Greenhouse Gases

Saurabh Sonwani
Pallavi Saxena Editors
Greenhouse
Gases:
Sources, Sinks
and Mitigation
Greenhouse Gases: Sources, Sinks
and Mitigation
Saurabh Sonwani • Pallavi Saxena
Editors
Greenhouse Gases:
Sources, Sinks
and Mitigation
Editors
Saurabh Sonwani Pallavi Saxena
Zakir Husain Delhi College Hindu College
University of Delhi University of Delhi
Delhi, India Delhi, India
ISBN 978-981-16-4481-8 ISBN 978-981-16-4482-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5
# The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd. 2022
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Foreword
Over the decades the rate of increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission has been
increasing and reached alarmingly high levels due to anthropogenic activities.
Burning of fossil fuels, heavy deforestation, increased use of chemical fertilizers,
industrial processes, agricultural activities, etc. are responsible for altering radiation
budget of atmosphere and extensively alter the quality of air. Consequently, the
temperature of the earth is increasing at a very higher rate in the past few decades.
Climate change and global warming are the burning problems of the modern
world. Extensive research is going on for the ways and means of reducing concen-
tration of GHGs in developed and developing nations. The problem lies in the fact
that there is an urgent need to explore long-term and sustained solutions by
investigating its sources, sinks, impacts, and control or mitigation strategies.
Dr. Saurabh Sonwani and Dr. Pallavi Saxena are working in the area of air quality
and atmospheric sciences for the past one and a half decade and extensively studied
the behaviour of primary and secondary air pollutants and their impact on environ-
mental health in the Indian subcontinent. The co-editor Dr. Pallavi recently
published a book on “Technologies for Greenhouse Gas Assessment in Crop
Studies” from Springer in 2021.
This book begins with a background on greenhouse gases sources and sinks and
continues discussion across sectors including forest fluxes to human health and
modelling techniques to policy measures. The chapters that follow explore in detail
the GHG emission budgets, mitigation strategies, technical advancement, and input-
output analysis. Both the editors Dr. Sonwani and Dr. Pallavi have put in their
experience of publishing state-of-the-art books and researches in high-impact
journals. I hope and I am sure that this book shall prove to be a valuable reference
and reading resource for scholars and researchers in environmental science, ecology,
biological science, economics, and agriculture. It will also be a very useful resource
v
vi Foreword
for environmental consultants, researchers, and other professionals in climate change

studies, non-governmental organizations, etc.
Centre for Excellence on Climate Resilience, Anil K. Gupta

National Institute of Disaster Management,
Government of India
New Delhi, India
IUCN Commission of Ecosystem Management
New Delhi, India
May 10, 2021
Acknowledgements
The first editor (Dr. Saurabh Sonwani) wishes to convey his sincere thanks to the
Principal, Zakir Husain Delhi College, University of Delhi, India. The second editor
(Dr. Pallavi Saxena) also expresses her heartfelt gratitude to the Principal, Prof. Anju
Srivastava, Hindu College, University of Delhi, India. The editors also wish to
extend their acknowledgment to “The Integrated Land Ecosystem-Atmosphere
Processes Study (iLEAPS)” for their encouragement for research and related
activities.
Dr. Sonwani also acknowledges his parents, Mr. Puttilal and Mrs. Shobha Devi,
for their love and support in good and gloomy times, especially during his struggling
and career growth phase. The co-editor Dr. Saxena wishes to convey her sincere
thanks to her parents, Dr. Akhilesh Saxena and Dr. Neelima Priyadarshini, for their
constant support, encouragement, and inspiration to work for science and society.
Editors also wish to pay their sincere thanks to Ms. Aakanksha Tyagi, Senior
Editor, Springer Nature, for her cooperation and help in completion of this
assignment.
vii
About the Book
Greenhouse gases (GHG) occur naturally in our atmosphere and are essential to the
survival of most of the organisms on the planet earth. GHG such as carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone play a major role in balancing the radiative
budget, by absorbing or emitting some of the infrared rays reflecting from the earth’s
surface. But unfortunately, anthropogenic activities like use of fossil fuel, intensive
agriculture and livestock farming, use of synthetic fertilizers, deforestation, and
industrial processes have drastically interfered in the natural air composition, by
releasing excess greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This has led to the increase
in the ability of the atmosphere to absorb more infrared energy. However, long-term
studies in different parts of the world also suggest an increase in the concentration of
greenhouse gases across the world.
This increase has caused one of the most serious threats of the twenty-first
century, i.e. climate change and global warming. Increase in average temperature,
heat waves, sea level rise, change in precipitation levels, strong hurricanes and
storms, and bad air quality are some of the consequences of climate change that
are observed as well as anticipated in near future. Directly or indirectly, these will
affect all the organisms inhabiting the planet. A shift in the location of most of the
organism is expected in search of the most suitable environment. This is further
dependent on the type of species, its interaction, and adaptability.
In 2015, the Paris Agreement within the framework of United Nations Frame-
work Convention became international law to fight climate change. The major
highlight of the agreement is to limit global warming to 2 C, reducing greenhouse
gas emission, burden-sharing (developing nations allowed to use resources), and
opting for cleaner energy sources; rich countries should financially support develop-
ing nations.
Thus, this book begins with a brief background on greenhouse gases sources and
sinks and continues with a discussion on different sectors including forest fluxes to
human health and modelling techniques to policy measures. The chapters that follow
explore in detail the GHG emission budgets, mitigation strategies, technical
advancement, and input-output analysis. We hope this book will act as a valuable
tool for students with interests in environmental science, ecology, biological science,
economics, and agriculture. It will be unique to environmental consultants,
researchers and other professionals involved in climate change studies and
non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
ix
Contents
1 Introduction to Greenhouse Gases: Sources, Sinks and

Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Saurabh Sonwani and Pallavi Saxena
2 Source Apportionment of Greenhouse Gases in the
Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Sanjoy Maji, Sirajuddin Ahmed, and Santu Ghosh
3 Identification of Major Sinks of Greenhouse Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Manisha Saini and Sunil Kumar Saini
4 Greenhouse Gas Emission Flux from Forest Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . 63
Anshu Gupta
5 Effect of Greenhouse Gases on Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Sarah Naiyer and Syed Safdar Abbas
6 Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gases Emissions: Implications in
Food Production and Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Harpreet Kaur
7 Optimization of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Through Simulation
Modeling: Analysis and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Saraswati
8 Role of Biomass Burning in Greenhouse Gases Emission . . . . . . . . 157
Anu Sharma and Prashant Rajput
9 Ozone Impacts and Climate Forcing: Thailand as a Case Study . . . 179
Pornpan Uttamang, Viney P. Aneja, and William Battye
10 Role of Nanotechnology in Combating CO2 in Atmosphere . . . . . . . 201
Deepti Goyal, Alpa Yadav, and Tanvi Vats
xi
xii Contents
11 Mitigation Strategies of Greenhouse Gas Control: Policy

Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Manisha Gaur, Siksha Swaroopa Kar, and Anuradha Shukla
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

About the Editors
Saurabh Sonwani is currently working as Assistant Professor at the Department of

