Biblical Theology Bulletin: A Journal of

Bible and Theology

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Ancient Hebrew Religious Beliefs and the Evolution of Prophets

P.M. George and Joseph D. Driskill
Biblical Theology Bulletin: A Journal of Bible and Theology 1979; 9; 66
DOI: 10.1177/014610797900900204

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 ANCIENT HEBREW RELIGIOUS
BELIEFS AND THE EVOLUTION
OF PROPHETS
P.M. George
Joseph D. Driskill
University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario
Prophecy was a widespread
phenomenon in the world of the ancient
Near East; prophetic utterances are
evidenced in various forms throughout
such countries as Egypt, Syria, Canaan,
and Mesopotamia. In ancient Israel
prophecy as a religious tradition was of
paramount importance. This tradition
strongly influenced the Hebrew’s
religious life and, as a result, has con-
tributed to the shaping of both Judaism
and Christianity. Von Rad, in fact,
argues that the prophets and their
tradition exercised a seminal influence
on the Jewish faith (Von Rad: 9).
A study of prophecy, therefore, is of
significance not only as an historical
curiosity, but also for the light it can
shed on contemporary understandings
of the Christian religion, especially in
regard to issues of social justice and
leadership. Traditionally, however,
social scientists have studied prophecy
primarily from a psychological perspec-
tive. Sociologists, other than Max
Weber, have generally not devoted
much attention to the issue. It seems
certain, however, that the emergence of
the prophetic tradition was the result of
several factors, at least some of which
lend themselves to sociological analysis.
In this paper we plan to engage in such
an analysis by examining the belief
system of the Hebrew people with a
view toward understanding how the
theological presuppositions of the
Hebrew faith encouraged or at least per-
66
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mitted the emergence of the prophetic
tradition.
Prophets
Revelations from God were received
in Israel from three types of persons:
priests, wisemen, and prophets. It was
the prophet, however, who for several
centuries occupied the central and un-
ique position for revealing God’s will
(Payne: 3). While it was the priest
who presented the sacred religious
traditions of the past, the prophet
responded to particular existential
situations, anointing a king, giving
e.g.
directions during a war, or speaking at
times of crisis for God (Buss: 694).
The most frequently used Hebrew
word for prophet is nabi. Although the
etymology of this word remains uncer-
tain, many Old Testament scholars
speculate that its root meaning is &dquo;to
announce&dquo; (Napier: 896-897). The
Greek word prophetes literally means
&dquo;one who speaks on behalf of another.&dquo;
This meaning seems appropriate for the
way Hebrews generally used the word.
Hebrew prophets were known as
spokesmen for Yahweh, the God of
Israel (Lindblom: 94-95).
Purpose of Hebrew Prophets
The Hebrew prophets, however, in
contrast to the prophets of Baal, the
Canaanite god, were less cultic, less ec-
static, and less interested in predicting
future events. Hebrew prophets were
generally interested in serving their peo-
ple by offering practical advice about
impending situations. They often were
common people who came forth from
the crowd because they were inspired by
Yahweh; in response to this inspiration
they were able to announce His will for
the Hebrew nation. These individuals
who came forward were not
&dquo;professional&dquo; or cultic prophets; rather
they emerged, often at great personal
expense, to inform the king and the peo-
ple of God’s will. It was their ability to
reveal Yahweh’s will, not their personal
stature or the quality of their esoteric or
ecstatic experiences, which gave
credibility to their prophecy.
In the Hebraic tradition it was David
who institutionalized the office of the
prophet at the royal court (Napier:
907). From these early beginnings,
however, a strong prophetic tradition
grew which was not officially part of the
governing offices. Isaiah, Jeremiah, and
Ezekiel were very strong individuals.
These men spoke for Yahweh and him
alone. They were not institutionalized in
the sense that they had to advocate the
policies of the rulers. Their concern, in
fact, centered on issues of social justice;
often they were disliked by the leaders.
