototypes for the production of bioactive anti-
microbial packaging capable of improving the protection of fresh
produce and RTE meat (Lone et al., 2016). The applications of pro-
biotic strains also serve as an alternative solution that has gained a
great deal of research interests in the food and clinical industries to
minimize biofilm formation. Live nutrients are labelled as probiotic
strains known as non-pathogenic and healthy for improving the
intestinal microbial balance (Babu et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2020;
Tharanathan, 2003).
4.4. Biomaterials based sensors to control food spoilage
Biosensors are compact devices which allow information about
R. R, E. Philip, A. Madhavan et al. Environmental Pollution 283 (2021) 117071

biological reactions to be detected, recorded and transmitted (Katz particularly sulphide gas. The proper ripening of fruits can be
and Willner, 2004; Patil et al., 2010; Zhai et al., 2013). The shelf life indicated by RipeSense®. When biosensors interact with aromatic
of packaged food is influenced by both the intrinsic value of food compounds in fruits liable for the odour of the ripened fruit, this
and the extrinsic variables. pH, nutrient content, respiratory rate, sensors indicate the correct ripening using changes in colour.
occurrence of antimicrobial agents, biological nature and redox Different commercially available biosensors for the detection of
potential are intrinsic parameters, while extrinsic variables include food quality and safety are depicted in Fig. 3. Nanotechnology
storage temperature, relative moisture content, and composition of provides innovative routes for the creation of novel biomaterials for
the surrounding gases. The main aim of food packagings is to shield biosensor developments. Bioactive compounds such as alpha-
food from oxygen attacks, water vapour and UV light, chemical and chymotrypsin or glucose oxidase may be retained or encapsu-
microbiological pollution. In order to detect pathogens in food, lated by nanospheres, nanofibers and encapsulated microfibers
biosensors are being developed (Abreu et al., 2012; Kaur and during the development of biosensors and these compounds
Dhillon, 2014; Singh, 2011). ensure the protection of the goods packed in containers (Ren et al.,
Nanobiotechnology played a pivotal role in food sector for 2006). Nano-cantilevers are also another type of nanosensor where
designing novel biosensors and active packaging to manage anti- the principle of detection is correlated with the ability of sub-
oxidants, antimicrobial and barrier characteristics. The potentials of stances to detect biological interactions that bind enzymes, anti-
bio-nanocomposites in controlling food spoilage make them suit- gens and antibodies, substrates, receptors and ligands by means of
able for the manufacture of smart biodegradable and edible pack- a physical and electromechanical signal. These are applied effi-
aging material. The antimicrobial activities are remarkably ciently in the identification of molecular interactions and the
enhanced by surface engineering of biomaterials and can easily be monitoring of toxic chemicals, pollutants and antibiotic contami-
achieved through nanobiotechnology. Biosurfactants are also uti- nants in food (Hall, 2002; Zhang and Xu, 2004).
lizing nowadays to reduce interfacial tension and surplus in- Other possible applications that have not been addressed for
teractions during product formation. These types of smart nanotechnology in foods involve, but are not limited to: nano-
biomaterials have been already implemented in foods, cosmetics, encapsulants for nutrient, flavour or aroma delivery (Mehrnia
medicine and environmental applications. As a result, the use of et al., 2016); more potent pesticides (Fan et al., 2010); safety inks
smart packaging will improve the shelf life and regulate food or nano-barcodes for defence against counterfeiting or preserva-
quality. In order to extend the shelf life of packaged foods and to tion of product identity (Chang et al., 2004; Kuzma, 2010) and
satisfy customer demands, intelligent packaging systems are nanoparticles for use in selective genetic engineering of livestock or
developed effectively in order to provide high value goods that are plant species of agricultural relevance (Duncan, 2011). The most
both fresh and healthy. The postponement of food deterioration promising applications are food packaging materials with incred-
period is another important feature of smart packaging due to the ibly high gas barriers and antimicrobial properties, as well as
need to provide adequate food for a rapidly increasing population nanosensors capable of detecting micro-organisms or chemical
(Abreu et al., 2012). pollutants at remarkably low levels.