Environmental Studies, Zakir Husain Delhi College, University of Delhi. He is
elected as Chair of Early Career Scientists Network from South Asia and Middle
East Region, iLEAPS, U.K. Till now, he has 8 years of research and 3 years of
teaching experience in the field of Environmental Sciences. He has been awarded Ph.
D. from the School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New
Delhi, and worked in the field of Atmospheric Chemistry. He has been awarded a
CSIR-JRF in the subject of Earth, Atmospheric, Planetary and Ocean Sciences. He
has published several research papers, book chapters, and books in highly reputed
journals/publishers in the areas of Air Pollution and Environmental Health. He is
currently associated with TOAR-IGAC project as a member and co-author in
publications. He is serving as an Associate Member of APSI, EnviroComp Institute,
USA. He is also a representative of Early Career Scientists of iLEAPS, UK from
South Asia and Middle East Region.
Pallavi Saxena is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Environmental

Science, Hindu College, University of Delhi. She is elected as Scientific Steering
Committee member of iLEAPS U.K. She has been awarded DST Fast Track Young
Scientist Award at SES, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. She has
completed her Postdoc from SPASC, Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad,
India. She has been awarded Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Studies from
the University of Delhi on ‘Effect of Photochemical Pollutants on Plant Species’.
Her area of interest is air pollution and plant physiology. She has also been a co-
author and collaborator from India in TOAR from 2015 onwards. Till now, she has
published about 45 research publications in journals/books in Atmospheric Science
and published 4 books in the field of Air Pollution and Plant Health by Springer and
other publishers. She is also an Advisory Board Member of APSI, USA.
xiii
Acronyms
AIM Asian-Pacific integrated model

BECCS Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage
CAFÉ Clean Air for Europe
CCAs Climate change agreements
CCC Climate Change Committee
CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons
CH4 Methane
CNRM Coupled atmosphere–ocean climate model
CNS Central nervous system
CO2 Carbon dioxide
COP3 Third Conference of the Parties
DACCS Direct air capture and carbon storage
EBM Energy balance model
EMIC Earth system models of intermediate complexity
ETS Emissions trading scheme
GCMs Global climate models or global/general circulation models
GDP Gross domestic product
GHGs Greenhouse gases
GWP Global warming potential
HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons
IAMs Integrated assessment model
ICAM Integrated climate assessment model
IEA International Energy Agency
IMAGE Integrated model to assess the greenhouse effect
INDCs Intended Nationally Determined Contributions
IOA Input-output analysis
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IR Infrared radiation
JCM Joint crediting mechanism
LLF Lung lining fluid
LULCC Land use and land cover change
LULUCF Land use, land use change and forestry
xv
xvi Acronyms
MBMPs Market-based mitigation policies

MTHF Methyl tetrahydrofolate
N 2O Nitrous oxide
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change
NMVOCs Non-methane volatile organic compounds
O3 Ozone
ODSs Ozone depleting substances
OECD Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development
PAT Perform, Achieve and Trade
PFCs Perfluorocarbons
RAINS Regional air pollution information and simulation
RICE Regional integrated model of climate and the economy
SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
UNEP United Nation Environment Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
VOCs Volatile organic compounds
WHO World Health Organization
WMO World Meteorological Organization
ZEVs Zero-emission vehicles
Introduction to Greenhouse Gases: Sources,
Sinks and Mitigation 1
Saurabh Sonwani and Pallavi Saxena
Abstract
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) is considered as one of the biggest reasons behind

climate change in Anthropocene. The GHGs (carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4) play a major role in balancing the radiative budget, by
absorbing or emitting some of the infrared rays reflecting from the earth’s
surface. The increasing levels of most of the GHGs (except CH4 and some
hydrocarbons) in atmosphere is due to increasing rate of anthropogenic activities
from past few decades. The present chapter summarizes the varied sources of
GHGs that includes burning of fossil fuels, growth of urbanization, waste man-
agement, transport, agriculture, habitat fragmentation, land use land cover change
(LULCC), cultural and economic activities, weak policies and strategies by the
government, etc. GHGs being an integral part of an ecosystem consist of natural
sinks such as terrestrial vegetation, soil, geological, biological and stratospheric
sinks; although artificial sinks are also available as well that can act as a sink.
However, it is necessary to prevent or reduce the emission of GHGs to mitigate
climate change. Mitigation refers to the concept of using new technologies,
making older equipment energy-efficient, using renewable energy, changing
management practices, etc. Thus, the present chapter explains about the overall
view of GHGs including their different sources, sink and impacts. This chapter
S. Sonwani (*)
Department of Environmental Studies, Zakir Husain Delhi College, University of Delhi, New
Delhi, India
School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
e-mail: sonwani.s19@gmail.com; sonwani@zh.du.ac.in
P. Saxena
Department of Environmental Sciences, Hindu College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 1