The impact of these and other prophets
of note, Amos and Hosea, is evidenced
by the fact that one-third of the Old
Testament books are attributed to
prophets. Obviously the Hebrews were
concerned enough with the revelations
of their prophets, that they recorded
their words even though few of the
prophets themselves were concerned
with writing. This suggests that the role
of the prophet was an ongoing
phenomenon of prime importance to the
Hebrew people.
Passing of Prophets
Prophecy ultimately did wane; in its
67
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stead came a greater emphasis upon
wisdom and apocalyptic literature.
Wishing to capitalize on the credibility
of the prophets, many false prophets ul-
timately emerged. Their messages were
found wanting, but discovering a
method for discerning immediately a
false prophet from an authentic one was
virtually impossible. This problem
became so acute that by the in-
tertestimental period (circa 200 B.C.-50
A.D.) people lamented the passing of
the prophets. Nevertheless, the impor-
tance of the prophets who had been
accepted by the Hebrew nation as
Yahweh’s servants did not fade. Their
words and inspiration were preserved in
the Old Testament. As a result, the
prophetic tradition remained alive and
vital inspite of the absence of newly
emerging prophets. The community of
faith looked forward with hope for the
emergence of new prophets in the
Messianic age. In this paper it is the
emergence of the prophets in the context
of the Hebrew’s religious beliefs which is
of concern.
,
Methodology
Methodologically speaking, modern
sociology in the West has been heavily
influenced by quantitative methods of
analyzing behaviour. Inasmuch as
prophecy testifies to the thrust of the
human soul and its creativity it does not
readily lend itself to quantitative
analysis. It is, perhaps, understandable
that Max Weber (1922; 1952), a
nominalist, was one among the classical
sociologists to consider the issue of
prophecy (charisma) in any depth.
Humanistic Sociology
Prophecy, of course, can be examined
from various angles and viewpoints
within the same field. There obviously is
no one true way to focus on the issue.
The authors of this paper intend to ex-
amine prophecy within the framework however, are often applicable to
of what has come to be called prophecy during both its rise and demise
humanistic sociology. As we see it, in ancient Israel.
prophecy was not solely caused or deter- It needs to be noted well, from the
as
mined by its environment; the en- outset, that not any one particular com-
vironment, however, provided the fer- ponent of Hebrew theology gave rise to
tile soil for the prophetic seed to grow. prophecy. It seems much more likely
To reveal this we intend to explicate as that it the interaction of the
was
viable hypothesis the connections culture, history and religious beliefs of
between the theology of the Hebrews the Hebrews, understood as a unified
and the emergence of prophecy in an- whole, which was responsible for the
cient Israel. evolution of prophecy. As a result, an
analytical model which would attempt
&dquo;An Historical Individual&dquo; to decide the individual contribution of
each component (variable) in producing
Max Weber’s insights provide two the dependent variable (i.e. prophecy),
theoretical constructs useful for our pur- is inappropriate for our purpose. Thus,
pose. In his analysis of the relationship although we speak about various com-
between capitalism and Protestant
ponents, our analysis is based upon a
theology, Weber treated modern synthetic approach. Within this
capitalism as &dquo;an historical individual.&dquo; humanistic framework no attempt is
That is, he viewed capitalism as a un- made to quantify data or to meet the
ique phenomenon. In this paper we will requirements of statistical rigor. We
be treating Hebrew prophecy as &dquo;an nevertheless believe our methodology
historical individual&dquo; and will attempt
to connect it with the ancient Hebrew’s
yields insights into prophecy; these we
present as tentative conclusions in spite
belief system. We are not suggesting off what some may consider
thatt the link, however, is necessarily
methodological imprecision.
causal.
Hebrew Religious Beliefs
&dquo;Ideal Type&dquo; and Culture
Weber also introduced the notion of Yahweh: Personal, Loving,
an &dquo;ideal type.&dquo; An ideal type serves as Self-revealing God
an analytical construct which provides
an investigator with the means to syn- The God of the Israelites .was never
thesize a great many diffuse elements merely a cosmic force or a detached
into a unified whole for the purpose of creator god who could be forgotten
analysis. In this paper &dquo;prophecy&dquo; can without consequence. Instead, Yahweh
be considered an ideal type; that is, the was always understood as a personal
characteristics common to Israelite reality. The Hebrews expressed their
prophecy will not necessarily be found understanding of Yahweh in
in all the prophets. A preponderance of anthropomorphic language. He was
the material related to prophecy is most believed to call people, to love and care
typical of the &dquo;classical&dquo; prophets, i.e. for them, and to direct them as a nation.