A biosensor for glucose dependent on glucose lactate or oxidase
may be used to evaluate the content of fruit and vegetable bever-
4.5. Edible biomaterials in food industry
ages (Bordonaba and Terry, 2009; Jawaheer et al., 2003). If the food
in the container is rotten, the nanosensors embedded in the food
Edible biomaterials are biodegradable that are primarily devel-
packaging will alert the customer. During processing and delivery,
oped from polysaccharides, proteins and lipids. The key benefit of
food commodities are inspected by sensors in order to identify
biomaterials is that they are products that are eco-friendly. The
pathogen and contaminants (Weiss et al., 2006). There are bio-
selection of edible biomaterials in the food sector based on the end
sensors with advanced programs that facilitate food product data
product that can be used in various forms such as films, coatings,
collection, localization, monitoring and overall control. The effi-
packaging, antimicrobials and antioxidants safety (Bersaneti et al.,
ciency and protection of food processing and delivery can be
2016; Coma et al., 2002; Gounga et al., 2007; Malmiri et al., 2011;
improved by these systems. The most relevant food product details
can be communicated and displayed, and distribution networks can
be improved using biosensors to bring, protect and distribute nu-
traceutical components to a specific location (Tomasevic et al.,
2017). Ageless Eye® is an oxygen indicator placed within the stor-
age place that, in the presence of oxygen, shifts in colour from pink
to blue (Smolander et al., 1997). Similarly, by producing a blue hue,
Wonder sensor indicates oxygen concentrations of >0.5%. Hong and
Park reported that in the identification of gases such as oxygen and
ethanol, visual indicators of carbon dioxide produced by calcium
hydroxide and a redox indicator integrated into PP and CNTs have
revealed accurate sensitivity (Hong and Park, 2000). O2 Sense is an
oxygen indicator for products packaged under Freshpoint’s pro-
duction in changed atmosphere packaging (Abreu et al., 2012).
There are a number of biosensors available in the market namely
FreshTags®, (Eo)®, Timestrip®, ripeSense® and SensorQTM to
ensure the quality of foods (Pacquit et al., 2007; Ren et al., 2006). A
colour shift indicates the decay of the food. (EO)® is yet another
measure for meat products that demonstrates the degree of
freshness through the use of microbes that mimic the deterioration
of the food being tracked (Ellouze and Augustin, 2010). Sensor QTM
is specifically designed for beef and poultry and is focused on an
improvement in microbial growth of gases within the container, Fig. 3. Commercial biosensors used to detect food quality and safety.

6
R. R, E. Philip, A. Madhavan et al.
Ramos et al., 2012; Tavassoli-kafrani et al., 2015). The edible films
and coatings are used to maintain the freshness of meat, vegetables,
fish, berries, grain, pastries and food blend that can be dried, deeply
frozen or preserved in another form of storage. They may be used
individually or in combination with other substances for a number
of applications specific to food products. Thin preventative layer of
films and coatings are delivering over on or wrap around the sur-
face of a food product (Pastor et al., 2011; Poverenov et al., 2013;
Talens et al., 2012). Generally by mixing organic raw commodities
with food grade additives to developed edible films and coatings.
Polysaccharide based films and coatings are the major contrib-
utors of the physical properties, such as viscosity, stiffness,
compactness and crispness. Through selective oxygen and carbon
dioxide permeability, they possess the ability to decrease the
emission of gases, and are less efficient than waxes as a water
barrier. Cellulose is the essential structural component of the plant
cell membrane, which also extensively utilized to develop edible
coatings. For example, CMC is the most common edible cellulose
derivatives currently in the market (Kurosumi et al., 2009). Modi-
fied starch has been gained a lot of attention as low cost edible films
(Bersaneti et al., 2016; Ghanbarzadeh et al., 2010). Chitosan is the
commonly used polysaccharide for edible packaging materials in
food industry (Bonilla et al., 2012). Carrageenans are a category of
galactans with linear chain hydrophilic polymers found in red
seaweed. Protein-formulated edible films and coatings showed
exceptional oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipid barrier properties,
particularly at low relative humidity (Phillips and Williams, 2000).
5. Safety of biomaterials in food industry
The concern about the protection of the environment is
growing, and the search for replacements to the use of plastics in
the food packaging industry is a very important consideration
(Duncan, 2011). A wide use of plastics is seen in the current
panorama, which aims to replace these plastics used for a large
number of containers with new biomaterial based food packaging.
From a food safety point of view, it is necessary to monitor the
supply of these advanced materials in the consumer market and to
guarantee that no hazardous product can move in amounts that are
hazardous to consumer health. The food industry has been revo-
lutionized by recent advances in nanotechnology with its
numerous applications in food packaging, protection and safety as
well as its success in improving nutraceutical value along with
enhancing shelf life and decreasing packaging waste (Asensio et al.,
2020; Pastor et al., 2011). Nano biotechnological advancements
have driven the resolution of food safety problems including bac-
terial contamination and enhanced toxin identification, shelf-life
and packaging techniques. Furthermore, biomaterials, such as
metal oxide nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanowires and quantum
dots can also be used to design microbe quantification biosensors
and other food safety testing applications (Ahmed et al., 2018; Li
et al., 2015; Poverenov et al., 2013; Ramos et al., 2012).