Ltd. 2022
S. Sonwani, P. Saxena (eds.), Greenhouse Gases: Sources, Sinks and Mitigation,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_1
2 S. Sonwani and P. Saxena
also includes the GHGs control methods to optimize GHGs emissions to reduce
the adverse impacts globally.
Keywords
Anthropogenic emission · Source · Sink · Global warming · Mitigation
1 General Introduction
Recent climate associated studies mentioned the melting glaciers, sea level rise,
ocean acidification and varying precipitation patterns (Pachauri et al 2014; Uprety
and Saxena 2021). Such changing climatic conditions is due to the increasing Earth’s
surface temperature caused by rising levels of the GHGs that absorb infrared
radiation (IR) and hence known as greenhouse effect. As a consequence of rising
GHGs level, future may be worse to ecosystem and human health in the absence of
any stringent action to reduce GHG emission. According to an estimate, 3.67 trillion
tons of CO2 (released by anthropogenic GHGs emission) is likely to responsible for
warming by 2 C above pre-industrial temperatures, which will be irreversible to
achieve safe boundaries (Allen et al. 2009). Thus the increasing levels of such GHGs
concentration in atmosphere increase the absorption of outgoing infrared radiation
from the Earth surface. Thus the overall alteration in the balance of incoming and
outgoing energy in the earth’s atmosphere is referred as radiative forcing (Hartmann
et al 2013). CO2 is identified as the important GHG, but significant contribution is
made by methane and nitrous oxide both, which are usually emitted by soil (Cloy
and Smith 2018) and contribute around 87% in radiative forcing (Solomon 2007).
Water vapours traps more IR radiation than CO2, but it contribution in overall
warming is not that much higher due to its variable concentration in with variable
tropospheric temperature. Tropospheric ozone (produced by light-catalysed
reactions), organic compounds (released by plants) and halogenated trace gasses
(produced by products of industrial activities) are other important GHGs
contributing radiative forcing (Saxena et al. 2017). Figure 1.1 shows the atmospheric
Fig. 1.1 Global average GHGs concentration after pre-industrial era (source: IPCC 2014)
1 Introduction to Greenhouse Gases: Sources, Sinks and Mitigation 3
levels of the GHGs carbon dioxide, (CO2, green), methane (CH4, orange) and nitrous
oxide (N2O, red). The anthropogenic GHG emissions from the pre-industrial era
have driven tremendous rise in the atmospheric levels of CO2, CH4 and N2O. A
significant rise in the levels of such gasses observed since the mid-twentieth century.
Considering anthropogenic sectors, transportation, electricity production,
industries, commercial and residential sector, agriculture, land use and forestry
contribute maximum to the overall GHGs emissions (Saxena and Sonwani 2019a).
The highest increase in the CO2 was observed due to fossil fuel combustion and
industrial units that contribute about 78% of total GHGs emission from 1970 to 2010
(Fig. 1.2). The elevated use of coal has raised the carbon emission over the last few
decades since 1970. The usual worldwide temperature increase is 4–5 C per annum
than pre-industrial era (IPCC 2014).
After the Paris Agreement in 2015, the rise of the global temperature was taken as
one of the important climate concern and needs to be controlled up to 2050–2100. As
far the sink of the GHGs concern, many of them are absorbed by the land and ocean-
based sinks and most of it can remain in the atmosphere for several hundred years.
Significant reduction in the increased levels of long-lived GHG, specifically CO2, a
major contributor in radiative forcing, is thus being considered of utmost priority in
the present time to stabilize the global temperature. To control unprecedented global
temperature rise, measures should be adopted to control GHG emission and their
removal through sinks. Despite numerous efforts being targeted towards the reduc-
tion of carbon emissions, the desired levels of reduction in emissions are not been
achieved. Importantly, the deliberate removal of carbon from the atmosphere by
various natural and artificial sinks holds the potential to be a promising alternative.
Therefore, identification of natural sinks for CO2 and finding ways to enhance their
removal potential and developing methods to create artificial sinks for deliberate
removal of CO2 are critical research areas. Furthermore, after removal from the
atmosphere by various natural and artificially created sinks, subsequent methods are
also being developed to store carbon in deep reservoirs for an extended period.
The policies regarding GHGs mitigation are predominantly based on the
measures of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), established at the “Rio Earth Summit” in May 1992 in New York.
The Kyoto Protocol was established at the Third Conference of the Parties (COP3) in
1997 of UNFCCC, took place in Kyoto, Japan to address the problems related to
global warming and climate change. The policy of the Kyoto protocol is based on the
Montreal Protocol to deal with Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs) and the 1990
US Clean Air Act Amendments to deal with sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions
(Assembly 1992; Bashmakov et al. 2007; Saxena and Sonwani 2019b; Sonwani
and Maurya 2018). The industrialized nations have accepted the commitments to
reduce the emissions of GHGs, under the Kyoto Protocol. At the time of the
establishment of the UNFCCC, the developed countries (the USA and Canada,
Europe, the former Soviet Union, New Zealand, and Japan and Australia) were
contributed towards 84% of total World’s GHG emission. From 1850 to 2011,
developed countries are producing 79% of the total emissions. Hence, under the
Kyoto Protocol, only developed countries were required to cut emissions. However,
4
Fig. 1.2 Total annual anthropogenic GHG emissions by gases 1970–2010 (source: IPCC 2014)
S. Sonwani and P. Saxena
the picture has become more challenging in recent years. Although developed
countries continue to generate significant quantities of carbon emissions, developing
countries are also increasingly doing so (Busch et al 2015). As per database, 63% of
annual emissions are contributed by developing countries. According to talks in
Copenhagen in 2009, developing countries like China, India and Brazil have to take
the front seat in international climate negotiations, recognizing that they have
become the major emitter. Hence, every part of the world is now participating in
decarbonization of power supply worldwide to limit global warming to well below
2 C and i.e. by adopting national and international environmental protection and
mitigation policies.
2 Summary of Chapters
Chapter 2 understands the various source factors of present and future GHG
emissions, so that the efforts can be prioritized for evolving effective cost-effective
GHG emission reduction approaches and tactics. The chapter also highlights the
various mechanisms of source apportionment studies along with relative weightage
of different sources in contributing to the observed global GHG emission levels.
Chapter 3 is about the identification of major sinks of greenhouse gases and
summarizes various natural and artificial sinks of CO2, and other GHGs including
methane, oxides of nitrogen and halogen containing gases; and discuss the
undergoing research on the development of new approaches for efficient removal
of GHG.
Chapter 4 is all about the greenhouse gas emission flux from forest ecosystem and
it focuses on the source sink and GHG emission flux from forests, various factors
impacting the fluxes and measurement techniques. It reviews various studies involv-
ing the GHG emissions from forest ecosystems. It also focuses on the impact of
forest generated GHG by deforestation, forest degradation and forest fires on climate
and environmental health.
Chapter 5 is about the identification of greenhouse gases impacts on human health
and this chapter summarizes the mechanism of action and the adverse effects of
greenhouse gases on human health and the primary target organs in an attempt to
better understand the consequences of our actions.
Chapter 6 is about the air pollution and greenhouse gases emissions and discused
about their implications in food production and food security. Overall, this chapter
summarizes about the impact of GHG pollution on climate change and food secu-
rity. Air pollution and climate change though closely related are studied in isolation
in context of food production.
Chapter 7 is about the optimization of greenhouse gas emissions through simula-
tion modeling: analysis and interpretation and summarizes about the computational
model used for the simulation and optimization of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) for the
abatement of climate change. The description of different types of model is given
which are used for the simulation of GHGs to address the climate change. The
detailed and extensive descriptions of the physical processes of climate change have
6 S. Sonwani and P. Saxena
been explained by a more sophisticated tool like general circulation model which are
tested directly or indirectly through back-casting of historical climate data.
Chapter 8 is about the role of biomass burning in greenhouse gases emission and
authors mentioned about the greenhouse gases emission from biomass burning
(BB) focusing mainly on global records in a concise manner. Some of the “initiatives
to tackle air pollution” and “recommendations” are provided for future interventions
and mitigation policies.
Chapter 9 reviewed about the impact and climate forcing with a special reference
to ozone levels. In this chapter authors mentioned the high concentrations of
tropospheric O3 are harmful to human health and environment. Tropospheric
ozone also plays an important role in controlling global energy budget and enhanc-
ing global temperature. Ozone precursors and the control strategies for ozone
management were also discussed.
Chapter 10 authors discussed the role played by the nanomaterials in combating
one of the main GHGs, CO2 in atmosphere. Several classes of nanomaterials
including metal oxides, carbon based nanomaterials, silica based nanomaterials,
nanobiocatalysts have been reviewed, the CO2 absorption and desorption mecha-
nism and their limitations have been discussed in detail. The chapter also highlights
the role of functionalization and doping in determining the efficacy of these systems.
Chapter 11 provides an overview of implemented mitigation action, policies and
strategies adopted to protect and safeguard the environment specifically for GHGs.
Authors mentioned different treaties, agreements and protocols working for the
reduction/mitigation of the greenhouse gases in developing countries and developed
countries.
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Source Apportionment of Greenhouse
Gases in the Atmosphere 2
Sanjoy Maji, Sirajuddin Ahmed, and Santu Ghosh
Abstract
All over the world, there has been a growing concern due to the increasing level
of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In recent years, climate change impacts due
to global warming have become one of the focal points of international environ-
mental policy drive. With the increasing global warming trend, frequency and
magnitude of extreme weather events, accelerating desertification, land degrada-
tion, and frequent drought events have become common in many places, whereas
few areas have experienced extreme rainfall events. However, climate change
impacts are not uniform and vary from one place to another depending on the
level of vulnerability. The global community has acknowledged the challenges of
climate change and has unanimously decided to increase international cooperation
to combat climate change impacts universally. Under this scenario, it has become
very important to identify and quantify all-important GHG emission sources so
that appropriate action plans can be decided to prioritize emission reduction
strategies. Source apportionment is a tool to identify and estimate the share of
different sources towards prevailing GHG concentration levels. Assessment of the
trend of GHG emission levels will help in identifying the fingerprints of these
emissions sources. Qualified information on the GHG level will help the planner
and policymaker to have a more accurate picture of the GHG emission scenario
for a better GHG emission management strategy. The purpose of the present paper
is to understand the various source factors of present and future GHG emissions,
so that the efforts can be prioritized for evolving cost-effective GHG emission
S. Maji (*) · S. Ahmed

Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi, India
e-mail: sanjoymaji@gmail.com
S. Ghosh
Department of Biostatistics, St. Johns Medical College, Bangalore, India

Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_2
10 S. Maji et al.
reduction approaches and tactics. The paper also highlights the various mecha-
nism of source apportionment studies along with relative weightage of different
sources in contributing to the observed global GHG emission levels.
Keywords
Source identification · Emission · Variations · Global warming · Climate change
1 Introduction
The incoming solar energy reaches earth through radiation process. A part of the
incoming solar radiation is captured on earth’s surface whereas a part of it is radiated
back to the atmosphere. Radiated heat energy from the earth’s surface is captured in
the atmosphere by the radiatively active gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs),
sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), etc. The gases capable of capturing heat energy from the
earth’s surface are called greenhouse gases. The natural greenhouse effect maintains
the radiation balance of the earth and atmosphere. The radiation balance keeps the
earth having an average surface temperature of 15 C. However, uncontrolled
emission of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is leading to rapid global warming
impacting earth’s natural balance of surface temperature. The scenarios of global
warming have led to great concerns due to its far reaching and over-lasting impacts.
The “Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change” (IPCC), the United Nations body
responsible for global coordination for fighting the climate change has documented
that anthropogenic global warming has risen more than 1.0 C compared to
pre-industrial period, increasing at 0.2 C per decade (Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change 2019). There have been reports that some areas even experience
warming of more than 1.5 C. At the current rate of anthropogenic radiative forcing
by greenhouse gases average global earth’s surface temperature is estimated to
increase by 1.5 C by the year between 2030 and 2052. The increasing trend of
global warming has not only impacted land-based ecosystems but also the change in
climate patterns has resulted in land degradation and desertification impacting food
security and food systems (Reed and Stringer 2016). Warmer atmospheric and
oceanic temperature is responsible for extreme weather events and impacting pre-
cipitation patterns throughout the world. Global warming is also responsible for
rising sea levels due to the melting of polar ice caps as well as thermal expansion of
water risking all coastal cities.
The rise in average global surface temperature is directly related to the rising
emission levels of greenhouse gases. The climate scientists have predicted different
depictions of climate change at different increasing temperature levels. Now, there is
almost universal agreement to curb the GHG emission levels to protect the world
from the buildup of harmful levels of greenhouse gas emission. The Kyoto Protocol
ratified on 16 February 2005 was the first global commitment under the aegis of the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) to mandate
country-specific greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. The Kyoto Protocol
2 Source Apportionment of Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere 11
adopted by 192 countries, has targeted to limit the temperature increase bellow to 1.5

C of preindustrial average surface temperature levels (https://unfccc.int/kyoto_
protocol). Furthermore, Paris summit held in December 2015 has put an ambitious
long-term temperature goal of keeping global warming below 2 C in comparison to
pre-industrial levels.
It has been agreed among the member countries to inventories and reports
country-specific greenhouse gas emission data under the protocol of UNFCCC
guidelines (Houghton et al. 1997; Penman 2000; IPCC 2006, 2019; Saxena and
Srivastava 2020; Saxena and Sonwani 2019).
Source apportionment study is a methodology to understand the contribution of
various sources towards ambient GHG concentration. Source apportionment study
can categorize the sources contribution of ambient GHG concentration so that the
key sources are identified and accordingly mitigation strategies are drawn for
controlling the buildup of GHGs in the atmosphere.
GHG emissions are reported annually to UNFCCC by individual countries. The
reporting of GHG emission contribution by individual countries classically focuses
on the six direct greenhouse gases, viz. CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC, and SF6; and a
lesser extent to indirect greenhouse gases, viz. non-methane volatile organic
compounds (NMVOCs), nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO), and sulfur
dioxide (SO2) (Saxena and Naik 2018; Sonwani and Maurya 2018). However, there
are wide varieties in approaches of estimation and reporting the greenhouse gas
emission contribution. The GHG emissions calculation basically follows three
methods. The basic Tier 1 approach follows the approach of emissions estimation
from various activities or source categories without considering the variations due to
climatic factors, specification of technologies, and the positive impact of mitigation
measures. Tier 2 approach considers methodological details, technological advance-
ment, country/region-specific emission factors, whereas Tier 3 approach considers a
range of process-based models for a more precise estimation of GHG emission
contribution. Some of the previously reported source apportionment studies and
the used tactics of GHG calculation have been described in Table 2.1.
An effective approach of source apportionment studies includes (1) documenta-
tion of source categories; (2) estimation of emission contribution from the sources;
(3) evaluation of source categories for prioritization; (4) comparison of available
mitigation strategies; (5) decide on mitigation strategies based on techno-economic
practicability; and (6) implementation of suitable mitigation strategies. The present
discussion primarily focuses on interlinkages of greenhouse gases and climate
change, along with the definition and concept of source apportionment of different
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, factors of GHG buildup in the atmosphere as
well as recommendations and conclusions.
2 Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate Change
The consequences of global warming have emerged as one of the foremost

challenges for the very survival of humankind as well as sustainability goals. It
has now been proved that anthropogenic GHG buildup has resulted an increase in
12 S. Maji et al.
Table 2.1 Previously reported source apportionment studies of GHGs

