Transportation of Susceptible Goods Made Transparent

A Guide to the Application of Electronic Transport Monitoring Appliances

by

Cicor Deutschland GmbH

Monitoring Logistics Data Loggers

Issue 09/2022
 Contents

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 4
2. Physical fundamentals ............................................................................................... 5
2.1. Acceleration and force ......................................................................................... 5
2.2. Shock ..................................................................................................................... 6
2.3. Vibrations.............................................................................................................. 9
2.4. Climatic stress .....................................................................................................11
3. Transport stresses (truck, ship, transshipment, railway) .......................................13
3.1. Specific problems of railway transport ............................................................ 28
3.2. Vibration data ....................................................................................................33
3.3. Climatic stress .....................................................................................................37
4. Effect of packaging ...................................................................................................40
4.1. Relationship between acceleration amplitude, shock duration and effect of
the packaging material ..................................................................................................41
4.2. Reflections on the equivalent drop height ........................................................ 42
5. Possibilities for testing the packaging ....................................................................45
6. Application of transport monitoring devices .......................................................... 55

Annex 1: Test suggestions according to ISO 4180:2008

Annex 2: Formula symbols

This guide may only be reprinted or reproduced with the permission of the author.

Lutz Kuschel
Cicor Deutschland GmbH
An der Priessnitzaue 22
01328 Dresden
Germany

Phone: +49 351 266 13 0

e-mail: info@monilog.de
support: support@monilog.de

2
Preface

The diagrams, figures and tables in this paper partly relate to older publications.
They are thus only intended as examples to show what needs to be considered when dealing
with transport monitoring, quality assurance and packaging testing/design.
An evaluation of the meanwhile numerous publications would go beyond the scope of this
manual.

3
1. Introduction

Let's assume you are the supplier of a fragile product that is sensitive to shock and vibration and
you want to deliver your product to customers somewhere in Europe, Asia, America or in a
neighbouring district.

Basically, it does not matter whether your product is a large transformer, a coffee set or a pallet
of pet food.

Are you sure that your product packaging in each of these cases is adequate?
Are you transporting your products with minimum transport losses and possibly even damage-
free with packaging material reduced to a minimum in the interest of our environment?

Consider that transport insurance covers only material damage. Customer annoyance and your
loss of image are not compensated for.
Electronic transport monitoring instruments which are provided by Cicor Deutschland GmbH in
different models for the most diverse applications are the solution to the problems quoted above.

4
2. Physical fundamentals
2.1. Acceleration and force

To understand how these instruments work, we need to go on a brief excursion into basic physics.
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) formulated the law of inertia of mechanics:

Everybody continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on by a
force.

Or expressed inversely:

If the state of motion of a body changes, i.e. the body’s motion is accelerated or decelerated,
this is always caused by a force acting on it.

These abstract sentences have tangible effects on the transport of sensitive products. If a product
is at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line, whether at 0.5 m/s or supersonic speed, nothing
will happen to it. Only when accelerated or decelerated – shocks caused by shunting operations
in rail transport, emergency braking of a truck, being put down hard by a lifting device, toppling
over, falling down or impaction – will it become harmful.

How dangerous the shock will be is determined by the fundamental law of mechanics formulated
by Sir Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727):

Force = mass x acceleration

F=mxa (a = acceleration) (1)

If a china cup with a mass of 100 g is subjected to a shunting shock of 10 m/s² on a railway
transport, a force of

F = 0.1 kg x 10 m/s²= 1 kg m/s² (2)

will act on it.

This is a relatively small force which makes no great demands on the sturdiness of packaging. If
the same shunting shock acts on a 2000 kg transformer, the force acting on it will be:

F = 2000 kg x 10 m/s² = 20000 kgm/s² (3)

That is, the same acceleration will produce different forces with different masses, and the
transformer can cause considerable damage or suffer damage itself if not properly secured.

Now the units of measurement used remain to be explained. As is generally known, 1 m/s is
the unit of velocity (speed). This unit is given if a body moves the unit of length of 1 m within the
unit of time of 1 s. The unit of acceleration is given if the velocity changes by 1 m/s within 1 s.
The formula for the unit of acceleration is:

a = 1 m/s/s = 1 m/s s = 1 m/s². (4)

5
If we know that a fast sports car accelerates from zero to 100 km/h in 7 seconds, which is
approx. 28 m/s, the acceleration exerted will be

28 m/s/7 s = 4 m/s². (5)

If velocity increases, acceleration is positive. If velocity decreases (slowing down of the sports
car), acceleration is negative. In the latter case, we also speak of deceleration.

The Earth's attraction produces acceleration on all objects everywhere. This force is generally
called acceleration of gravity or acceleration of free fall, and the symbol is g.

g = 9.81 m/s². (6)

The unit of force is 1 Newton (abbr. 1 N). It accelerates a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s².

Therefore: 1 Newton = 1 kg m/s² (7)

The force of gravity of a mass or weight of 1 kg is 9.81 N.

If a body is accelerated at a rate of 1 g = 9.81 m/s², a force equivalent to its weight acts on it.
In the previous example, the force of 1 N acts on the china cup on impact.
Like accelerations and velocities, forces are characterized not just by their magnitude but also
by their direction. So the acceleration of free fall, and thus the force of gravity, is always directed
towards the centre of the earth.

2.2. Shock

An event which damages the product due to excessive and sudden acceleration shall be called
shock. A shock is characterized by the maximum value of the occurring acceleration or
deceleration and by duration. This can best be seen in a diagram where the acceleration a is
plotted against the time t. Such diagrams can be recorded by so-called accelerometers.

