New Insights on Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems in Food

Daniel A Madalena, Ricardo N Pereira, António A Vicente, and Óscar L Ramos*, CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering,
University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction 1
Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems 2
Bioactive Compounds and Encapsulation Techniques 2
Commonly Used Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems for the Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds 2
Interactions Between Micro- and Nanosystems 4
Application of Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems Into Foods 5
Novel Functional Foods 5
In vitro Digestion of Functional Foods 5
Concluding Remarks 6
Acknowledgements 6
References 6
Further Reading 7

Introduction

The production of innovative functional food products has been the focus of food industry in response to the on-going trend
towards the consumption of healthy foods, with additional properties (e.g., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer), apart
from their nutritional value (Guiné et al., 2016; Simões et al., 2017; Ramos et al., 2017; Weiss et al., 2008; ÐorCevic et al., 2014).
Such properties can be accomplished by the incorporation of bioactive compounds (i.e., nutraceuticals) that are often added to food
or beverages. Bioactive compounds are functional molecules that have significant health benefits when consumed or applied.
Vitamins, antioxidants, prebiotics, probiotics, antimicrobials, enzymes, among others, can be used and incorporated into food
products to enhance their functional properties, or to increase their shelf-life. However, such compounds can have inadequate water
solubility and/or low cellular absorption. A strategy that has been used to overcome this issue is the application of micro- and
nanotechnologies, in particular, for the protection (i.e. from the adverse conditions of the surrounding environment, such as
temperature, pH and ionic strength), control release and bioavailability enhancement of bioactive compounds (Simões et al.,
2017; Ramos et al., 2017; Weiss et al., 2008; Robles-García et al., 2016).
At the micro (10–6 m) and nano (10–9 m) scale, materials have different behaviors and may acquire novel functional properties,
when compared with those in the bulk state, due to e.g., the higher surface area-volume ratio observed at these scales (Simões et al.,
2017; Madalena et al., 2016). Such feature can be explored through micro- and nanosystems that can be produced and tailored to
encapsulate bioactive compounds, thus increasing their oral bioavailability (Robles-García et al., 2016). Since these micro- and
nanosystems are intended to be applied to food products, they must be generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Therefore, proteins
(e.g., whey, soy and egg proteins), polysaccharides (e.g., chitosan, alginate, gum arabica and pectin) and lipids (e.g., vegetable
oils, phospholipids and triacylglycerol) are being used to produce micro- and nanosystems for the encapsulation and controlled
release of bioactive compounds (Simões et al., 2017; Ramos et al., 2017; Aditya et al., 2017). These bio-based materials can be
used to produce controlled delivery micro- and nanosystems due to their ability to form gels, particles/capsules and emulsions,
as well as bonds with bioactive compounds (Simões et al., 2017). For instance, whey proteins have the ability to conjugate a large
variety of bioactive compounds through either primary amino groups or ionic and hydrophobic binding. This behavior allows
protection of labile compounds from degradation, while permitting a release in a specific site (e.g., small intestine for absorption)
at a controlled delivery rate – i.e. by swelling behavior of gel in response to environmental stimuli (e.g., pH, temperature and/or
electric fields) - thus allowing an improved bioavailability of such compounds (Ramos et al., 2017). Even though these
bio-based materials can form stable controlled release systems, they are intended to be applied to food products that are further
ingested and submitted to the harsh conditions of the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Consequently, understanding the
interactions of such controlled delivery micro- and nanosystems with food components and subsequently their behavior under
GI conditions is of utmost importance (Madalena et al., 2016). It is also crucial to assess the toxicity of such systems, in particular
nanosystems since they are at a sub-cellular scale and may induce cellular damage or produce some unwanted phenomena
(e.g., tissue bioaccumulation, inflammatory response and systemic exposure) (Simões et al., 2017; Rossi et al., 2014).
Therefore, this chapter covers the most commonly used bio-based and bioactive micro- and nanosystems (i.e., bioactive
compounds encapsulated into micro- and nanosystems) for food applications, as well as of possible interactions established
between different nanosystems. Moreover, some applications of such systems in commercialized food products are also depicted.
Fig. 1 represents the main topics discussed in this chapter.

*
(corresponding author)

1
2 New Insights on Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems in Food

Figure 1 Schematic representation of the chapter content structure.

Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems

Bioactive Compounds and Encapsulation Techniques
Bioactive compounds are functional ingredients that occur in Nature, are part of the food chain, and can provide additional
beneficial properties to food products (Biesalski et al., 2009). Vitamins (e.g., vitamin B2 and vitamin E) (Madalena et al., 2016;
Yang and McClements, 2013), polyphenols (e.g., curcumin and quercetin) (Pinheiro et al., 2016; Souza et al., 2013), probiotics
(e.g., Lactococcus lactis ssp. Cremoris and Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG) (Ramos et al., 2016; Ying et al., 2012), minerals (e.g., iron
and magnesium) (Zimmermann, 2004; Bonnet et al., 2009), fatty acids (u-3 and u-6) (Chen et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2013), among
others, can be applied for this purpose. These compounds can have poor water solubility, and present low digestion stability and GI
absorption, and may be influenced by external environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, light, oxygen, metallic ions, enzymes
and water exposure), thus influencing their final performance and purpose. This can lead to their degradation that changes the
overall properties of the final food product (i.e., presence of off-color, off-flavors and toxic degradation residues) (Simões et al.,
2017; ÐorCevic et al., 2014; Jia et al., 2016). The encapsulation of bioactive compounds can overcome these challenges and two
strategies can be used to achieve this purpose – top-down and bottom-up approaches (Simões et al., 2017).
The top-down strategy implies the mechanical processing of bulk materials to reduce their size and molding their shape.
Consequently, precise tools must be used to achieve the desired final material characteristics. An example of this approach is the
development of micro- and nanoemulsions by high-pressure homogenization (Fig. 2-1). Sample grinding and extrusion
(Fig. 2-2) are also alternative top-down strategies for the encapsulation at the micro- and nanoscale. However, this strategy has
some limitations from an economical point of view (i.e., expensive equipment, operability and maintenance costs) (Simões
et al., 2017; Joye and McClements, 2014). The bottom-up strategy comprehends the application of self-assembly methodologies,
at the molecular level, by inducing changes to the surrounding environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, pH and ionic strength).
This approach allows a more accurate control over particle size and shape and is more energy efficient, when compared with
top-down approaches (Joye and McClements, 2014).
Choosing an appropriate encapsulation technique depends on the nature of the bioactive compound and encapsulating
structure (i.e., hydrophilic or lipophilic affinity). For instance, emulsions can be used to entrap lipophilic compounds (e.g.,
curcumin) (Simões et al., 2017; Jia et al., 2016). Pinheiro et al. (2016) produced curcumin nanoemulsions stabilized with
lactoferrin and lactoferrin/alginate biopolymers by high pressure homogenization, which allow increasing curcumin bioactivity
and bioavailability. Although, other techniques (Fig. 2-3:6) can be used to encapsulate bioactive compounds (e.g., coacervation,
spray drying, freeze drying, inclusion and fluid bed coating) (Simões et al., 2017).

Commonly Used Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems for the Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds
Bio-based micro- and nanosystems are being widely used as delivery vehicles for controlled release of bioactive compounds. These
structures can be produced using bio-based materials, such as proteins, polysaccharides and lipids, or their combination, to form
different structures (e.g., capsules, hydrogels and emulsions) intended for the encapsulation of bioactive compounds – please see
Table 1 (Simões et al., 2017; Cerqueira et al., 2014).
Capsules (Fig. 1) are colloidal structures that can be used to entrap bioactive compounds on their hollow aqueous or oil core,
surrounding them with a wall material that can be made of bio-based materials. This structure can be produced at macro-, micro-
 New Insights on Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems in Food 3

Figure 2 Schematic representation of the most used encapsulation techniques. Adapted from Simões, L.S., Madalena, D.A., Pinheiro, A.C., Teixeira,
J.A., Vicente, A.A., Ramos, Ó.L., 2017. Micro- and nano bio-based delivery systems for food applications: in vitro behavior. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci.
243, 23–45.

Table 1 – Micro- and nanosystem examples for controlled delivery applications and their respective production technique

Micro- and nanosystems Material Bioactive compound Production technique References

Capsules Chitosan and pectin Indomethacin Layer-by-Layer Kamburova et al. (2017)

Chitosan and alginate GMP Rivera et al. (2015)
5-Aminosalicylic acid
Whey protein concentrate b-Carotene Electrospraying López-Rubio and Lagaron (2012)
Hydrogels Lf-GMP Caffein Gelation Bourbon et al. (2016)
Curcumin
Chitosan 5- Fluoroaucil Liu et al. (2016)
Hyaloronic acid and pullulan Riboflavin Di Meo et al. (2015)
Emulsions Linseed oil Astanxanthin High-pressure Sotomayor-Gerding et al. (2016)
Lycopene homogenization
Soybean oil and whey protein fibrils – Mantovani et al. (2017)