Studies Country Technique
Sharma et al. (2006) India IPCC Default method, 1996
India’s Initial National Communication India IPCC Default method, 1996, Tier I
(NATCOM) to the United Nations approach
Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) (2004)
India Second National Communication India IPCC Default method, 2006 and
to the United Nations Framework Country-specific Tier II and III
Convention on Climate Change (2012) approach
Gupta et al. (2007) Delhi, India Static chamber method
Zhang et al. (2009) Shanghai, N2O and CH4 flux measurement with
China the static chamber method
Rinne et al. (2005) Helsinki, Eddy covariance method
Finland
Kumar et al. (2004) Delhi, India Static chamber method
Chakraborty et al. (2011) Delhi, India Static Chamber method, IPCC DM &
FOD method, Modified Triangular
Method
Singh et al. (2008) India Developed Country-specific Emission
factor by apportion the fuels,
consumption of fuel, categories of
vehicles, etc.
Pathak et al. (2013) India Static Chamber method, Eddy
covariance method, Neck halter and
Capillary tube method, etc.
Steininger et al. (2018) Austria Consumption-based accounting of
GHG
Cambaliza et al. (2015) Indianapolis Surface mobile measurements and
modelling
Skiba et al. (2012) UK IPCC Default method, 2006 and
Country-specific Tier II approach
Zimnoch et al. (2019) Krakow, Atmospheric observations of mixing
Poland ratios and isotopic composition of the
investigated gases
average earth’s temperature by 1.0 C. Current levels of global warming are linked to
the observed environmental impact of increased dryland, water scarcity, soil erosion,
vegetation loss, permafrost thawing, coastal degradation, and tropical crop yield
decline (IPCC 2018a, b). In some regions of the world, already, there are noticeable
effects of global warming, with higher observed warming over land in comparison to
ocean (Wallace and Joshi 2018). The projected impacts of global warming exhibit a
gloomier picture under different climate change scenarios. With increasing tempera-
ture due to buildup of GHG emission levels in the atmosphere, rise in sea level,
melting of polar ice caps are the most apparent risks whereas risks of droughts,
heatwaves, dryland water scarcity, natural habitat degradation, wildfire damage,
impact on crop production, etc. have been projected to be few of the immediate
cascading effects of global warming.
One of the most striking observations of disturbance in the global energy balance
is the fact that the rise in temperature is not evenly distributed over the period or
region. As a result of which, weather extremes like heat waves, cold spells have
become common phenomena in some parts of the globe whereas some places
experience heavy rainfall and drought. Increased frequency and intensity of droughts
are now been observed in some regions in the Mediterranean (Iglesias et al. 2007),
West Asia (Belgacem and Louhaichi 2013; DePauw 2000), South America (Fraser
et al. 2013; Vera et al. 2006), parts of Africa (Prospero and Lamb 2003; Stringer
et al. 2009; Gan et al. 2016), and north-eastern Asia (Hong et al. 2001; Li et al. 2009;
Leng et al. 2015); whereas the increased frequency of dust storms have been
observed in Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East and Central Asia (Littmann 1991;
Shao and Dong 2006; Saxena et al. 2021) over the past few decades. Also, there have
been records of increased intensity of heavy precipitation events on a global level
(Willems et al. 2012; Mamo 2015) whereas increased evapotranspiration rate due to
increased temperature have been linked to decreased precipitation amount in
Sub-Saharan Africa (Terink et al. 2013), parts of East and Central Asia
(Lioubimtseva and Henebry 2009), and Australia (Wang et al. 2009). Global
warming is also linked to delay on the onset as well as a decrease in intensity of
the Indian monsoon rainfall (Niyogi et al. 2010; Guimberteau et al. 2012).
Another very important aspect of climate change is shifting in climatic zones
(Mahlstein et al. 2013). It has been observed that there is an expansion of arid climate
zones (Son and Bae 2015) whereas there is an observed contraction of polar climate
zones (Vincent et al. 2011). A shift in climatic zones has also directly impacted plant
and animal species distribution pattern, their ranges as well as their natural ecologi-
cal behaviors (Condit et al. 1996; Schaefer et al. 2008; Pejchar and Mooney 2009;
Burrows et al. 2011). The shift in climate zone also indirectly affects agricultural
productivity due to a mismatch between climatic and edaphic factors. Due to the
shift in climate zones, there is a shift of favorable climatic factors of an agricultural
product to an infertile zone whereas fertile zones are left with a severe type of
climate.
Climate change scenario projections predict that continuous global warming will
lead to increased desertification in Asia and Africa regions, whereas America, the
Mediterranean region, Southern Africa, and Central Asia will be affected by increas-
ing risk of wildfire events. The tropics and subtropics are projected to be vulnerable
to crop yield decline. In a nutshell, climate change impacts pose a risk to the very
existence of the lives and livelihoods of humankind through disturbing the whole
natural environmental balance system.
3 Major GHGs in the Atmosphere
Greenhouse gases are those gases that are radiatively active and can absorb long-
wavelength thermal radiation emitted from the earth's surface. Global Warming
Potential (GWP) is an important metric that measure the ability of greenhouse gas
14 S. Maji et al.
to trap heat energy in themselves. GWP is defined as a weighting factor of heat-

trapping potential of 1 ton of any greenhouse gas in comparison to 1 ton of carbon
dioxide (CO2). When GWP is multiplied by the year’s emission rate, a true measure
of the impact of each gas can be projected. GWP calculations not only are helpful to
identify the least-cost approach for the prevention of climate change but also help in
the ranking of individual countries based on their contribution to climate change.
Various greenhouse gases, lifetime, and GWP in the atmosphere are described in
Table 2.2.
Direct Greenhouse Gases Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), and Nitrous
oxide (N2O).
Indirect Greenhouse Gases Carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx),

ammonia (NH3), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), sulfur
Table 2.2 Global warming potential of greenhouse gases

Global warming potential (time horizon)
Species Lifetime (years) 20 years 100 years 500 years
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Variable 1 1 1
Methane (CH4) 12 3 56 21 6.5
Nitrous oxide (N2O) 120 280 310 170
HFC-23 (CHF3) 264 9100 11,700 9800
HFC-32 (CH2F2) 5.6 2100 650 200
HFC-41 (CH3F) 3.7 490 150 45
HFC-43-10mee (C5H2F10) 17.1 3000 1300 400
HFC-125 (C2HF5) 32.6 4600 2800 920
HFC-134 (C2H2F4) 10.6 2900 1000 310
HFC-134a (CH2FCF3) 14.6 3400 1300 420
HFC-152a (C2H4F2) 1.5 460 140 42
HFC-143 (C2H3F3) 3.8 1000 300 94
HFC-143a (C2H3F3) 48.3 5000 3800 1400
HFC-227ea (C3HF7) 36.5 4300 2900 950
HFC-236fa (C3H2F6) 209 5100 6300 4700
HFC-245ca (C3H3F5) 6.6 1800 560 170
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) 3200 16,300 23,900 34,900
Perfluoromethane (CF4) 50,000 4400 6500 10,000
Perfluoroethane (C2F6) 10,000 6200 9200 14,000
Perfluoropropane (C3F8) 2600 4800 7000 10,100
Perfluorobutane (C4F10) 2600 4800 7000 10,100
Perfluorocyclobutane (c-C4F8) 3200 6000 8700 12,700
Perfluoropentane (C5F12) 4100 5100 7500 11,000
Perfluorohexane (C6F14) 3200 5000 7400 10,700
Source: Global Warming Potentials (IPCC Second Assessment Report). https://unfccc.int/process/
transparency-and-reporting/greenhouse-gas-data/greenhouse-gas-data-unfccc/global-warming-
potentials
dioxide (SO2), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur

hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen trifluoride (NF3), trifluoromethyl sulfur pentafluoride
(SF5CF3), halogenated ethers (e.g., C4F9OC2H5, CHF2OCF2OC2F4OCHF2,
CHF2OCF2OCHF2), other halocarbons (CF3I, CH2Br2, CHCl3, CH3Cl, CH2Cl2,
C3F7C(O)C2F5, C7F16, C4F6, C5F8, and c-C4F8O).
CO, NOx, NMVOCs, and SO2 are not considered as direct greenhouse gases,
rather they are considered as precursors of direct radiative forcing (Sonwani and
Saxena 2016). In the presence of sunlight CO, NOx, and NMVOC react to form
tropospheric ozone (O3) which acts as a greenhouse gas (Sahu and Saxena 2015;
Saxena and Sonwani 2020; Mills et al. 2018). NOx and SO2 are aerosol precursors;
elemental carbon of aerosols is considered to play a role in global warming (Sonwani
et al. 2021a, b; Gilardoni et al. 2011; Bond et al. 2013).
There are various sources of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere including
industry, transportation, power generation, agriculture as well as various GHGs
emitted from residential and commercial sectors based on human activity. The
relative contribution of different GHGs to the overall forcing also varies from
place to place over time based on consumption pattern, per capita energy use, energy
use by industrial sector, economic activity, waste management practices, and life-
style, etc. The current global status and trend of emissions of major GHGs in the
atmosphere are shown in Fig. 2.1.
CO2 concentration is continuously increasing in the atmosphere. There is also a
striking observation of the difference in the relative contribution of fluorinated gases
(hydrofluorocarbon, perfluorocarbon, and sulfur hexafluoride) to the overall forcing
over the years. Though these gases are found in very small quantities in the
atmosphere, but are very important because of their potency as well as having the
longest lifespans among GHGs. Often, the fluorinated gases are designated as the
“high global warming potential gases”. Important greenhouse gases in the atmo-
sphere which are also important from the source apportionment study point of view
have been discussed in the following sections:
3.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Burning of fossil fuels in thermal power plant and transportation sector are the two
major contributors of CO2 in the atmosphere. CO2 is the prime focus among GHGs
because of its continuous increasing trend and is the largest contributor to radiative
forcing. Since the 1990, CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has been amplified by
more than 51% (WRI 2021; Uprety and Saxena 2021a). CO2 concentrations which
were 270–285 ppm during the eighteenth century have now increased to 400 ppm.
Consumption of fossil fuel account for over 82% of the global energy produced (IEA
(International Energy Agency) 2016). Over 66% of world’s electricity is generated
by fossil fuels which on the other hand produce 33% of global CO2 emissions. The
global share of energy-related CO2 emissions also varies over time depending on
availability and other techno-economic considerations. Over the year relative share
of liquid fuel in total energy supply has been decreased gradually and has been
16 S. Maji et al.
Fig. 2.1 Contribution of the various greenhouse gases to the overall forcing in 1990 and 2017
(https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/atmospheric-greenhouse-gas-
concentrations-6/assessment-1)
Fig. 2.2 Comparison of total energy supply by different fossil fuel sources
replaced by coal which is considered to be the most polluting among the fossil fuels.
In 1990, liquid fuels were accounted for approximately 37% of the global primary
energy supply which has reduced to 32% in 2015. At the same time, the relative
share of coal consumption has increased from 25% to 28%. The share of different
fuel sources of total primary energy supply is shown in Fig. 2.2.
3.2 Methane (CH4)
Next to CO2, anthropogenic sources of CH4 is the second-largest contributor of