During a shock, acceleration increases, reaches a maximum value and then decreases again. If
an elastic body such as a rubber ball hits a hard wall with the impact velocity vo, its motion will
not come to a sudden standstill owing to the elastic properties of the ball but will continue for
some milliseconds. As the ball is slowed down over an extended time interval, acceleration does
not reach a high maximum value either.
If, however, a hard steel ball hits the same wall at the same impact velocity v o, the impact
duration will be considerably shorter, but maximum acceleration will also be greater.

6
The different curves of acceleration and velocity are shown in Diagram 1. The velocity results
from the difference between impact velocity vo before the impact and the relevant area A subject
to the progression of acceleration.
The steel and rubber balls impact elastically. Because of the impact at the wall they are reflected
with the inverse impact velocity, i.e. the kinetic energy, which is proportional to the product of
mass and the square of the velocity, remains constant.
In the last part of Diagram 1 the impact curve of an ideally packaged steel ball is represented.
At the end of the impact the velocity is zero. This means that during this inelastic impact the
entire energy of the steel ball

Wkin = m
2 vo
2
(8)

in the package has been converted to ductility and heat.

In practice, mixed forms consisting of elastic and inelastic impacts arise. In these cases the
progression in time of the acceleration can often be described approximately with the first half
cycle of a sinusoidal oscillation. Consequently,

v = 2
 timpact am = 0.64 timpact am (9)

applies for the impact velocity, i.e. the decisive energy for the destruction by shock is
proportional to the square of the product from the maximum acceleration and shock time.
This product

timpact am [ m/s ] ( 10 )

with the dimension of "velocity" is also known as the shock magnitude.

The maximum acting force is, on the other hand, in accordance with Newton's Law equal to the
product of the maximum acceleration and mass.

7
Diagram 1 Acceleration and velocity curves for various types of
shock

8
 2.3. Vibrations

Vibrations are periodical oscillatory movements initiated by the most diverse causes. (See
diagram 2.)

Diagram 2 Sinusoidal oscillation

The key physical characteristics of a vibration are its amplitude a, its frequency f in Hz (1 s-1) or
its period T (s).

The amplitude is the path between the position of equilibrium and the reversal point, indicated
in m/s² or g in the special case of mechanical vibrations.

A vibration period or time of vibration covers a complete vibration cycle with positive and
negative half-wave.
The relationship between frequency and vibration period is as follows:

T = 1 / f or f = 1 / T ( 11 )

In transport practice there are no vibrations that consist only of a single frequency. The complex
situation inside the means of transport always results in a frequency composition (frequency
spectrum) with individual frequencies having different amplitudes.
In road transport frequencies between 3 and 350 Hz occur, on ships, however, they are just
between 0.1 and 10 Hz. (See also Table 8.)
Vibrations are capable of exciting resonance vibrations or covibrations in other vibration-
capable bodies. Resonance vibrations are generated if the natural frequency of a body (e.g. a
package) coincides with a frequency of the inducing vibration and this frequency has a
sufficiently large amplitude. The body’s natural frequency depends on its material properties
such as mass and modulus of elasticity. The resonance frequency can be excited to such an
extent that destruction of the system ensues (resonance catastrophe).

9
10
 2.4. Climatic stress

The climatic stress a cargo is subjected to always consists of different climatic elements such as
solar radiation, temperature, humidity, etc.

In addition to the macroclimate of a particular geographic region that depends on the time of
the year and day, it is the cryptoclimate or microclimate that is of importance to the cargo.
This cryptoclimate develops especially inside cargo spaces, packing units and at the packaged
goods.
The macroclimates are divided into climatic regions for reasons of simplicity.
(See Table 1 [ 11 ].)

Climatic region Identifier Characteristics

The normal values of the annual temperature extremes are:

Temperate n n: below +40°C and above –25°C
Cold temperate nf nf: below +35°C and above –40°C
The combined value of 20°C/80% RH or the equivalent or
higher partial pressure of water vapour occurs only rarely
In the coldest month the normal value of the monthly
Cold f average temperature is:
Extremely cold ff f: below –15°C
ff: below –36°C
Characteristic phenomena: white frost, icing, strong winds with
fine snow dust
In the warmest month the normal value of the monthly average
Dry warm ta temperature is:
Dry hot taa ta: above +22°C
taa: above +25°C without high relative humidity

The normal values of the annual maximum temperature is:

ta: above +40°C
taa: above +45°C
Characteristic phenomena: great daily temperature fluctuations,
heavy and profuse rainfall, condensation on surfaces, effect of
biological influences
In the most humid month the normal value of the monthly average
Humid warm th temperature is:
Alternating tha th, tha: above 20°C
Humid hot thh thh: above 30°C; the normal value of the
monthly average of relative humidity being above 80%
In the climatic region tha the humid warm period alternates
seasonally with a dry warm or temperate period (China). The
climatic region thh is limited to the area of the Arabic-Persian
Gulf.

11
 Characteristic phenomena: small daily temperature fluctuations,
heavy and profuse rainfall, condensation on surfaces, effect of
biological influences
Table 1 Overview of macroclimates

12
3. Transport stresses (truck, ship, transshipment, railway)

Within the chain of means of transport, mechanical dynamic stresses act on the cargo.

These stresses can be caused by vehicle vibrations and/or shocks.

Shocks which occur especially during hard manoeuvring (trucks), shunting operations (railway)
or loading and unloading (e.g. by throwing, falling or tilting) shall be looked at more closely
here because they are responsible for 90% of all transport damage.

On trucks, shocks can occur in all directions. Stresses in the direction of travel (x-direction) are
generally caused by hard braking or similar driving manoeuvres. Stresses occurring in
transversal direction (y-direction) are caused by cross movements of the cargo area in fast
cornering. Shocks vertical to the direction of travel (z-direction) are mainly caused by road
condition.