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. These It was possible for the Hebrews to speak
classical&dquo; prophets represent the high of Yahweh’s anger, sorrow, or doubt in
point of the Hebrew’s ~ prophetic the same manner they would describe
tradition. The insights gained by ex- interpersonal relationships. This under-
plicating prophecy as an ideal type, standing of God as a personal reality
68
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required the Hebrew people to both
search for God’s will and to enter into a
relationship with Him.
What we find in Hebrew theology,
however, is not a god who can be under-
stood through intellectual analysis, but
a self-revealing God. According to the
Israelites, one discovers God’s will not
because of his/her own contemplation or
analysis, but because God decides to
reveal Himself. With such a belief, God
is not an object, an &dquo;it,&dquo; for people to
analyze, butt a personal reality who
decides that which He will disclose. The
mind or heart of God was believed to be
a secret -
a mystery -
which could
never be totally grasped. That which
can be known is revealed only when God
decides to take the initiative. For the
Hebrews knowledge of God, therefore,
must be called revelation, for it lies
beyond that which can be discovered
through man’s own critical thinking or
intellectual analysis.
°
God and Individuals
The Hebrew people believed that
Yahweh chose to reveal himself to
certain individuals. When these
revelations came, those who received
them were called into relationship with
Yahweh. In general this meant loving,
trusting, and obeying Yahweh as a child
would his/her father. Inasmuch as in-
terpersonal relationships require affec-
tion, trust, and concern if intimacy is to
be realized, so too were the chosen of
God expected to have this attitude
toward Him. Such attitudes facilitated
communication between Yahweh and
his people.
The redactors’ accounts of the events
associated with Abraham and Moses
portray them as men of exceptional
stature, who were believed to have had
the intimate, personal relationship with
Yahweh described above. Abraham so
completely trusted Yahweh that he was
willing to sacrifice Isaac, his only son, as
69
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a burnt if Yahweh required i1
offering
(Genesis 22: E
source). Moses so trustec
God that he was willing to lead hi;
people, the Hebrews, out of Egypt ins
spite of the great chance that the~
would be destroyed by the armies ol
Pharaoh (Exodus 3-14). The lives oi
these men of faith exemplified the per
sonal relationship required by Yahwel
if one is to be the faithful recipient oil
His self-revealing will.
Yahweh: The God of
Justice and Mercy
Unlike many other ancient religions,
the Hebrew’s faith demonstrates a
growing interest in ethical questions.
Rituals, of course, were of great impor-
tance to the Hebrews, but a focus on the
ethical implications of the faith
developed rather early. The story of
Cain and Abel takes on an ethical
dimension as it is interpreted probably
by the J source at some point between
the 10th and 8th centuries B.C. (Simp-
son : 520). When Cain is questioned
by Yahweh after killing his brother
Abel, Cain asks, &dquo;Am I my brother’s
keeper?&dquo; (Gen. 4:8-9). Here we see a
God who is exerting himself in the af-
fairs of humankind on behalf of a victim
of murder. Yahweh’s intervention in
this sense is in the service of justice,
Thus we find that the ethical con-
siderations present in Hebrew belie]
have become significant to the extent
that even a story such as that of Cain
and Abel, which in its original form may
have contained no moral principle, is
reinterpreted and augmented with
ethical significance.
In similar fashion the story of the Ex-
odus involves a God of justice who in-
terfers in history on behalf of an
oppressed people, the Israelites. The
emphasis in the Ten Commandments
(Exodus 20: 1-17) is not primarily upon
rituals, but upon humankind
 relationship with Yahweh and with
other people. Here again we see the
development over time of the ethical im-
plications of a relationship with
Yahweh. In the prophetic period the
conception of God as the God of justice
and mercy becomes so strong that the
biblical authors of that period drew out
the ethical implications of much of the
early biblical material. It is also during
the prophetic period that Yahweh’s
ethical concern is seen to have universal
implications, i.e. that His concern is for
all people, not simply the Israelites.