GHG emission and is accounted for approximately 16% to the total direct radiative
forcing (USEPA: https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-
emissions-data). Emission from the agricultural sector and from waste are the two
major anthropogenic sources of CH4 emission (Uprety and Saxena 2021b). The
global warming potential of CH4 is 21 times more in comparison to the equivalent
amount of CO2 in a 100-year time frame. Due to lower pollution profile, CH4 has
become a preferred choice of fossil fuel for industrial applications as well as thermal
power production; however, a larger reliance on natural gas has resulted in greater
fugitive emissions of CH4.
The current level of global CH4 emission has been estimated to be around 1850
ppb. From 1990 onwards, globally, the methane emission has increased by about
10.8%. The trend of global atmospheric CH4 emission is shown in Fig. 2.3. The CH4
emission trends exhibit steady growth between the period 1950 to 1990; after 1990
onwards, though the rate of growth has flattened a little bit, but still the trend
continues to increase. The past decade has observed an increasing rate of about
1.3% per year. In 2018, CH4 emission has registered a growth of about 1.7%.
18 S. Maji et al.
Fig. 2.3 Methane emission trend between 1950 and 2017 (Data Source: European Environment
Agency (www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/atmospheric-greenhouse-gas-
concentrations-6/assessment-1)
3.3 Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
N2O which is an inert gas but is 300-fold more effective than CO2 as a greenhouse
gas and contributes 6% of the total global anthropogenic radiative forcing. N2O is a
very persistent gas and stays for more than 100 years in the atmosphere before it is
destroyed naturally. Microbial denitrification and nitrification processes in the
oceans and tropical soils are the two major natural sources and accounted for
about 80% of total global N2O pool in the atmosphere (Fowler et al. 2015).
Anthropogenic sources of N2O include agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, and
industrial processes. Agricultural application of nitrogen-based fertilizer is one of
the most important sources of N2O emissions and is increasing day by day with
intense agricultural practices. Transportation and power sector are the two important
utility sectors that contributes substantially to N2O emission. Biological emissions
from the agriculture sector and industrial processes producing N2O are estimated to
contribute 50% of anthropogenic N2O emissions (Houghton et al. 1997). As per the
latest estimate, N2O emissions have grown at the rate of 1.0% per year during the
past few decades.
3.4 Fluorinated Gases (HFCS, PFCS, SF6)
The fluorinated gases (hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and

sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)) are of special concern from GHG emission control point
of view because they are very stable in the atmosphere and have long-term global
warming potential. HFCs and PFCs have gained a wide range of applications in our
Fig. 2.4 Increasing trend of fluorinated gases (Data Source: USEPA)
daily life and the trend is increasing day by day. The major applications of HFCs and
PFCs include coolant in refrigerator and air conditioning application, fire extin-
guisher, aerosol products, solvent washing, foam blowing, etc. Application of SF6
includes electrical uses, fire extinguisher, etc.
Fluorinated gases released to the atmosphere is very small, but due to their high
global warming potential draw a lot of attention from mitigation and management
point of view. These gases are very stable and have very long lifespans in the
atmosphere (up to 270 years for HFCs, 800–50,000 years for PFCs, 3200 years for
SF6). Major use of fluorinated gases is in aluminum and semiconductor
manufacturing processes.
The fluorinated gases have increased by more than 156% from 1990 to 2010. It is
observed that fluorinated gases are growing at the rate of about 4.6% per year,
whereas the emission has recorded to increase by 6.1% in 2018. The trend of
emission of fluorinated gases over the period is shown in Fig. 2.4. HFCs, PFCs,
and SF6, being an alternative to ozone-depleting substance it is anticipated that the
consumption of these chemicals will continue to grow in coming years unless and
otherwise controlled. Due to the potency, PFCs emissions are regarded as a source of
concern in national GHG emission profile in some countries.
4 Important Factors of Green House Gas Emission
All aspects of development—social, economic, and agricultural productivity all are

directly or indirectly responsible for rising GHG levels. Coal powered thermal power
generation is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions. Next to thermal power
industry, agriculture is the second-largest contributor to the GHG pool. Agriculture
and livestock together account for about 24% of global GHG emissions. The
industrial sector like the chemical, metallurgical, and mineral processing industry
20 S. Maji et al.
is a large contributor of GHG emission. Transportation is another important sector of

GHG emission which is growing all around the world day by day with the increasing
demand for mobility and economic prosperity. As per the estimate made by
UNFCCC global GHG emissions stands at 50.8 billion tons in 2016, which is
about 48% greater than the level in 1990 (Olivier et al. 2017). Some of the important
factors of increasing GHG emission are discussed in the following section:
4.1 Increasing Energy Demand
Economic growth as well as the overall development of society is closely related to

the availability of energy. Energy is the prime mover for industrialization, public
services, and mobility. Throughout history, degree of advancement in society have
been related with availability of energy. However, energy supply is the biggest
source of GHG emissions, accounting for 34% of emissions worldwide. With
increasing population and improved life standards per capita energy consumption
will rise, so will increase GHG emission level. As per the estimate of the Interna-
tional Energy Agency (IEA), globally, per capita primary energy use has increased
by 31% from 1971 to 2010. The ongoing industrialization and urbanization trend
demand for increasing rate of energy supply which directly and indirectly ultimately
lead to increased emission level of GHGs.
4.2 GDP vs Emissions
The availability of enough energy supply is fundamental for economic growth. An

increase in income, causes an upward shift for the demand for energy. The economic
sector acts as a system where energy and matter enter and manufactured into goods
for society. Waste matter and energy demand are residual impact of economy back to
the environment. Thus, environment and economy work inclusively where both are
influenced by each other. The high rate of GDP relates to more societal product for
consumption and vice versa, intense economic activity means higher energy con-
sumption rate with more GHG emission.
4.3 Urbanization
The accelerated rate of urbanization trend is a precursor of GHG emissions. As per