and nanoscale. Despite the advantages of producing capsules at microscale (e.g., the preparation techniques employed and
their scale-up), some limitations exist regarding their applicability. Capsules at microscale tend to present a heterogenous size
distribution (i.e., high polydispersity) and low thermodynamic stability (Simões et al., 2017). On the other hand, capsules at
the nanoscale (i.e., size below 100 nm) exhibit low polydispersity, high thermodynamic stability, high long-term kinetic stability,
fast release kinetics of bioactive compounds and better mucus adsorption in the small intestine (Simões et al., 2017; Weiss et al.,
2008). Although, due to their lower diameter, particles at the nanoscale can require complex techniques that may increase the cost
of their production and scale-up, as well as require more sophisticated characterization methodologies (Jarze˛ bski et al., 2017).
Several techniques can be used to produce nanocapsules, which can include ionic pre-gelation/coacervation, polymerization
(e.g., emulsion polymerization and dispersion polymerization) and dispersion of preformed polymers (e.g., nanoprecipitation,
spontaneous emulsification, self-assembly, salting-out and supercritical fluid) (Cerqueira et al., 2014). Kamburova et al. (2017)
produced nanocapsules from natural polymers as chitosan and pectin to entrap indomethacin (Table 1). Since chitosan and pectin
polymers have opposite charges, the indomethacin was adsorbed to nanocapsules using a self-assembly layer-by-layer
4 New Insights on Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems in Food

methodology. The authors established that the coating thickness was proportional to the number of deposited layers and observed
a prolonged release rate of indomethacin from nanocapsules, as a result of its encapsulation.
Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks that are composed by hydrophilic or amphiphilic polymeric molecules that form
intermolecular interactions through covalent and non-covalent bonds (e.g., hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions and
physical entanglements). These structures are mainly formed by gelation processes that typically include linking of polymeric
chains, thus leading to a progressively larger embranchment of molecules and to the formation of a three-dimensional network
(this process is called as “sol”). Continuous networking through intermolecular interactions increases the ramification of polymeric
chains, thus leading to a decrease in the network solubility. The transition from aggregation to a continuous building process is
called “sol–gel transition” and the continuous building process is known as “gelation”. Hydrogels are formed when the building
process terminates and the critical point where gel is achieved is called “gel point” (Simões et al., 2017; Ramos et al., 2014). These
structures are mainly used due to their ability to swell and retain large amounts of water without disrupting their network. This
feature is possible due to the presence of e.g., hydroxyl, amino and carboxyl groups in the network structure, which makes them
suitable carriers for bioactive compounds (Ramos et al., 2017). Nanohydrogels of lactoferrin-glycomacropeptide (Lf-GMP) were
successfully used for the encapsulation of bioactive compounds with different chemical nature, such as caffeine (hydrophilic)
and curcumin (hydrophobic) (Table 1) (Bourbon et al., 2016). Chitosan, alginate and pullulan nanohydrogels were also produced
to protect 5-fluoroaucil (Table 1) from in vitro digestion conditions (Liu et al., 2016) and stable structures (i.e., in water and
physiological conditions) (Di Meo et al., 2015), respectively.
Emulsions are structures composed by two immiscible phases that can be classified as oil-in-water (O/W), water-in-oil (W/O),
liquid-in-liquid or solid-in-solid emulsions. Their stability may depend on many aspects, as follows: (i) the type of emulsifier/
surfactant used to stabilize the emulsion; (ii) the homogenization conditions; (iii) the solvents and co-solutes present; (iv) the
surfactant-to-oil ratio; and (v) the emulsion composition. Therefore, when submitted to high temperatures, pH variations and ionic
strength changes, emulsions can exhibit weak physical stability during transportation, storage or application (Simões et al., 2017;
Lu et al., 2016). However, micro- and nanoemulsions currently exhibit a good coalescence stability likely due to the decrease of
the van der Waals attractive forces between droplets, with a concomitant decrease in particle size. In this sense, micro- and
nanoemulsions can be used as suitable functional carriers for lipophilic compounds (e.g., essential oils, polyphenols, fatty acids,
antioxidants, antimicrobials and some vitamins) (Simões et al., 2017). Micro- and nanoemulsions are often produced using
high-energy methodologies that require the use of specific equipment, such as high-pressure valve homogenizers, sonicators
and microfluidizers. The high mechanical energy produced by the equipment enables the production of stable oil droplets. Micro-
and nanoemulsions can also be produced using low energy techniques that rely on the intrinsic physicochemical characteristics of
the surfactants and oily and water phases used (Simões et al., 2017; Jia et al., 2016). Soybean and linseed oil were previously used to
produce O/W micro- and nanoemulsions, using stabilizers (e.g., whey protein fibrils and Tween 20, respectively) and high-pressure
homogenization techniques to entrap bioactive compounds (e.g., astaxanthin and lycopene) (Table 1), thus protecting them from
the harsh conditions of the in vitro GI conditions (Sotomayor-Gerding et al., 2016), and maintaining their stability during storage
(Mantovani et al., 2017).