Table 2 [ 1 ] shows an overview of stresses that may occur on trucks

The values relate to half-sinusoidal impact progressions. There is no great difference between
the x- and y-directions. The highest acceleration values occur in the z-direction, i.e. vertical to
the direction of travel.
Diagrams 3 and 4 show results of real measurements on trucks in long-distance and local traffic
[ 2 ]. It is characteristic for both cases that occasional heavy shocks occur.

13
14
Table 2 [1]

15
 Diagram 3 Loads on semitrailer lorries with air supension [2]

60
52
50

N 40
u 31
m 30
b
e
r 20
14

10
3 2 1 0 0 0 1
0

Classification of acceleration values (g)

Diagram 4 Frequency of acceleration values after 3100 km (lorry) for a 20 kg parcel [ 2

]

1600
1425
1400
1200
N
1015
u 1000
m
800
b
e 600
r
400 337

200 53 9 3 5 2 0 1
0

Classification of acceleration values (g)

16
A critical point in the chain of means of transport is the loading and unloading of goods. Loading
and unloading stresses differ very much, depending on the weight of the transported goods. This
is mostly expressed in the weight-dependent possible drop heights or heights of fall whereby
these values have been gained by observation and are based on the human body. (See Table
3.) [ 4 ]
The ISTA (U.S.A.) specified the values listed in Table 4 for parcels up to 45 kg in a 1984
publication [ 9 ].
The US standard MIL-STD 810 F, issue 1997 specified the values listed in Table 5 for test drop
heights and for the maximal impact velocities.
Further values suitable for testing can be found in ISO 4180, which contains a subdivision for
cargo < 30 kg, > 30 kg as well as < 100 kg and > 100 kg.
(See ISO 4180:2008 Table 18-21, also Annex 1.)
Shocks up to 95 g can occur at these drop heights (see Diagram 5, measurements made with
TÜG 901.)
Measurements made during real transports resulted in the values shown in Diagram 6 [ 5 ] for
the drop heights indicated.
The heaviest shocks generally occurred when the parcel fell down from the means of transport
onto the ground, quay or loading platform.
Another problem is constituted by the freight centres operated by parcel services for parcel
distribution.
Diagram 7 shows a stress profile of such a freight centre. It is clearly visible that the parcels are
subject to the greatest stress at the ejection points.
This profile was recorded with the EnDaL shock recorder in the "movement recorder" mode.

Weight of parcel Drop height

in
h
Transport by road, rail, Transport by
or air ship
kg kg m

Up to 15 1.00
Up to 10 > 15 to 30 0.80
> 10 to 20 > 30 to 40 0.60
> 20 to 30 > 40 to 45 0.50
> 30 to 40 > 45 to 50 0.40
> 40 to 50 > 50 to 100 0.30
> 50 to 100 > 100 to 200 0.20
> 100 > 200 to 450 0.10

Table 3 Drop heights for the testing of packages depending on mass [4]

17
 Parcel weight [kg] Drop height [cm] Impact velocity [m/s]

0.5 to 9.5 76 3.9

9.5 to 18.6 61 3.5

18.6 to 27.7 46 3

28 to 45 30 2.5

Table 4 Possible drop heights during transport [9]

Parcel weight [kg] Handling Test drop height [cm] Max. velocity
change
[cm/s] / 100%
rebound

0 to 9.1 Manual 76 722

9.2 to 18.2 Manual 66 719
18.3 to 27.3 Manual 61 691
27.4 to 36.3 Manual 46 600
36.4 to 45.4 Manual 38 546
45.5 to 68.1 With machinery 31 488
68.2 to With machinery 26 447
113.5
113.6 to – With machinery 20 399

Table 5 Test drop heights according to MIL-STD 810 F [ 14 ]

Table 6 Test drop heights according to ISO 4180:2008 [ 15 ]

18
 Diagram 5 Max. acceleration values for selected freight forwarders (measured with
TÜG 901)

100 94
90
80
69
70
60 55
a max (g)

50
40
30
20
10
0
Spedition 1 Spedition 2 Spedition 3

Diagram 6 Frequency of acceleration values after 11,000 km (lorry) for a 20 kg parcel

[5]

80
72,1
70

60

50

% 40

30

20
13,2
10 5,4
2,6 1,4
0,5 1,4 0,2 0,5 0,7 0,7 0,2 0,2 0 0 0,2 0 0,2 0,2 0
0

Drop height (cm)

19
Diagram 7

20
21
In sea transports, transport stress by tilt caused by rolling, pitching or similar movements of the
ship may also come into play. Roll periods of 10 s on large ships are indeed possible. Also,
roll angles between 10 and 30° are normal, in heavy seas up to 45°
[www.containerhandbuch.de]. High tensile and compressive forces (see Table 6) can thus be
exerted on the cargo, and e.g. cause damage to the active part of a transformer such that the
laminated core is displaced or the insulators are damaged. This is notably the case if the ship
makes these movements over a prolonged period (e.g. in a storm). And this damage is not
visible from the outside. It is then helpful to know that such events have occurred.

Means of Forward-acting Backward-acting Lateral forces

transport Sea- forces forces
going vessel

Baltic Sea 0.3 g (b) 0.3 g (b) 0.5 g

North Sea 0.3 g (c) 0.3 g (c) 0.7 g
Worldwide voyage 0.4 g (d) 0.4 g (d) 0.8 g
b = +/- 0.5 g c = +/- 0.7 g d = +/- 0.8 g

Table 7 [ 16 ]

The values indicated in the footnotes (a), (b) and (c) in principle represent the accelerations in
the vertical direction. These are particularly high during pitch and roll movements and may in
fact reach 1 g in very bad weather. The CTU packing guidelines set the maximum at 0.8 g.