The Hebrew’s emphasis on ethics had
its unique characteristics. The focus of
their ethical system was theo-centric.
That is, they did not base their ethic on
a set of ultimate, cosmic principles or on
abstract concepts related to the nature
of man, e.g. &dquo;rational man.&dquo; Instead,
their ethic was the product of divine
revelation; it was part of the the holy
will of Yahweh for His people. Thus,
there was no way that they could be
religious without simultaneously being
morally concerned. To commit an in-
justice against a fellow human being was
breaking the holy will of God. Ethical
behaviour, therefore was not only in-
separable from other religious practices,
it was required if the cultic practices
were to be truly meaningful. Yahweh
required justice and mercy from his
.
followers; for those without ethical con-
cerns, rituals alone would not bring
favor with God.
Here one discovers that Yahweh not
only guides and protects his people, he
also chastizes them if they do not follow
his moral bidding. His love and concern
for humankind is deeply rooted and, as a
result, lie requires not simply trust and
obedience for Himself, but also ethical
among his people. The
behaviour
central thrust of the prophetic message
was justice: Yahweh called his followers
to do justice, love kindness and walk
humbly with Him (Micah 6:8). Those
who were unjust were believed to lack
70
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trust in Yahweh (Isa. 30:12). Time and
time again the prophets called the peo-
ple to ethical behaviour; to obey
Yahweh, the God of justice and mercy.
Yahweh: The Absolute
One of Israel
According to the Hebrews, Yahweh
was lord among lords or even the
not a
greatest lord of the universe. Rather he
was THE Lord, THE ruler of life. He
tells his people that they must not
believe in other gods, for it was He who
delivered them from the hands of the
Egyptians (Exodus 20:2-3). As the ab-
solute one of Israel, Yahweh bestows
meaning upon life. As Buber expresses
it, to consider Yahweh as the Holy one,
means that everything in the world
which is regarded as &dquo;holy&dquo; has been
hallowed by him (1949, 206-207).
This understanding of Yahweh had
practical implications for the way the
Hebrews understood their king and his
relationship to the laws of God. Like
many other people in the ancient Near
East, the Israelites, from the time of
Saul, were governed for many years by a
divine-right monarchy. We find,
however, a qualitative difference
between the Hebrew notion of the
divine-right monarchy and that of many
other cultures. To the Hebrews the of-
fice of the king was temporary, con-
ditional, and relative; there was nothing
eternal or absolute about the monarchy,
for Yahweh always retained the ul-
timate authority. The people believed
that Yahweh could, in fact, abolish the
monarchy if such was his will.
Since Yahweh was above any system
and more powerful than any human
being, he could replace kings who did
not obey his laws. The laws by which
the people were governed were under-
stood not as the king’s laws, but as
divinely revealed truths from God. As a
result, the rulers of the Israelites were
always accountable before God. Even
king David at the height of his power
could not simply take Uriah’s wife,
Bathsheba, as his wife; nor could he kill
Uriah, for such an act would have been
displeasing to Yahweh. Instead, David
sent Uriah to certain death in battle.
For this Yahweh punished the king by
allowing his son to die (II Sam. 11-12).
Thus, we find in this story that the
Hebrew’s religious beliefs helped create
a society in which the highest human
authorities could be challenged by their
God.
It was indeed the prophet, the man of
God, who had the authority to chastise
the king in the name of the Lord. When
specific situations arose which required
direct intervention by Yahweh - often
when the community was not obeying
His laws -
a common person would feel
the &dquo;call&dquo; of God upon him. Once this
call had been experienced, this in-
dividual had the special right or
obligation to admonish those in
authority who were disobeying Yahweh.
These prophets, who were not office
holders in the fashion of priests or kings,
nevertheless were accorded a hearing by
the Hebrew community. Thus, the
Hebrew’s understanding of Yahweh as
the absolute one of Israel created a
climate in which prophets could arise
and challenge the authority of
monarchs. The willingness of the
prophets to exercise. this role, in turn,
seems to have contributed to an under-
standing of the king’ as one who its
...;
always subject to the will of Yahweh.