Interactions Between Micro- and Nanosystems

Micro- and nanosystems can establish covalent and non-covalent bonds (e.g., electrostatic, steric, van der Waals, hydration and
intermolecular hydrophobic interactions, and hydrogen bonds) with other systems, bioactive compounds and/or food
components, thus allowing the improvement of the existent properties of food ingredients or even the creation of innovative
ones. For instance, protein molecules can be tailored to form different food structures, depending on the extent of protein
association. This allows developing protein–protein, polysaccharide-protein and lipid–biopolymer complexes in order to take
advantage of the synergistic effects between both materials (Ramos et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2017).
Protein–protein non-covalent interactions (e.g., b-lactoglobulin and a-lactalbumin interaction) can be influenced by pH
(electrostatic interaction), temperature (intermolecular hydrophobic interactions by exposing apolar residues), hydration (repulsive
forces due to high hydration levels), protein conformation (steric interactions) and protein molecular weight and size (van der
Waals interactions increase with the increase in protein size). Protein covalent interactions are formed when a reaction between
free sulfhydryl and disulfide groups occurs, which is responsible for protein aggregation and further gelation. This kind of
complexation enables the functionalization of protein matrices by modulating their rheological properties. Therefore, it is possible
to control the release rates of bioactive compounds that can be entrapped in this kind of structures (Ramos et al., 2017). Oancea
et al. (2017) developed b-lactoglobulin (b-lg) microparticles to encapsulate anthocyanins from sour cherries. The protein matrix
was developed by dissolving pure b-lg in Tris–HCl buffer with a pH of 7.7, far from the isoelectric point of b-lg (i.e., pH of 5.2)
to promote repulsive electrostatic intermolecular interactions. The protein mixture suffered a heating treatment in order to promote
a protein destabilization/denaturation, thus exposing the b-sheets present in the b-lg secondary structure and permitting the
establishment of electrostatic interaction with the anthocyanins and its encapsulation (Liu et al., 2016). Furthermore, this study
also concluded that b-lg prevented anthocyanin degradation during in vitro gastric digestion, and its release in the small intestine.
Protein-polysaccharide interactions can also take place to promote the synergy between both structures and thereby improving
their functional properties. This kind of interaction can be achieved through chemical (not used in the food industry due to
regulatory concerns), physical and enzymatic processes (Ramos et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2017; Damodaran et al., 2007). The Maillard
reaction is often used to prepare protein-polysaccharide complexes under monitoring temperature, time, moisture, pH, heating,
 New Insights on Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems in Food 5

dry-heating or the use of novel processing technologies, such as pulsed electric field conditions. Briefly, deprotonated amino groups
from protein molecules and polysaccharide carbonyl groups can react with each other (i.e., through covalent bonding) to form
a N-glycosylamine and one water molecule. The N-glycosylamine can then be rearranged to form the Amadori product (i.e.,
1-amino-1-deoxyketose), which is a more stable ketone that can lead to the formation of protein-polysaccharide conjugations. If
the reaction takes place under controlled conditions (i.e., temperature, moisture, pH and time), the interaction between proteins
and polysaccharides can have enhanced emulsifying, heating stability, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Liu et al., 2017;
de Oliveira et al., 2016; Semenova, 2017). Mengíbar et al. (2017) assessed the emulsifying and antioxidant properties of the
Maillard reaction residues from soluble chitosans (with different molecular weights) with b-lg, emphasizing the importance of
choosing the appropriate biopolymer (according to its physico-chemical properties), to formulate novel functionalized food
products. The authors concluded that the Maillard reaction with high molecular weight chitosans (39 and 56 kDa) resulted in
the gelation of the final product. On the other hand, the Maillard reaction with low molecular weight chitosans (1.3 kDa) resulted
in the formation of soluble functional residues with significantly higher antioxidant activity.
Micro- and nanoemulsions are often used to protect lipophilic bioactive compounds from environmental conditions, while
tensioactive compounds (i.e., surfactants) can be used to stabilize micro- and nanoemulsions, preventing from flocculation and
coalescence. Biopolymers can also be used with surfactants in order to increase the repulsive intermolecular interactions between
droplets (i.e., influence of repulsive steric forces), resulting in an increased emulsion stability. Proteins, for example, can compete
with surfactants in the oil-water interface (i.e., competitive adsorption), as well as interact with surfactants resulting in protein
unfolding (i.e., increase in hydrophobicity) or protein precipitation (with charge neutralization leading to an increase in the surface
activity of surfactant–protein complex) (Damodaran et al., 2007; Hasenhuttl and Hartel, 2008).