The data measured for the Baltic Sea are as follows [ 17 ].

The device ShockDisplay curve or ShockDisplay curve plus records these events by means of a
tilt sensor and makes them available as an acceleration value or tilt angle (see Diagram 8). The
forces can then be calculated immediately by applying Newton's fundamental law of mechanics.

22
Diagram 8

When looked at more closely and evaluated, Diagram 8 shows that the cargo oscillated
slightly about its y-axis (which corresponds to the z-axis of the device when attached vertically
to the cargo).
The other two axes are deflected in identical direction, with the zero positions of the axes
being at -1.0 g (y-axis) and 0.05 g (x-axis).

Another major problem for transported goods is the loading and unloading at container
terminals, in warehouses or at airports.
Due to the very short loading and unloading times available, the goods are partly subject to
considerable stress.

Tables 8 and 9 [ 18 ] show the possible acceleration values in container transports. This table
is impressively confirmed by Fig. 1 showing an acceleration value of 8.3 g recorded together
with the GPS coordinates during loading at the Hamburg container terminal.

23
Tables 8 and 9 Stresses during container handling [ 18 ]

24
Figure 1

25
Cargo-handling operations in warehouses, notably with fork-lift trucks, cause relatively high
impact loads. (See Diagram 9.)

Diagram 9 Loads in fork-lift truck handling

But this problem also exists in the supposedly smooth air transport. Here, the critical points are
take-off and landing as well as cargo-handling operations. Table 10 [ 19 ] shows such values
for a B 747 cargo aircraft.

Table 10

In transports of artworks for the Dresden State Art Collections, high impact loads were
measured during handling in the airport cargo areas (see Diagram 10 [ 20 ]).

26
Diagram 10 Loads in airport cargo areas

27
 3.1. Specific problems of railway transport

Measurements carried out on railway transports have shown that the goods are stressed above
all in the direction of travel (x-axis), mainly caused by improper shunting.
During shunting, the values listed in table 11 can occur as described in [ 3 ].
Deutsche Bahn AG (DB AG) has recently given precise values for transport stresses that can
occur in train transport (see Table 6 [ 8 ]).

Impact Acceleration Shock Velocity

velocity vo a duration change
km/h m/s² tshock v
ms m/s

4-8 100 8 0.5

5.5 100 5 0.3
6 170 3 0.32
6.3 205 4 0.52
9.6 280 4 0.7
10 560 8 2.9
11 125 40 3.1
11.1 130 43 3.6
12.6 70 100 4.5
13 330 4 0.84
13 670 7 3.0
16 660 2 0.84
16 1060 3 2.0
18 200 40 5.1
18 1560 8 7.95
18.5 780 4 2.0
20.4 470 17 5.1
Table 11 Stress values for rail transport [ 3 ]

28
 Previous New

Travel speed
(km/h)

90 120

single wagons / entire trains /

groups of wagons cargo units in
combined rail/road
carriage
Stresses in
horizontal direction
(in g)

- longitudinal 4 4 1

- transversal 0.4 0.5 0.5

vertical 0.3 0.3 0.3

Table 12 Stress values for rail transport according to DB AG [ 8 ]

Values obtained in tests on the US-American and British railway networks are listed in Tables 13
and 14.

Table 13 Test conditions of the US railway [ 21 ]

29
Table 14 Vibrations in UK rail transport [ 22 ]

When using shock recorders for monitoring railway transports, some specific problems should
be taken into account.
To calculate the velocity change at the moment of impact, the model of the straight elastic impact
should be used.
In this model, the masses of the colliding partners (wagons) m1 and m2, the spring constant SC
and the end force EF of the buffers must be known.

Then the change of velocity can be calculated using the following equation [ 6 ]:

v = a 2  m
1 m1 
1 +  (12)
 SC  m2 

This equation can only be used as long as the buffers do not hit through the buffer block because
at that moment the spring constant would change abruptly and the impact would then have to
be considered as inelastic where different laws apply.
The frequency range of the measuring chain used must also be considered.
Wagons can have intrinsic frequencies in the 90–130 Hz range. If the measuring chains or
shock recorders used work in this frequency range, a lot of data that are irrelevant to the actual
problem will be obtained.
It is favourable to set the limit of the measuring chain or shock recorder to 16 to 20 Hz for that
particular application.

30
A second possibility is the calculation of the velocity change by integrating acceleration and
time:

te
v =  a(t )dt (ti beginning of shock; te end of shock) (13)
ti

The data logger Endal curve uses this method to determine the velocity change.

To calculate the collision velocity v1, the mass ratio of the wagons and the loss of energy at the
moment of impact must be considered:

 = m1 m 2 (1 bumping wagon, 2 wagon hit) (14)

 = ( Ei − Ee) Ei (Ei initial energy; Ee end energy) (15)

From these considerations is given the collision velocity v1 for the wagon [ 7 ]:

 
v1(ti ) = − (1 +  ) (1 + 1 −  ) v (16)

The following cases are important [ 7 ]:

1.  =0  =1 ➔ v1(ti) = -v (17)

elastic impact; wagon 1 stops

2.  =1  =1 ➔ v1(ti) = -2v (18)

inelastic impact; wagon 1 continues to move at half the impact velocity

3.  =1  =0 ➔ v1(ti) = -v (19)

inelastic impact on wall / buffer block; wagon 1 stuck at buffer block

4.  =0  =0 ➔ v1(ti) = -v/2 (20)

elastic impact on wall / buffer block; wagon 1 moves back with collision velocity

As these cases show, it is not easy to distinguish between elastic and inelastic impacts or to
calculate the actual collision velocity at all without knowing the exact parameters.