Yahweh: Lord of a Linear
and Open History
The people of the ancient Near
Eastern world generally believed in a
cyclic view of time. Such a view of time
has as its model the movement of nature
through cycles of birth, growth, death,
and rebirth. In this perspective the gods
are thought to have created the world at
71
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the beginning of time. This act of
creation is of paradigmatic importance
for it is through successive ritual
enactments that this time is made
present again and again (Eliade, 1961:
95). For the ancient world in general
the cultic epiphanies of an event are of
small consequence; the first mani-
festation is decisive and it is the first
manifestation which is actually created
again and again. Ritualistic acts were
not services of remembrance, but
recreations of the original time of
creation, in illo tempore, ab origine
(Eliade, 1959: 76).
The Hebrew people, on the other
hand, did much to alter this notion of
history as cyclic time. It has been noted
by many scholars, e.g. Fawcett,
Lindblom, Von Rad, that for them
history became linear and dynamic.
History was linear in the sense that
Yahweh had special goals for history;
moreover, history was open to pro-
grossive revelations and to the
fulfillment of promises. It was dynamic
because Yahweh chose to be actively in-
volved in the affairs of humankind. The
Hebrews believed that Yahweh created
the world; his activity, however, was
not limited to the sphere of nature.
Instead, he intervened in the unique,
historical activities of the Hebrew com-
munity.
.
’ Lordship
The Israelites, for example, experienc-
ed Yahweh’s Lordshi~n of history by his
concern for them, experienced not mere-
ly during cultic services of worship, but
in such unrepeatable events as their ex-
odus from Egypt. The Exodus from
Egypt became the paradigmatic event
of the Hebrew’s history. Through it
they believed Yahweh demonstrated his
lordship over history. Had it not been
for his guidance, the people believed
they would not have been capable of
freeing themselves from the mighty
Egyptians. Yahweh’s goal was to es- the place where God would have him be.
tablish Israel as a nation; this, of course, In similar fashion, Moses was called to
is a unique event in the stream of lead the Israelites out of Egypt, through
history (Von Rad: 82). Thus we see the wilderness, and into the promised
that the cultic acts of ancient Israel land. Thus one finds a strong belief
created not the original time of the gods, among the Hebrews that Yahweh
but commemorated various historical counted on his chosen people to do His
events, e.g. the Exodus, by which work.
Yahweh delivered and guided his people The Hebrew’s understanding of
(de Vaux: 272). history as linear and open with Yahweh,
Yahweh’s activities in the world of the God who calls people to serve, as its
humankind were, however, always Lord, provides the milieu through which
dynamic and flexible. His lordship of prophecy could arise. Prophets were
history was often exercised by revealing people who felt both the demands of the
to the people the action which He deem- immediate situation and the compelling
ed most desirable; the Hebrews call by Yahweh to speak. They seemed’
however, could ignore God’s advice. to intuitively recognize that they were
They were allowed the freedom to standing before Yahweh at a critical
choose the actions they wished to follow. juncture in the affairs of their nation.
In this manner then history was The future was not something fixed or
&dquo;open&dquo;; it was not understood to be un- unalterable; it was open to the creative
folding in a predetermined manner alternatives which might arise. In this
where humans simply played out their context the nabi (prophet) announced
foreordained roles. Yahweh had made a Yahweh’s will as a word of deliverance
covenant with his people; those who (Buber, 1949: 2-3).
were willing, however, to suffer the con- Thus we discover that the prophets
sequences, could disobey Yahweh’s attempted to shape the course of history
wishes. Adam, for example was told that in partnership with and under the
he would die if he chose to eat the fruit of leading of God. Had it not been for the
the forbidden tree. Here then we dis- dynamic and linear view of history com-
cover that although Yahweh did have mon to the Hebrew’s belief system, it is
goals and desires for his people, in the unlikely that these individuals with
arena of human activity, Yahweh and
special insights would have been able to
the Hebrews made history in raise their voices with any assurance of
partnership together. being heard.