Application of Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems Into Foods

Micro- and nanotechnologies applied in the food industry have been widely studied and reported in the last few decades.
Consequently, novel food-grade controlled delivery micro- and nanosystems were developed to be further applied to food products.
Therefore, it is very important to understand the interactions of such systems with food matrices and their digestibility (Simões
et al., 2017; Wilde et al., 2016). In this section, food products containing micro- and nanosystems that were recently developed
are listed, and information regarding to the digestion of such functional food products is provided.

Novel Functional Foods

Consumer awareness towards the consumption of fortified, healthy food products is gradually increasing in nowadays society. This
results in an increased effort from the food industry players to develop novel food formulations with additional functional
properties. Consequently, recent developments in food science point to the application of encapsulated bioactive compounds in
commercialized food products (Simões et al., 2017; Cerqueira et al., 2014; Gultekin-Ozguven et al., 2016). For instance
Gultekin-Ozguven et al. (2016) encapsulated black mulberry extract into anionic liposomes coated with chitosan through
layer-by-layer deposition. The resulting mixture was spray-dried to be further applied into chocolate formulations (i.e., natural
and alkalized cocoa liquors) at different conching temperatures (i.e., 40, 60 and 80  C). The authors concluded that it is possible
to fortify dark chocolate with encapsulated anthocyanins, although the fortification efficiency depends on the pH and processing
temperatures.
Encapsulating delivery systems can also be used to mask off-flavors, as well as the astringency and bitterness which some
bioactive compounds can produce. Wilde et al. (2016) used b-lg to encapsulate allicin, the main thiosulphate in garlic, responsible
for its taste and smell. The authors incorporated the nanosystem entrapped with allicin into a coffee-based beverage and assessed
the sensory profile of this food product. They concluded that the encapsulation of allicin into b-lg masked the characteristic flavor of
garlic in the tested food matrix.
Rivero et al. (2013) took a different approach and developed chitosan films loaded with propionic acid to extend the shelf-life of
pastry dough. The authors concluded that chitosan films loaded with propionic acid had a significant antimicrobial effect, which
makes this system a good sustainable, food-grade alternative to conventional synthetic films and chemical preservatives.
Therefore, food-grade micro- and nanosystems can be used to functionalize food products, through the controlled release of
bioactive compounds, to mask off-flavors and unwanted organoleptic characteristics (e.g., smell and taste) that are associated to
the application of some bioactive compounds, as well as to extend the shelf-life of food ingredients through the controlled release
of antimicrobial and antifungal bioactive compounds.

In vitro Digestion of Functional Foods

The digestion of food is a complex, yet an important assessment to understand the behavior of controlled delivery nanosystems in
the GI tract. Therefore, in vitro digestion models can be used to make this assessment since they do not raise any ethical issues and
they are an unexpensive alternative to in vivo models (Simões et al., 2017; Madalena et al., 2016). Several in vitro digestion models
were developed in the last few years with different functionalities; some of them are more simple and static (Gultekin-Ozguven
et al., 2016), while others are more complex and dynamic (Pinheiro et al., 2016) taking into account the peristaltic movements
of the GI tract during digestion. This kind of models (static and dynamic) can be used to study the digestion of functionalized
6 New Insights on Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems in Food

food, fortified with controlled delivery systems, as well as the bioavailability of bioactive compounds incorporated into food
matrices. In addition to the development of fortified dark chocolate with black mulberry extract, Gultekin-Ozguven et al. (2016)
studied the in vitro digestion of this functionalized food product and determined the effect of liposomes encapsulation in
anthocyanin activity, under GI conditions. The authors reported that the encapsulation of anthocyanins in liposomes improved
their bioavailability by protecting them from the acidic gastric conditions and by allowing their release in the small intestine
due to the presence of bile salts (responsible for the disruption of the liposomes). Amine et al. (2014) evaluated the protective effect
of alginate microsystems on the survivability of Bifidobacterium longum in Cheddar cheese during in vitro digestion. The authors
concluded that microencapsulated B. longum had higher survivability during gastric digestion when compared with that in free form.
Micro- and nanosystems can in fact be applied to food products to promote the protection of bioactive compounds during
digestion, thus improving their bioavailability. Despite the increased number of publications regarding the application of micro-
and nanosystems in food products, systematic studies on regulation and legislation of the application of these systems are still
lacking, in particular of those at nanoscale, thus, more studies must be conducted to understand the possible interactions or
undesired reactions that may occur in food matrices.