the estimation made by the International Energy Agency (IEA) emission contribu-
tion from urban areas due to energy consumption account for about 71% of global
GHG level (IEA (International Energy Agency) 2016). In addition, to be a driver of
emissions, the urbanization trend also destructs green areas impacting the natural
sink of greenhouse gases. With the increasing trend of urbanization drawn by
improved access of opportunities, urbanization will continue to be accountable for
increasing GHG emission contribution.
4.4 Growing Vehicle Use
The transport sector is responsible for 14% of total GHG emissions worldwide
(IPCC 2014). Increasing demand of greater mobility with the increasing urbaniza-
tion trend has led to higher motorization due to lack of adequate public transport
infrastructure. Greater use of personal vehicle adds to existing pollution load. In
many metro cities of the world transport sector is the prime contributor to the urban
pollution load. The transport sector accounts for 27% of fuel energy demand and
23% of global energy-related CO2 emissions (https://www.who.int/sustainable-
development/transport/health-risks/climate-impacts/en/). Emissions from growing
vehicle use have increased by 2.5% annually between 2010 and 2015, which has
resulted in faster CO2 emissions growth than any other contributor.
4.5 Industry
Emission from industries is another factor of increasing GHG emissions. Emissions

from industry is directly correlated with energy consumption per unit of industrial
production. However, it has also been noticed that with increasing economic pros-
perity, with the improvements in energy efficiency the rate of GHG emission
decreases. Among the different industrial sectors, cement, steel, aluminum are
major energy-intensive industries that are continuously growing. Non-energy indus-
trial emissions such as HFC emissions have grown in recent times due to their
acceptance as a substitute of CFCs in refrigeration equipment (IEA (International
Energy Agency) 2016).
5 Greenhouse Gases Budget of Different Countries and Their

Contribution
It is a mutually shared responsibility of all the global communities to take appropri-

ate steps in the direction of effective GHG management so that we can effectively
combat global warming. Generation of reliable GHG inventory data as per interna-
tional reporting requirements and making appropriate steps towards low-carbon
strategies and goals are very vital for all the countries. However, there are many
countries who still do not follow a systematic formalized approach to calculate
national GHG inventory. There are many challenges to effective emission inventory
including lack of proper data, lack of proper institutional framework as well as
inadequate training of domestic inventory experts. Under the requirements of
UNFCC, primary responsibilities have been bestowed with the industrialized devel-
oped countries for technology transfer for domestic low-carbon development
objectives and goals as well as to share their experiences and knowledge for capacity
building of countries who are facing the challenges of effective emission inventories.
Annex I to the climate convention (UNFCCC) lists all the countries in the
Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), plus countries
22 S. Maji et al.
Fig. 2.5 Trends of global GHG emission (data source: Olivier and Peters 2017)
with economies in transition. There are 43 industrialized countries who are listed in
annex I. Other member of the signed parties is considered in the list of non-annex I
parties. Non-annex I parties are mostly developing countries. There are a group of
154 nations who are considered in the list of non-annex I parties. Annex I parties are
required to report national GHG inventory on an annual basis, whereas non-annex
parties are permitted to prepare national GHG inventories every 2 years and com-
municate the same at least on every 4 years basis.
However, despite global climate policy towards effective GHG emission reduc-
tion commitments GHG emissions have not decreased as expected. Recent
observations suggest that though there are declining trend of GHG emission by
few industrialized countries, but those efforts are not enough to offset the growth in
other countries. As per the latest estimate, the GHG level in 2018 stands at 51.8
gigatons of CO2 equivalent which is about 11.6% higher than 2010 and 56.9%
higher than the GHG level in 1990 (Blanco et al. 2014). The trend of global GHG
emission levels into the atmosphere during the past few decades is shown in Fig. 2.5.
The top four emitters (China, USA, EU and India) contribute to over 55% of the
total GHG emissions while G20 members are responsible for 78% of the total GHG
emissions. China is the top most emitters of GHG and is accounted for about 26% of
global emissions. Next to China is the USA and the European Union who are
accounted for 13% and 8.5% of global GHG emissions, respectively. Both the
countries have been able to register GHG emission reduction of 1% per year in the
last decade. India account for 7% of global emissions. The Russian Federation
(4.8%) and Japan (2.7%) are the next largest emitters, with international transport
(aviation and shipping) representing around 2.5% of GHG emissions.
Emissions on a per capita basis bring a completely different picture. Canada, the
USA, and Russia emit more than double the global average per person. On the other
Fig. 2.6 Trends of global GHG emission from Annex I countries (Source: https://di.unfccc.int/
time_series)
end of the spectrum, India’s per capita emissions are only one-third of the global
average.
However, now, it has become apparent that improvement in energy concentration
and energy efficiency have contributed significantly in reducing overall GHG
contribution in Annex I countries. The overall GHG emission contribution, which
was at 28.93 gigatons in 1990, now has reduced and stood at 23.33 gigatons in 2017.
The reducing trend of GHG emission from Annex I countries is projected in Fig. 2.6.
A recent study found that there are 18 developed economies where CO2 emissions
are declining (Le Quéré et al. 2019).
One of the major reasons of increasing GHG emission in non-OECD countries is
industrialization and economic expansion. The comparison of trend of growth of
economy in OECD versus non-OECD economies shows that economies in
non-OECD countries have grown at over 4.5% per year in the last decade whereas
growth of economy was just 2% per year in OECD economies. It was seen that there
was a net decline of 0.4% per year in CO2 emissions in the last decade in OECD
economies, whereas non-OECD economies have registered an emission growth of
nearly 3% per year. Consumption of coal which is a dominant CO2 emission source
is growing rapidly in the energy mix of non-OECD countries. It is expected that with
growing economy energy demand will continue to rise in non-OECD economies;
however, improvements in energy intensity, together with deployment of
low-carbon energy sources, could lead to an earlier peak and then decline in CO2
emissions.
24 S. Maji et al.
6 Source Apportionment of GHGs in the Atmosphere
Approaches of source apportionment Study of GHGs have been mentioned in

Fig. 2.7. Source apportionment study is a means for recognizing the different sources
of GHG emission along with estimation of relative contribution to pollution load in a
defined area. The primary objective of the source apportionment study is to identify
the prominent GHG emission sources and thereby designing the policy decisions to
control and mitigate GHG emission levels. It is very important to have a
standardized method for GHG emission inventory which is accurate, consistent for
data collection and calculation methodology as well as transparent so that GHG
emission estimates can be compared across the world and proper mitigation
measures can be planned transparently.
Generally, there are three approaches to GHG inventory. In the very basic “Tier
1” method, vital source categories are recognized, and IPCC default emission factors
are used for estimating load contribution into the atmosphere. “Tier 2” and “Tier 3”
approaches are elaborate one and detailed data and/or measurements are employed
for their application. Emission inventory of Tier 2 and Tier 3 approaches disaggre-
gate activity data into finer specifications. Quality assurance and quality checks are
rigorously employed to verify the accuracy of the collected activity data. Emission
factors are calculated and/or measured based on the actual process of technology
employed on region-specific and/or country-specific ways instead of using published
universal emission factors. Tier 3 approach is more detailed, and complex compared
to the Tier 2 approach. There are two methods of Tier 3 approaches, viz. (1) mea-
surement-based Tier 3 inventories and (2) model-based Tier 3 inventories.
Measurement-based methods rely on direct measurement of GHG emissions from
different sources for precise emission estimations from source categories. Some of
the important steps of measurement-based methods are (1) design sampling scheme,
(2) select sampling sites, (3) take a sample from the monitoring network periodically,
(4) calculate national emissions and removal estimates. Model-based Tier
3 inventories follow process-based, hybrid, and/or other types of models. However,
Tier 3 model-based inventories are required to be calibrated and validated through
measurement study only. As an example of differences in Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier
3 approaches emission estimation from the road sector is highlighted below:
Tier 1 Approach Tier 1 approach of emission estimation from the road sector is
calculated by multiplying fuel consumption data with the emission load factor.
Emission ¼ Σ½F a EFa
Fa fuel consumed, EFa emission factor (emission per unit of fuel), a fuel type (e.g.,
diesel, gasoline, CNG, LPG)
Tier 2 Approach Tier 2 approach practices fuel-specific emission factors with

regards to vehicle subcategories.
Fig. 2.7 Approaches of source apportionment study of GHGs