We conducted some own experiments in cooperation with DB AG and Intercontainer/Interfrigo

in Bremerhaven. These experiments served both to test new banana transport wagons for
Intercontainer/Interfrigo and to test and optimize the curve recorder function (recording of
acceleration over time curve) of the EnDaL curve shock recorder.
As Diagram 11 shows, there is a clear connection between the speed at collision of the wagon
and the magnitude of the shock.
Diagram 12 shows a typical collision of a wagon (filter = 16 Hz).

31
Diagram 11

5,0
6th test at 10.3 km/h
28 bar
4,0 4th test at 8.4 km/h 5th test at 9.6 km/h

3rd test at 6.9 km/h

3,0
a in g

2,0

1,0

0,0
1 101 201 301 401 501 601 701 801 901

-1,0
Time in ms

Diagram 12

32
 3.2. Vibration data

In general, the vibration data supplied by measuring instruments are not directly suited to
establish test specifications or test plans.
However, this means that the existing raw data must be evaluated based on specific criteria.
For this type of evaluation, the FFT analysis method (fast Fourier transformation) of the raw data
has become generally accepted in the last years. This mathematical method is used to analyse
the raw data, i.e. the given frequency spectrum for its frequency composition. The transformation
visualizes the frequencies that occur in the course of acceleration over time.
Physically speaking, this means that time space data are transformed into frequency space data.
Diagram 13 shows the raw data collected by the EnDaL curve data logger on a measurement
trip. It shows the acceleration amplitude over time.
Diagram 14 visualizes the frequency spectrum obtained from the data using FFT.

Diagram 13 Acceleration over time

33
Diagram 14 FFT graphics

To be able to make good use of these data for test purposes, the FFT data are used to generate
a so-called PSD spectrum (power spectral density) as shown in Diagram 15.
It can be clearly seen that the analysed vibration has frequency components between 10 and
20 Hz that have a high power density and therefore a great potential for causing damage.
In order to make a reliable statement about the damage potential, it is necessary to measure and
analyse several spectra of this kind.
In order to derive reasonable test spectra from such PSD curves, an envelope curve is usually
drawn (worst case see Diagram 16). This results in spectra that can be used for the laboratory
test.
However, these curves must be viewed with a critical eye since the application of the worst
case curve results in too strict a test unless the packaging in question is intended for hazardous
goods.

34
Diagram 15 PSD spectrum

Diagram 16 Possible envelope of a PSD spectrum (bold line)

35
Diagram 17 [ 12 ] shows the resulting test spectra that are listed in different standards. A
guideline how to evaluate raw data and to obtain such resulting test spectra can be found in
DIN EN 15433 Part 5. Reference spectra for a variety of modes of transport are also given in
DIN 30786-2.

Diagram 17 Resulting test spectra in accordance with different standards

36
Table 15 gives an overview of vibration ranges occurring in the individual modes of transport
These frequencies should be taken into account in package design in order to avoid resonance
problems.

Mode of transport Vibrations up to Frequent vibration Max.

max. range acceleration
(Hz)
Rail transport
800 16-350 1.0
Road transport
500
Lorries with
conventional 10–20 4.0
suspension
Trailers with 10–20 4.5
conventional 10–20 0.4
suspension
Lorries with air 10–20 1.5
suspension
Trailers with air
suspension 10–20 1.5
Semi-trailers with
conventional
suspension
Air transport
3000 60–400 0.6
Ship transport
700 0.1–10 1.3
Container handling
160 Up to 5 0.4

Table 15 Overview of occurring vibration frequencies [ 13 ]

DIN EN 13011 facilitates the evaluation of acceleration–time data for vibrations insofar as it
allows an octave analysis in the range of 2–512 Hz.
This means that this frequency spectrum is divided into so-called octaves (i.e. 8 frequency groups)
and the maximal amplitude of each of the frequency groups is calculated. (See Diagram 12,
right) This analysis provides a fast assessment whether there is a critical amplitude level in one
of the frequency group ranges. When critical frequencies and critical amplitudes of the cargo
are known, the packaging can be designed such that the cargo does not suffer any damage.

3.3. Climatic stress

The climatic data collected by the measuring instruments are relatively easy to evaluate.

37
What matters most is to evaluate the data for non-exceedance of temperature and humidity limits.
These limits to be defined by the user usually depend on the product to be transported.
Another matter is undershooting of the dew point temperature inside or at the cargo. If a dew
point measuring device is used, undershooting can be measured directly because these
instruments compare the ambient temperature with the momentary dew point temperature. But in
most cases the user only has a device that measures the ambient temperature and relative
humidity. With these values, however, the dew point temperature can be calculated and values
compared.
An empirical formula (21) (derived from the saturated vapour pressure) to determine the dew
point temperature is as follows:

1 (21)
TD =
 
 
 1
−
1  17.11
*
  17.11* T 100  17.11  234.7
 − ln  
  234.7 + T RH  

TD Dew point temperature (°C) T Measured air temperature value (°C)

RH Measured relative humidity value
This matter is of extreme importance, especially when containers are transported across several
climatic zones because in most cases the cryptoclimate shows a delayed reaction to
macroclimatic changes. This may cause a very sudden temperature drop below the dew point
temperature at the package.

Diagram 18 shows the climate curve of a container transport from Germany to New York. In
addition, the dew point temperature was calculated according to (21) and entered in the
diagram. At some points it can be clearly seen that the temperature is close to the dew point
temperature. Assuming that the climate inside the container is very heterogeneous (see Fig. 2
[23]), local condensation may definitely occur.