Concluding Remarks

Micro- and nanotechnologies have a significant impact on the food industry through the development of novel food products with
additional functional properties, resulting from an increased public awareness towards the consumption of healthy food products.
However, at the nanoscale, materials tend to have distinct characteristics (e.g., higher volume/surface area ratio) which results in
improved or even novel functionalities. This indicates that nanotechnology is a very promising option and published research
efforts corroborate this statement. However, some challenges must be addressed (e.g., potential cytotoxicity) through in vitro or
in vivo studies. Another important bottleneck is the understanding of the possible interactions of nanosystems with food matrices;
there is an enormous lack of research in this field. In addition, there is a growing interest in understanding the behavior of such
micro- and nanosystems when incorporated into real food products under GI conditions. For this purpose, in vitro GI models
have been used since they are inexpensive and practical, do not raise any ethical concerns, and, in fact, some simulate closely
the GI conditions of the human digestion. Several studies infer that micro- and nanoencapsulation protect the bioactive compounds
from the harsh gastrointestinal conditions and consequently increase their bioavailability. But, it is important to point out that
more knowledge is required regarding the digestion of functional foods using in vitro GI systems mainly due to the complexity
of the food matrix and the constraints of existing experimental methodologies. There is still a long way to go, more fundamental
and applied research are needed to prove that these functional food products are safe for public consumption and can be
commercialized.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) under the scope of the strategic funding of UID/BIO/
04469/2013 unit and COMPETE 2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006684) and by BioTecNorte operation (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000004) funded
by the European Regional Development Fund under the scope of Norte2020 – Programa Operacional Regional do Norte. Daniel A. Madalena,
Ricardo N. Pereira and Oscar L. Ramos are recipient of a fellowship supported by FCT (SFRH/BD/129127/2017, SFRH/BPD/81887/2011 and SFRH/
BPD/80766/2011, respectively).

References

Aditya, N.P., Espinosa, Y.G., Norton, I.T., 2017. Encapsulation systems for the delivery of hydrophilic nutraceuticals: food application. Biotechnol. Advances 35, 450–457.
Amine, K.M., Champagne, C.P., Raymond, Y., St-Gelais, D., Britten, M., Fustier, P., Salmieri, S., Lacroix, M., 2014. Survival of microencapsulated bifidobacterium longum in
cheddar cheese during production and storage. Food Control 37, 193–199.
Biesalski, H.-K., Dragsted, L.O., Elmadfa, I., Grossklaus, R., Müller, M., Schrenk, D., Walter, P., Weber, P., 2009. Bioactive compounds: definition and assessment of activity.
Nutrition 25, 1202–1205.
Bonnet, M., Cansell, M., Berkaoui, A., Ropers, M.H., Anton, M., Leal-Calderon, F., 2009. Release rate profiles of magnesium from multiple w/o/w emulsions. Food Hydrocoll. 23,
92–101.
Bourbon, A.I., Cerqueira, M.A., Vicente, A.A., 2016. Encapsulation and controlled release of bioactive compounds in lactoferrin-glycomacropeptide nanohydrogels: curcumin and
caffeine as model compounds. J. Food Eng. 180, 110–119.
Cerqueira, M.A., Pinheiro, A.C., Silva, H.D., Ramos, P.E., Azevedo, M.A., Flores-López, M.L., Rivera, M.C., Bourbon, A.I., Ramos, Ó.L., Vicente, A.A., 2014. Design of
bio-nanosystems for oral delivery of functional compounds. Food Eng. Rev. 6, 1–19.
Chen, F., Fan, G.-Q., Zhang, Z., Zhang, R., Deng, Z.-Y., McClements, D.J., 2017. Encapsulation of omega-3 fatty acids in nanoemulsions and microgels: impact of delivery system
type and protein addition on gastrointestinal fate. Food Res. Int. 100, 387–395.
Damodaran, S., Parkin, K.L., Fennema, O.R., 2007. Fennema’s Food Chemistry, fourth ed. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group, New York, U.S.A.
de Oliveira, F.C., Coimbra, J.S., de Oliveira, E.B., Zuñiga, A.D.G., Rojas, E.E.G., 2016. Food protein-polysaccharide conjugates obtained via the maillard reaction: a review. Crit.
Reviews Food Science Nutrition 56, 1108–1125.
Di Meo, C., Montanari, E., Manzi, L., Villani, C., Coviello, T., Matricardi, P., 2015. Highly versatile nanohydrogel platform based on riboflavin-polysaccharide derivatives useful in the
development of intrinsically fluorescent and cytocompatible drug carriers. Carbohydr. Polym. 115, 502–509.
Ðorđevic, V., Balanc, B., Belscak-Cvitanovic, A., Levic, S., Trifkovic, K., Kalusevic, A., Kostic, I., Komes, D., Bugarski, B., Nedovic, V., 2014. Trends in encapsulation technologies
for delivery of food bioactive compounds. Food Eng. Rev. 7, 452–490.
Guiné, R.P.F., Ramalhosa, E.C.D., Valente, L.P., 2016. New foods, new consumers: innovation in food product development. Curr. Nutr. Food Sci. 12, 175–189.
 New Insights on Bio-Based Micro- and Nanosystems in Food 7