God who calls The Hebrews:
and chooses Chosen People of Yahweh
The God of the ancient Hebrews, then We cannot understand the ancient
was a God who &dquo;called&dquo; and &dquo;chose&dquo; Hebrews without knowing their under-
people to work with and for him. The standing of themselves as the &dquo;chosen
primary medium of Yahweh’s divine people&dquo; of Yahweh. As noted above the
work was not nature, but people. Hebrews found that Yahweh revealed
Although it is true that his wonders himself in historical events. One must
were revealed in the realm of nature, he recognize, however, that their notion of
nevertheless chose key individuals from history focused around the history of
time to time to reveal his will. Abraham their covenant relationship with
was called to leave his homeland and Yahweh. This covenant relationship,
venture forth in faith and obedience to which placed the Israelites in a favored
72

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position with Yahweh, meant that the
people accepted Yahweh’s kingship. In
return, the community was required to
trust and honor Yahweh and to obey
His laws when interacting among
themselves. Buber suggests that the
word Israel very likely means &dquo;God
rules&dquo; (1949: 44).
The chosen people, as a result, were
required to follow certain standards of
conduct if they were to be faithful to
their covenant with Yahweh. To many
people at various times in their collec-
tive history, however, the idea of being
chosen by God took on implications
which were- not faithful to Yahweh’s
will. For some Hebrews the idea of being
a chosen people meant national
superiority; others believed that
Yahweh had offered them an uncon-
ditional protection and blessing
regardless of their behaviour. Attitudes
such as these created and fostered an
ethnocentrism devoid of ethical sen-
sitivity to either Yahweh or other tribes
and peoples. Such a view required cor-
rection if the community was to be
faithful to the true meaning of their
covenant relationship with Yahweh.
It was the prophets who, in part,
responded to the need for the people to
reexamine their own self-understanding.
The prophets believed that Israel was a
holy nation, and that, as such, she was
required to live a holy life before God.
More specifically, Israel was supposed
to be a medium in God’s hands through
which his will could be made known to
the world. The prophets believed that
Israel was chosen to be a light to other
nations; Yahweh’s intent was that other
nations might come to know Him
through Israel’s example. The prophets
thought if Israel failed to meet her
obligations under the covenant,
Yahweh’s judgment would be forth-
coming.
While it is true that in other cultures
there are examples of covenants
between nations and gods, in the ancient
73
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Hebrew nation this relationship
acquired paramount importance in the
life of the people (Buber, 1949: 67).
Being chosen people, not for a short
duration but for life, required that
periodic assessments be made to see if
the obligations of the agreement were
being fulfilled. Such a social context
provided a setting in which prophets
could emerge as those called by Yahweh
to sit in judgment on the nation and its
leaders.
The Power of the
.
Word of God .
~
To the modern mind words are often
thoughtto be merely symbols. In the
world of the ancient Near East,
however, the word and its hearing
possessed great significance. Many
cultures at this early period lived
primarily in an audial field of ex-
perience. The word &dquo;harken&dquo; comes
from horchen and means &dquo;obey&dquo;
(Mickunas: 179-185). The world of
sound is capable of surrounding people
in a very powerful manner; it is both
penetrating and compelling.
To the Hebrews the Word of God
possessed the qualities noted above. The
Hebrew tradition emphasized the word
and hearing rather than vision and
seeing. In addition, words had effective
power of their own; once uttered they
could not be retracted. It is for this
reason that once Isaac had blessed
Jacob instead of Esau - an error Jacob
perpetrated by deceit -
Isaac was un-
able to correct his error (Gen. 27:1-45).
One also observes that God created the
universe by speaking His word, &dquo;Let ’
there be.&dquo; It is significant to note in this
context that the Hebrew word dabar
means &dquo;word&dquo; as well as &dquo;history&dquo;
(Wolff: 338).
The nature of prophecy in Israel
reveals in at least three ways its link
with the Hebrew’s understanding of the
word of God. First, the prophets were
 often called when &dquo;the word of God&dquo;
came upon them. This word was so com-
pelling that common people with no
special skills in communicating, e.g.