38
Diagram 18

Figure 2 Temperature distribution in a container with brown paint [ 23 ]

39
4. Effect of packaging

The g-values occurring in the package when transported goods fall down depend mostly on the
packaging, which is intended to act as a shock absorber. That is, the packaging must
compensate the difference between the stresses induced from outside and the ability of the
product to withstand abusive handling. For this, the packaging must be able to convert the impact
energy into deformation or thermal energy.

This given, the dimension and design of the package determine whether a shock exerted
externally to the transported good will cause any damage. If over-dimensioned, this will lead to
high packaging costs. If under-dimensioned, transport damage will occur.

By combining material properties adequately with package design, the effects of shocks on the
product can be designed such that the "braking distance" of the product is prolonged within the
package, thus reducing maximum acceleration and shock magnitude.

This can be illustrated with the help of simple models:

Unpackaged cargo Packaged cargo

40
 4.1. Relationship between acceleration amplitude, shock
duration and effect of the packaging material

To explain this relationship, a cargo with the following properties is assumed.

Switch cabinet with power supply unit

Weight of power supply unit 10 kg

Owing to the switch cabinet design, the fastening elements of the power supply unit inside the
switch cabinet may only be loaded with a force of max. 1000 N.

It follows from the force equation (1)

F = m x a = 1000 N = 10 kg x 100 m/s²

that the mounting elements of the power supply unit may be loaded with maximally 10 g
(100 m/s²).

If the unpacked switch cabinet is subjected to a drop test from a height of 20 cm onto a
concrete floor, this shock could have the following parameters:

Acceleration acting on the object am = 20 g

Shock duration tshock= 10 ms

The force that acts on the switch cabinet during the shock would be:

F = 10 kg x 200 m/s² = 2000 N

This would mean that the exerted force will cause the mounting elements of the power supply
unit to break.

In order to dimension the packaging accordingly, the result needs to be considered on the
basis of kinetic energy since the law of conservation of energy applies.

Using the approximation formula for kinetic energy

Wkin 
m
(v )² whereby v = 2  am tshock = 0.64 am tshock (half-sinusoidal shock) (22)
2

the kinetic energy occurring in this theoretical drop test, is calculated as follows:

W kin  10 kg / 2 x (0.64 x 200 m/s² x 0.01 s)²  8.2 Nm

41
This has the following implications for the package described above:

Based on an allowable maximum force of 1000 N that acts on the mounting elements of the
power supply unit plus a safety allowance, the packaging should be chosen such that the
amplitude occurring at the power supply unit is maximally 8 g.
Since the kinetic energy is constant during the drop test with all other test conditions being also
constant (conservation of energy), the shock duration must be prolonged through the packaging.

In this example this means a prolongation of the shock duration to 25 ms at max. 8 g ( 80

m/s²)

W kin  8.2 Nm  10 kg / 2 x (0.64 x 80 m/s² x 0.025 s)²

Thus a packaging material must be chosen that it transforms the shock from the first test (20 g /
10 ms) into a shock of 8 g / 25 ms.
This means a reduction in amplitude in order to reduce the action of force but a prolongation of
the shock duration in order to fulfil the energy condition. (See also Fig. 2 on page 22.)

4.2. Reflections on the equivalent drop height

Various publications (notably American) mention the equivalent drop height.

This means that it is attempted to convert the shock events occurring during transport tests into
drop heights in order to draw conclusions about test drop heights. This “equivalent” drop height
can be derived as follows.

Dropped in free fall from a height h at a velocity of

v = 2gh
0 (23)

the packages hit an inelastic collision partner.

Packaging as a damping element flattens the acceleration curve.

The packaging and the product must absorb the energy Wkin of a sinusoidal shock according to
equation 22.

The value measured or calculated by the shock recorder (e.g. EnDaL curve or ShockDisplay
curve) v is therefore a measure of the energy converted in the package during the shock.

Looking at the velocity-time diagram on page 31, the curve up to point B corresponds to the
curve of the impact velocity v0 and, from point B, to the curve of the rebound velocity vr, i.e. the
velocity change at the moment of impact is

v = v0 + vr . (24)

42
The maximum deformation of the package occurs at point B.

The ratio of rebound and impact velocity is termed rebound coefficient e

e = vr . (25)
v0

The value for e is between 0 (fully plastic impact) and 1 (fully elastic impact). In practice, e values
between 0.25 and 0.75 occur.
If the rebound coefficient e, which is a specific packaging characteristic, is known, it is possible
to calculate the so-called “equivalent drop height” from the measured or calculated values of the
velocity change v at the moment of impact.

The equivalent drop height is then calculated as follows:

Eq. 23, 24, 25 yield:

v = (1+ e) 2gh (26)

which in turn yields

h =  1v
2
 1
 (27)
+ e  2g

The shock recorders EnDaL curve and ShockDisplay curve calculate the value v by integrating
the shock curve for each component of the shock that has occurred.

The rebound coefficient e can be determined for the packaging by relatively simple means.
To determine e, it is necessary to equip a cargo dummy – with the weight and dimensions of the
cargo – with a shock recorder and to perform drop tests from exactly defined heights.
The v values are thus obtained for this dummy and e can be calculated. The curve recorder
function of the EnDaL curve shock recorder is particularly suited for this because the acceleration-
time curve (see Diagram 20) can be used to calculate the v value by performing numerical
integration.
Using simple devices, e.g. the ShockDisplay curve, it is possible to determine the function a =
f(h) by means of the dummy (see Diagram 19) and to evaluate real transports accordingly.