A few researchers addressed nanomaterial safety issues,
stressing the risk of nanomaterials migrating from active packaging
to the food product and their effect on the health of consumers
(Ahmed et al., 2018; Ashori, 2008; Duncan, 2011). It is really
imperative to ensure the health aspects and ultimate fate of bio-
materials in foods and food packaging are determined by physi-
ochemical properties and dosage. These aspects should be assessed
by various in silico, in vivo and in vitro studies. Physical interactions,
pH, osmotic concentration, chemical components, and biological
factors could all be validated and analyzed for risk assessment, with
absorption, transmission, digestion, ultimate toxicity, and excretion
all being considered. Even though a material is known to be a GRAS
(generally considered safe) substance, it is crucial to acquire
7
Environmental Pollution 283 (2021) 117071
additional research to explore the danger of its nano counter parts
as its physicochemical characteristics are completely different from
those of macro state (Savolainen et al., 2010). In human lung cells,
for instance, silica nanoparticles used as anti-caking agents can be
toxic to cell when exposed for a long duration (Athinarayanan et al.,
2014). Furthermore, to guarantee the product quality, safety and
environmental legislation, regulatory authorities need to establish
such requirements for commercial products. These types of prod-
ucts do not have a particular regulation, but any Food contact
materials (FCM) is protected by Regulation (1935)/2004/CE and it is
therefore important to research the materials that can be trans-
ferred from the package to the food which is in interaction with
them. A demand for new biomaterials has been created by the
growing use of disposable dishes for dispensing fast food or serving
food in events given by catering. Compared to the use of plastic
materials, the demand for this kind of materials as an eco-friendlier
and sustainable replacement indicates their study to assure the
safety (Asensio et al., 2020).
6. Future prospects and challenges
During the next few years, existing agriculture and intensive
food processing will be dispensing through the use of recent ag-
rochemicals. Introducing organic agrochemical nano-formulations
will assure the quantity of biofertilizers applying to both the
fields and to food packaging systems. It is important to avoid some
alternative pathways in food production, such as the introduction
of genetically engineered organisms and their release to agriculture
without appropriate risk assessments being implemented. More
effective green chemistry approaches for the synthesis of nanoscale
ingredients for better crop protection and safer food packaging
strategies should be implemented to organic farming and for active
food packaging. Most of the reported green processes in laboratory
scale have led to lower the toxicity and provide excellent me-
chanical properties for packaging and next step is to bring these
antimicrobial biomaterials into commercial scale packaging sec-
tors. It is evident from the present review that research and
developmental activities are to be designed to reduce the cost of
production of food packaging biomaterials. Even the current costs
of nanoscaled materials are considerably high, and it is fair that
their costs will decrease dramatically with large-scale applications,
because consumers are more concerned about safe foods. The
nanotechnology applications in the food system are still marginal
and, in contrast to other industrial sectors, have not yet reached the
market. The developments in agrochemical patent applications are
increasing significantly, but no successful new nano-based food
safety products in the food industry have currently entered the
market in a substantial manner. So, promising commercial in-
ventions should guarantee future utilization of those biomaterials
in active food packaging.
7. Conclusions
Valorisation of new biomaterials and its implementation to
commercial levels will ensure the safety and quality of food prod-
ucts with reduced costs and improved efficiency. It is evident that
nano-biotechnological advancements in bioactive food additives
and packaging which substantially add to health requirements of
the commodity. Recently, a number of biomaterials are investigated
in food industry as additives or packaging and these materials can
have the role as stabilizers, pathogen control agents and even as
edible coatings. Biosensors are some devices utilizing novel bio-
materials for controlling the food spoilage and can also monitor the
food adulterations. During the development of food packaging, the
possibilities of interactions between ambient conditions, food and
R. R, E. Philip, A. Madhavan et al.
packaging materials should be considered to ensure the quality. In
recent years, biomaterials have been prominent to customers,
financial authorities and global markets as a result of environ-
mental challenges. All these biocomposites offer prominent char-
acteristics like mechanical strength, barrier to gas/water,
biodegradability, bioassimilation, compostability and efficient
molding characteristics. The selection of biomaterials for different
applications depends on the types of the food materials to be stored
or packed. Another key point to be considered while selecting
biomaterials is whether these materials comply with government
policies and regulations. Smart biomaterials can interact with the
headspace or even with the food product to ensure a preferred
outcome for bio-derived products in terms of enhanced shelf life,
safety or sensor activities. The environmental impacts should be
regulated by specific standards to provide efficient food packaging
for future markets.
Credit author statement
Reshmy R, Eapen Philip and Aravind Madhavan: Literature
collection and Writing original/revised drafts, Raveendran Sindhu,
Arivalagan Pugazhendhi, Ranjna Sirohi, Mukesh Kumar Awasthi
and Ayon Tarafdar: Reviewing and Editing, Parameswaran Binod:
Supervision, Reviewing and Editing, Ashok Pandey: Project
administration, Conceptualization and Visualization
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Reshmy R (F.No. SR/WOS-B/587/2016) and Raveendran Sindhu
(F.No. SR/WOS-B/740/2016) acknowledge Department of Science
and Technology, India for sanctioning projects under DST WOS-B
scheme.
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