Moses had a speech impediment, Amos
was a herdsman, felt obligated to speak.
The prophets generally were painfully
aware of the difficulties involved in
fulfilling their task, yet the word of God
within them could not be resisted. After
many of them attempted to avoid
Yahweh’s call, they discovered that to
.
resist was virtually impossible.
Second, the prophets major medium
of communication was through
proclamation; visions were not as im-
portant as words. It is interesting to
observe that generally the prophets had
little desire to record their messages
from Yahweh. They understood their
task to be fulfilled if they spoke his word
to the people. Those who heard it seem
to have been the primary source of the
written accounts we currently possess.
Third, the prophets’ words called peo-
ple to obedience. They were spoken in
order that the Hebrew people might
hear and obey the will of God. It is in-
structive to recognize that the key note
of prophecy was obedience, and
obedience in its Latin origin (ob audire)
mean to &dquo;listen intensely,&dquo; to under-
stand. Thus, again we find the link
between the Hebrew’s beliefs about the
.
word of God and the emergence. of
prophecy. .’.~ ~ .’ .’ &dquo;&dquo;:’
Life as Real and Valuable
The Hebrews believed that existence
in this earthly world was important. It
was to be valued because it was God’s
creation; following creation God had
looked with favor upon it. Thus,
although God was thought to be
transcendent, He was also considered
immanent in that He cared enough
about this world not only to create it,
but also to sustain it. Hebrew culture,
therefore, did not produce &dquo;holy&dquo; men
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who denounced this world as totally evil
or merely illusory. In fact, the Israelites
were this-worldly oriented to the extent
that they did not have a well defined
concept of the afterlife. God’s justice
was believed to be meted out in this
world, rather than in an anticipated life
to come. Existence in the immediate
present, therefore, acquires great
significance.
Believing that this world was
valuable and good, however, did not
diminish the Hebrew’s belief in the
reality of evil. The reality of God did
not diminish the reality of evil any more
than the absolute lordship of Yahweh
reduced the moral responsibility of the
Hebrew people. Evil was a real aspect of
life in this world and it was understood
in very concrete historical and personal
terms. Evil was the result of missing the
mark. That is, it resulted when one dis-
obeyed the will of God. Very frequently
evil was present when one was not in the
proper relationship with Yahweh or
one’s fellow human beings. It was evil,
for example, for one person to hurt or
kill another, because each person was
expected to have a relationship with
God.
In the Hebrew tradition evil often
results in suffering; suffering, in turn,
requires corrective justice. In contrast
to the tendency in oriental traditions to
deemphasize the reality of . inj ustice or
, suffering, the Hebrews believed that
Yahweh cares about the suffering of his
people. Inasmuch as no afterlife was
thought to exist for the purpose of
divine retribution, Yahweh demanded
that his people be attentive to the
requirements of justice in this world.
The prophets, of course, were those who
were sensitive to the suffering of the
oppressed. It was Isaiah who so
poignantly told of a suffering servant
who would come to this world to initiate
a time of peace and harmony. The
prophetic call for justice and goodness in
the here and now, is a response to the
74
Hebrew’s belief that Yahweh cares and
values this world and his people.
Summary and Conclusions
Prophecy was a common phenomenon
in most of the ancient Near Eastern
cultures. Among the Hebrews, however,
prophecy became a major socio-
historical force. As a socio-historical
force, prophecy had many deep roots in
the Hebrew culture. Among the many
factors which promoted the evolution of
prophecy, were the Hebrew’s beliefs
about God, history, creation, and
themselves.
Hebrew God
The Hebrew God was personal,
a cient prophecy, but also can provide in-
loving, self-revealing God of history. He
was involved in history, yet he
transcended history. As a personal God
he ever remained beyond the reach of
the human intellect; yet he was close to
the hearts of those who trusted him. He
revealed himself to even the common,
ordinary people as a personal God of
love and justice. Yahweh’s concern for
his people and his creation meant that
he did not leave them to the fate of
natural evolution. Instead, Yahweh par-
ticipated in history by teaching,
through those chosen by him, his will for
specific socio-historical situations.