Gultekin-Ozguven, M., Karadag, A., Duman, S., Ozkal, B., Ozcelik, B., 2016. Fortification of dark chocolate with spray dried black mulberry (morus nigra) waste extract encapsulated
in chitosan-coated liposomes and bioaccessability studies. Food Chem. 201, 205–212.
Hasenhuttl, G.L., Hartel, R.W., 2008. Food Emulsifiers and Their Applications, second ed. Springer, New York, U.S.A.
Jarze˛ bski, M., Bellich, B., Białopiotrowicz, T., Sliwa, T., Koscinski, J., Cesàro, A., 2017. Particle tracking analysis in food and hydrocolloids investigations. Food Hydrocoll. 68,
90–101.
Jia, Z., Dumont, M.-J., Orsat, V., 2016. Encapsulation of phenolic compounds present in plants using protein matrices. Food Biosci. 15, 87–104.
Joye, I.J., McClements, D.J., 2014. Biopolymer-based nanoparticles and microparticles: fabrication, characterization, and application. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 19,
417–427.
Kamburova, K., Mitarova, K., Radeva, T., 2017. Polysaccharide-based nanocapsules for controlled release of indomethacin. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 519,
199–204.
Liu, S., Zhang, J., Cui, X., Guo, Y., Zhang, X., Hongyan, W., 2016. Synthesis of chitosan-based nanohydrogels for loading and release of 5-fluorouracil. Colloids Surf. A
Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 490, 91–97.
Liu, F., Ma, C., Gao, Y., McClements, D.J., 2017. Food-grade covalent complexes and their application as nutraceutical delivery systems: a review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.
16, 76–95.
López-Rubio, A., Lagaron, J.M., 2012. Whey protein capsules obtained through electrospraying for the encapsulation of bioactives. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 13, 200–206.
Lu, W., Kelly, A.L., Miao, S., 2016. Emulsion-based encapsulation and delivery systems for polyphenols. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 47, 1–9.
Madalena, D.A., Ramos, Ó.L., Pereira, R.N., Bourbon, A.I., Pinheiro, A.C., Malcata, F.X., Teixeira, J.A., Vicente, A.A., 2016. In vitro digestion and stability assessment of
b-lactoglobulin/riboflavin nanostructures. Food Hydrocoll. 58, 89–97.
Mantovani, R.A., Pinheiro, A.C., Vicente, A.A., Cunha, R.L., 2017. In vitro digestion of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by whey protein nanofibrils. Food Res. Int. 99, 790–798.
Mengíbar, M., Miralles, B., Heras, Á., 2017. Use of soluble chitosans in maillard reaction products with b-lactoglobulin. Emulsifying and antioxidant properties. LWT Food Sci.
Technol. 75, 440–446.
Oancea, A.-M., Aprodu, I., Ghinea, I.O., Barbu, V., Ioniţa, E., Bahrim, G., Râpeanu, G., Stanciuc, N., 2017. A bottom-up approach for encapsulation of sour cherries anthocyanins by
using b-lactoglobulin as matrices. J. Food Eng. 210, 83–90.
Pinheiro, A.C., Coimbra, M.A., Vicente, A.A., 2016. In vitro behaviour of curcumin nanoemulsions stabilized by biopolymer emulsifiers – effect of interfacial composition. Food
Hydrocoll. 52, 460–467.
Ramos, O.L., Pereira, R.N., Rodrigues, R., Teixeira, J.A., Vicente, A.A., Xavier Malcata, F., 2014. Physical effects upon whey protein aggregation for nano-coating production. Food
Res. Int. 66, 344–355.
Ramos, P.E., Abrunhosa, L., Pinheiro, A., Cerqueira, M.A., Motta, C., Castanheira, I., Chandra-Hioe, M.V., Arcot, J., Teixeira, J.A., Vicente, A.A., 2016. Probiotic-loaded
microcapsule system for human in situ folate production: encapsulation and system validation. Food Res. Int. 90, 25–32.
Ramos, O.L., Pereira, R.N., Martins, A., Rodrigues, R., Fucinos, C., Teixeira, J.A., Pastrana, L., Malcata, F.X., Vicente, A.A., 2017. Design of whey protein nanostructures for
incorporation and release of nutraceutical compounds in food. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 57, 1377–1393.
Rivera, M.C., Pinheiro, A.C., Bourbon, A.I., Cerqueira, M.A., Vicente, A.A., 2015. Hollow chitosan/alginate nanocapsules for bioactive compound delivery. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 79,