When making such a dummy, a few things should be observed.

To make full use of the accuracy indicated by the manufacturer of the shock or vibration
recorder when examining transport dummies, the acceleration value that arrives at the recorder
must correspond to the exerted shock as exactly as possible.
This means that the package must transmit the shock very well.
Therefore, when making the dummy, the main attention should be paid to the attachment of the
recorder inside the dummy and to the packaging of the dummy.
So the recorder must be attached in such a way that there are no relative movements between
the dummy and the recorder. That is, there should be no displacement of the recorder relative

43
to the dummy that is not immediately responded to by a counterforce counteracting the
displacement.
The natural vibration frequencies of the recorder inside the dummy or a device dummy (e.g.
washing machine) in the packaging must either exceed the upper filter frequency of the
recorder so far or be attenuated to such an extent that they represent only 10% of the
amplitude of the acceleration signal.

The padding materials used and the mounting elements of the recorder must be designed in
such a way that they are not loaded above their range of elastic strength. Only this ensures the
reproducibility of the measurements.
Likewise the materials must be long-term stable and remain unaffected by weather conditions
(e.g. humidity). It is recommended to use the dummy maximally 3 times to exclude failure of
the padding material.
To obtain a good measurement resolution, the padding of the device dummy or recorder
should be hard enough to ensure that at least 50% of the sensitivity range of the recorder is
utilized.
The weight of the dummy should be appropriate for the means of transport to be tested (e.g.
10 kg for manual handling).
Diagram 19 a = f (h)

70

60

50

40
a (g)

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Drop height (cm)

44
Diagram 20

5. Possibilities for testing the packaging

For a sensible packaging test it is essential to know the maximum loads arising during actual
transport and/or the specific values for the package that can lead to damage.
The loads caused by the transport on the package can be determined simply with transport
monitoring appliances. In this connection the data gained must be evaluated in respect of the
maximum acceleration am and the maximum shock time tm arising.
The specific damage values for the package ad and td, i.e. the values at which the cargo may be
damaged, are dependent on the design.

In practice, 2 methods have established themselves for the testing of packaging.

The first option uses a shaker (shock table) to test the packaged cargo. With the help of the
shaker a sine impulse with an amplitude am (g) and a shock time tm (ms) is introduced into the
cargo. The packaging quality can be determined by measuring the values a1 and t1 reaching
the package (i.e. in the inside of the packaging). The measurements are made with acceleration
sensors or shock recorders.

The second option for testing the package is a free fall test.
In this case the package is jettisoned in free fall from a certain height.
The shock entering the package on impact with the amplitude a1 and the shock time t1 is also
measured with an acceleration sensor or shock recorder.
Diagrams 21–23 show the testing of a new packaging material using this test method in a series
of 26 drop tests in total. The results of these tests were used to determine the padding curve of
this packaging material (see Diagram 24 [ 10 ].

45
Standards are set for the test heights for free fall, e.g. ISO 4180:2008 Table 18-21. (See also
Annex 1.)

46
Diagram 21 Drop height 1 m, height of padding 3 cm

47
48
Diagram 22 Drop height 1 m, height of padding 10 cm

49
50
Diagram 23 Drop height 1 m, height of padding 20 cm

51
52
Diagram 24 [10]

Table 16 [ 4 ] gives an overview of the testing drop heights assigned to the individual modes of
transport.
It is important that both tests are made in different directions. For example, impacts on the edges
or verges of a cube shaped package are more critical than an even impact on a side surface.

Shock test Shock test

Sloping surface Free fall

Velocity change v Drop height h

m/s m

Road transport Normal value 1.5 0.5

Test range 1.5 to 2.7 0.1 to 1.2

Rail transport Normal value 2.0 0.5

Test range 1.5 to 5.0 1.5 to 1.2

Ship transport Normal value – 0.3

Test range – 0.1 to 1.2

Air transport Normal value – 0.5

Test range – 0.1 to 1.2

Table 16 Overview of normal values and test ranges during road, rail,
ship and air transport (shock testing) [4]

53
Ideally designed packaging is constructed in such a way that the values a1 and t1 are always
smaller than ad and td at the maximum possible external load am and tm.
If the values a1 and t1 are greater than ad and td, transport damage may ensue, i.e. the dimensions
of the packaging are too small. If the values a1 and t1 are considerably smaller than ad and td,
the packaging is over-dimensioned and results in additional costs.

The effect of packaging can be measured very well if a master-slave system is used. In such a
system, the master device triggers the slave device when a relevant shock acts on the outer
packaging. The slave device then records the shock that arrives at the packaged good. Diagram
25 [ 20 ] shows the result of such measurements. The damping effect of the foam padding
selected for the cargo is clearly evident from the diagram. It is about 65%.

54
Diagram 25 Comparisons of the loads directly at the wheelchair (top) with the loads in the
transport box (bottom)

6. Application of transport monitoring devices

The transport monitoring device EnDaL curve can be used both for transport monitoring and for
packaging tests.
After it has been fastened rigidly to the sensitive product or to a dummy, it can be sent on the
planned transport route. It captures all events by means of high-quality acceleration sensors in
the three spatial axes (shocks, bounces etc.) above a selectable threshold and records the times
of occurrence.
With the simultaneous measurement of temperature and relative humidity, this device allows the
measurement of the quantities that are mainly responsible for damage in transit.
EnDaL curve also permits the measurement of tilt angles and air pressure.
The software supplied with the device allows comprehensive data evaluation and representation.
The EnDaL curve software also evaluates the recorded acceleration-time curves for their frequency
composition (FFT analysis, see Diagram 10), VRS and SRS and generates a PSD spectrum; see
Diagram 11) as well as an octave analysis according to DIN EN 13011.
The measured values for transport processes help to draw conclusions for the packaging. If the
device was attached inside the package, the data obtained are to be compared with the product-
specific values ad and td.
If the values am and tm measured in transit are significantly below the specific values ad and td for
the product, its packaging is over-dimensioned. If the contrary is true, it is under-dimensioned. If
the device is attached outside the package (on a pallet or similar), the maximum stress that occurs
in transit is determined and can be used for packaging design.
It should be noted that, if possible, several test transports should be performed in the interest of
statistical confidence.