Moreover, Yahweh allowed his people
freedom to respond to or reject his will
for them. As a result, human respon-
sibility was not negated; history was
&dquo;open&dquo; in the sense that the Hebrew
people helped determine its path.
It is from such a cultural under-
standing of God, history, and
themselves that the Hebrew prophets -
often ordinary people - emerged as
spokesmen for Yahweh. Through His
prophets, Yahweh called his people to
ethical behaviour in this world. The ma-
jor emphasis in prophecy, therefore, is
on ethics rather than rituals. Prophecy,
75
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for the most part, consists of conditional
proclamations about redemption or
judgment. Yahweh’s actions depend
upon the response of the Hebrews to the
prophetic message. It is clear that in
many significant ways the ancient
Hebrew’s religious beliefs in fact shaped
and molded the evolution of prophecy.
Prophecy as
Charismatic Leadership
Prophecy is the classical example of
charismatic leadership, as Weber
recognized. It is a living testimony to
the creativity which human beings bring
to their existential dilemmas. An ex-
amination of the ancient Hebrew
prophets can illuminate not merely an-
sight into aspects of leadership and
social change in general. We offer three
tentative hypotheses below.
and Social Order
Prophecy
Firstly, examination of the ancient
an
Hebrew’s belief system as it relates to
prophecy reveals that creative criticism
of a social order is likely to emerge when
the world-view of a people transcends
their own social order. In such a society
a transcendent framework serves as the
ideal. In the case of the Hebrews, their
world-view included the notion of a
society governed ultimately not by men
but by Yahweh.
In such a society creative tension
develops between the transcendent ideal
and the real situation. In such a climate
there is a certain receptiveness to
critical judgments being leveled
against any particular human in-
stitution, activity, or person. While
those who command authority in a
society have a propensity to absolutize
the temporal by maintaining the status
quo, prophets are those individuals who
experience deeply the tension between
the ideal and the real and, as a result,
seek social change. In the case of the
Hebrews, even the king could be
criticized. It is this tension between the
ideal and the real which seems to con-
tribute an impetus for social change.
Prophecy and Marginal People
Our second hypothesis is that semi-
marginal people in a society are more
likely to emerge as voices of social
change than those who are fully in-
tegrated into the societal institutions.
Here we are suggesting that those who
call for social change are socio-
politically marginal, but not socio-
emotionally marginal. The Hebrew
prophets, for example, believed that
they had been called to critique the ac-
tions of the Hebrew community. They
were individuals who were not intimate-
ly involved in the established social
order; the marginality they experienced
from the political system, freed them to
voice Yahweh’s critique of the society.
In spite of their socio-political
marginality, however, the Hebrew
prophets identified very closely with the
community. Their socio-emotional in-
volvement provided them with enough
grounding in the system to identify the
demands of the religious ideal and then
to seek social change. In other words,
their loyalty to Yahweh and to his peo-
ple prevented them from completely
opting out of the political and social
system. In the person of the prophet we
discover an individual who is acutely
aware of the transcendental dimension
of his culture and who is socially in a
position which allows him the freedom
to respond to its dictates.
Prophecy and Social Upheaval
Lastly, our study suggests that
charismatic leaders tend to be given a
hearing by the community during
periods of social upheaval. When a crisis
is imminent and the system is incapable
76
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of meeting the needs of its people,
prophets offer a world of judgment,
direction, or hope to their people. The
Hebrew prophets responded to various
types of societal crises, e.g. plagues,
battles, turning away from Yahweh, by
calling the people and their rulers to ac-
countability before Yahweh. Had up-
heavals not occurred it seems unlikely
that the voices of the prophets would
have emerged with the vigor evidenced.
In this age off technocracy,
bureaucracy, behaviourism and
professionalism when the common
person tends to lose faith in himself, it is
particularly germane to discover again
the nature of Hebrew prophecy for the
insights it sheds on contemporary set-
tings. Such an academic journey may
not only highlight the cultural poten-
tials and limitations for social change,
but may also nourish the imaginations
of people seeking new solutions for
current social problems.
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