95–102.
Rivero, S., Giannuzzi, L., García, M.A., Pinotti, A., 2013. Controlled delivery of propionic acid from chitosan films for pastry dough conservation. J. Food Eng. 116, 524–531.
Robles-García, M.A., Rodríguez-Félix, F., Márquez-Ríos, E., Aguilar, J.A., Barrera-Rodríguez, A., Aguilar, J., Ruiz-Cruz, S., Del-Toro-Sánchez, C.L., 2016. Applications of
nanotechnology in the agriculture, food, and pharmaceuticals. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 16, 8188–8207.
Rossi, M., Cubadda, F., Dini, L., Terranova, M.L., Aureli, F., Sorbo, A., Passeri, D., 2014. Scientific basis of nanotechnology, implications for the food sector and future trends.
Trends Food Sci. Technol. 40, 127–148.
Semenova, M., 2017. Protein–polysaccharide associative interactions in the design of tailor-made colloidal particles. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 28, 15–21.
Simões, L.S., Madalena, D.A., Pinheiro, A.C., Teixeira, J.A., Vicente, A.A., Ramos, Ó.L., 2017. Micro- and nano bio-based delivery systems for food applications: in vitro behavior.
Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 243, 23–45.
Sotomayor-Gerding, D., Oomah, B.D., Acevedo, F., Morales, E., Bustamante, M., Shene, C., Rubilar, M., 2016. High carotenoid bioaccessibility through linseed oil nanoemulsions
with enhanced physical and oxidative stability. Food Chem. 199, 463–470.
Souza, M.P., Vaz, A.F.M., Correia, M.T.S., Cerqueira, M.A., Vicente, A.A., Carneiro-da-Cunha, M.G., 2013. Quercetin-loaded lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles for functional food
applications. Food Bioprocess Technol. 7, 1149–1159.
Weiss, J., Decker, E.A., McClements, D.J., Kristbergsson, K., Helgason, T., Awad, T., 2008. Solid lipid nanoparticles as delivery systems for bioactive food components. Food
Biophys. 3, 146–154.
Wilde, S.C., Keppler, J.K., Palani, K., Schwarz, K., 2016. Beta-lactoglobulin as nanotransporter for allicin: sensory properties and applicability in food. Food Chem. 199, 667–674.
Xu, J., Zhao, W., Ning, Y., Bashari, M., Wu, F., Chen, H., Yang, N., Jin, Z., Xu, B., Zhang, L., Xu, X., 2013. Improved stability and controlled release of u3/u6 polyunsaturated fatty
acids by spring dextrin encapsulation. Carbohydr. Polym. 92, 1633–1640.
Yang, Y., McClements, D.J., 2013. Encapsulation of vitamin e in edible emulsions fabricated using a natural surfactant. Food Hydrocoll. 30, 712–720.
Ying, D., Sun, J., Sanguansri, L., Weerakkody, R., Augustin, M.A., 2012. Enhanced survival of spray-dried microencapsulated lactobacillus rhamnosus gg in the presence of
glucose. J. Food Eng. 109, 597–602.
Zimmermann, 2004. The potential of encapsulated iron compounds in food fortification: a review. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 74, 453–461.

Further Reading

Dan, N., 2016. Transport and release in nano-carriers for food applications. J. Food Eng. 175, 136–144.
Lin, C.H., Chen, C.H., Lin, Z.C., Fang, J.Y., 2017. Recent advances in oral delivery of drugs and bioactive natural products using solid lipid nanoparticles as the carriers. J. Food
Drug Anal. 25, 219–234.
Mao, L., Roos, Y.H., Biliaderis, C.G., Miao, S., 2017. Food emulsions as delivery systems for flavor compounds: a review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 57, 3173–3187.
McClements, D.J., 2017. The future of food colloids: next-generation nanoparticle delivery systems. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 28, 7–14.
Pinheiro, A.C., Gonçalves, R.F.S., Madalena, D.A., Vicente, A.A., 2017. Towards the understanding of the behavior of bio-based nanostructures during in vitro digestion. Curr. Opin.
Food Sci.
Steenis, N., Fischer, A., 2016. Consumer attitudes towards nanotechnology in food products: an attribute-based analysis. Br. Food J. 118, 1254–1267.