A suitable device for the routine monitoring of transports subject to unknown stress is the
ShockDisplay curve. This device measures and records the 100 greatest acceleration values and
displays them with date and time of occurrence and with the indication of the direction of shock.
In addition, it records the acceleration-time curve over 1024 ms for all 100 events so that an
octave frequency analysis in compliance with DIN EN 13011 is possible.
This device is designed for tilt measurement during sea transports.

Both device types measure acceleration values in all 3 spatial axes so that the position of
attachment to the product does not affect the measurement results. Being protected against
splashwater, the device can also be attached to the outside of the products.

Both devices can connect to the MONILOG Tracking Module TM.

This module is a GPS receiver so that both the coordinates of an extraordinary shock event can
be recorded for later evaluation by means of Google Earth (see Fig. 3) and time-synchronous
recording performed (see Fig. 4). The evaluation of time-synchronous recording allows the user
to trace back the route of the means of transport and to optimize it with regard to transport
stresses, based on the event-related evaluation of the coordinates. Or, if this is not possible, the
user can identify the points of particular stresses and initiate counter-measures, e.g. better
packaging.

55
Figure 3

Figure 4

56
57
A further development of the ShockDisplay curve is the ShockDisplay curve plus.
This device can additionally measure temperature, relative humidity and air pressure.
This is especially important for transports under a special atmosphere, e.g. dry nitrogen. Using
this device, it is possible to monitor whether the transported good has been subjected to this
atmosphere during the whole transport time.
Furthermore, the SDC curve plus has a built-in GPS receiver.

An evaluation unit will soon be available, allowing data to be transmitted to the user via GPRS
or UMTS thus enabling prompt data evaluation. In special cases the user can then intervene
immediately into the transport process.

Very voluminous cargo (e.g. turbines or generators) can be equipped with a sensor network for
monitoring the transported goods at several points, e.g. at the blades and bearings.

58
[1] Draft of DIN 30786 Part 2 October 1986

[ 2 ] Reif,W; Schmidt, M; Untersuchungen der Einbindung von Bundesbahn Trailern in die

SNI Transportkette; SIEMENS Nixdorf Augsburg 1993

[3] Pühler; Erarbeitung von Belastungsprofilen als Grundlage einer

Verpackungsoptimierung, IABG München, 1983, p. 31

[4] DIN 24180 Part 2 October 1986

[5] Protokoll der 6. Sitzung des Ad-hoc-Arbeitskreises Transportbeanspruchungen des ZVEI

vom 16.5.94, Anlage 5, Drägerwerk

[6] Dr. W. Schmidt; Der Stoß - Stoßmesser im Rangierbetrieb der Bahn; DB AG

Minden ZBU 2/22; 1994

[7] A. von Jena; SIEMENS AG; ZFE München

[8] Dr. Braune; “Ladungssicherung im Wandel”; Neue Verpackung 11/95 p. 56/57

[9] ISTA publication of November 1994

[ 10 ] Dr. Kaßmann; Prüfbericht; TU Dresden ITL 1996

[ 11 ] Hüthig-Verlag; Handbuch “Verpackungstechnik” B 3.3. p. 16 1999

[ 12 ] like [11] B 3.2. p. 12

[ 13 ] Dr. Kaßmann; TU Dresden;

[ 14 ] MIL-STD 810 F, April1997

[ 15 ] ISO 4180:2008

[ 16 ] www.containerhandbuch.de

[ 17 ] Dr. Goedecke BAM Berlin personal communication

[ 18 ] BFSV Hamburg

[ 19 ] Diploma thesis of Michael Wunderlich FH Aachen, February 1993

[ 20 ] Eve Begov, Dresden State Art Collections, personal communication, 2007

[ 21 ] Skip Connon, Senior Mechanical Engineer, US Army Aberdeen Test Center, personal
communication

59
[ 22 ] DEF Standard 00-35 (Part 5) Draft 1992

[ 23 ] DWD Hamburg personal communication

60
Annex 1

Test suggestions according to ISO 4180:2008

Test suggestions for parcels < 30 kg

61
Test suggestions for parcels > 30 kg and < 100 kg

62
63
Test suggestions for parcels > 100 kg

64
Annex 2

Formulaic symbols and units of measurement

A Area [ m² ]
a Acceleration [ m/s² ]
am Max. acceleration [ m/s² ]
EF Buffer end force [ kN ]
e Rebound coefficient --------
F Force [ kg m/s² ]
SC Spring constant [ kN/m ]
g Gravity [ 9.81 m/s² ]
h Height [m]
m Mass [ kg ]
t Time [s]
tshock Shock duration [ ms ]
vo Impact velocity [ m/s ]
v1 Collision velocity [ m/s ]
vr Rebound velocity [ m/s ]
v Velocity change [ m/s ]
at the moment of impact
Wkin Kinetic energy [ kg m²/s² ]
 Loss of energy
 Mass ratio
f Frequency [ Hz ]
p Pressure [ kPa ]
T Temperature [ °C ]
F Relative humidity [ %RH ]
TD Dew point temperature [ °C ]
T Period duration [ 1/s ]

65