26 S. Maji et al.
Emission ¼ Σ ½F a,b,c EFa,b,c
EFa,b,c emission factor (emission per unit of fuel), Fa,b,c fuel consumption by a
vehicle subcategory for a given mobile source activity, a fuel type (e.g., diesel,
gasoline, CNG, LPG), b vehicle subcategory (e.g., two-wheeler, four-wheeler, truck,
light motor vehicle), c emission control technology (such as uncontrolled, catalytic
converter, etc.)
Tier 3 Approach In Tier 3 approach of emissions estimation mobile source activity

(viz. vehicle kilometer travelled) is multiplied by emission factors for each vehicle
subcategory and possible road type. Vehicle subcategories are based on vehicle type,
age, and emissions control technology.
Emission ¼ Σ½Da,b,c,d EFa,b,c,d þ ΣCa,b,c,d
Emission emission (kg), EFa,b,c,d emission factor (kg/km), Da,b,c,d distance travelled
(VKT) for a given mobile source activity (km), Ca,b,c,d emissions during warm-up
phase (cold start) (kg), a fuel type (e.g., diesel, gasoline, natural gas, LPG), b vehicle
type, c emission control technology (such as uncontrolled, catalytic converter, etc.),
d operating conditions (e.g., urban or rural road type, climate, or other environmental
factors)
The basis approaches of source apportionment study involve the preparation of

detailed emission inventory with an estimation of emissions from various activities.
The important steps of source apportionment studies of GHG emission include:
• To identify possible sources and sinks in a region.

• To establish key source categories from the range of sources.
• Data collection: activity data and facility Data
• To establish QA/QC of Data
• To develop “Emission Factors” (EF) for different source categories
• Estimation of current levels of GHG emission
6.1 Source Identification
Source identification is the first basic step of emission inventory exercises. There is
natural as well as anthropogenic sources of emission. Natural sources are constant,
whereas anthropogenic sources depend on human activity data. Anthropogenic
sources of GHG emissions keep on increasing with the rate of urbanization, indus-
trialization, and changing human lifestyles. The major anthropogenic sources of
GHG emission may be segregated into the following source categories:
1. Energy: Combustion of fossil fuels by industries, transportation sector, and other

combustion activities including fugitive fuel emissions due to the handling of
fossil fuels are some of the major sources of GHGs from the energy sector. The
main GHG gases from the energy sector include CO2, CH4, N2O, NOx, CO,
NMVOC, and SO2. Different sources of GHGs from Energy sector may be
highlighted as follows:
a. Fuel combustion activities: Different sources of GHGs from fuel combustion
activities includes
• Emission from energy industries, viz. electricity production, CHP, heat
plants, petroleum refining, and other energy industries.
• Emission from the burning of fuels in manufacturing and construction
industries, viz. metal industries, chemicals, pulp processing and paper
industries, food and beverages, transport equipment, construction
industries, etc.
• Emissions from the combustion and evaporative emissions of fuel from all
transport activity including civil aviation, road transportation, railways,
water-borne navigation, and other mode of transportation.
• Combustion for electricity and heat from residential, commercial, institu-
tional, agriculture, forestry, fish farms, etc.
b. Fugitive emissions from fuels: Fugitive emission estimates all intentional and
unintentional emissions from processing and handling (e.g., mining, explora-
tion, processing, storage, transportation, etc.) of fossil fuels as well as acci-
dental combustion of fossil fuel.
The relative contribution of fugitive emission is very minimal in comparison to
fuel combustion activities. However, fugitive emission load contribution is
greater in oil producing countries.
2. Industrial processes and products: The main greenhouse gases from the indus-
trial sector include CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, other halogenated gases,
NOx, CO, NMVOC, and SO2. There are several types of industrial processes in
which raw materials are physically and chemically transformed to produce a new
product. Depending on products and processes of transformations various GHGs
are released into the atmosphere. Emission from the industrial sector also varies
greatly with technology, size, and vintage of sources, control systems, etc. It is to
mention here that GHG emission contribution from the industrial sector should
not be double counted on account of energy consumption since energy consump-
tion is separately accounted for under the “Energy” sector. Various sources of
emissions from the industrial sector are as follows:
a. Mineral products (cement production, lime production, limestone and dolo-
mite use, soda ash production and use, etc.);
b. Chemical industry (ammonia production, nitric acid production, adipic acid
production, carbide production, caprolactam, glyoxal and glyoxylic acid pro-
duction, titanium dioxide production, soda ash production, petrochemical and
carbon black production, fluorochemical production, etc.);
c. Metal production (iron and steel production, ferroalloys production, aluminum
production, magnesium production, lead production, zinc production, etc.);
28 S. Maji et al.
d. Electronics industry (integrated circuit or semiconductor, TFT flat panel

display, photovoltaics, heat transfer fluid, other).
e. Chemicals used as substitute for ozone depleting substances (refrigeration and
air conditioning, foam blowing agents, fire protection, aerosols, solvents,
others).
f. Other product manufacture and use.
Greenhouse gases like HFCs and SF6 are mainly emitted from aluminum and
magnesium producing industries. Besides, a small amount of fugitive HFCs is
also released into the atmosphere from refrigerators, foams, or aerosol cans.
HFCs are used as alternatives to ozone-depleting substances as per the com-
mitment made under the montreal protocol to phase out ozone-depleting
substances to protect the Ozone Layer. Similarly, another important fluorinated
gas sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is used in electrical equipment manufacturing
industries.
3. Agriculture, forestry, and other land use: The sector contributes about 23% of the
total net manmade emissions of GHGs (IPCC 2019a, b). Key greenhouse gases
from this sector include CO2, N2O, and CH4. Anthropogenic fluxes of CO2 in the
atmosphere are from biodegradation and combustion of organic matter. N2O is
primarily released by the application of nitrogen fertilizer in the soil, while CH4 is
produced through natural methanogenesis which occurs under anaerobic
decompositions of organics in soils and manure storage. It has been estimated
that various anthropogenic sources under this sector account for 13% of CO2,
44% of CH4, and 82% of N2O emissions. Major sources of GHGs from agricul-
ture, forestry, and land use sector includes:
Livestock: CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation of livestock population and
CH4 and N2O emissions from manure management are the two primary sources
of GHG emissions from livestock. Domestic livestock like buffalo, goats, camels,
etc. produce CH4 due to enteric fermentation process during digestion of the food.
Ruminant animals (e.g., cattle, sheep) emits a larger volume of CH4 in compari-
son to non-ruminant animals (e.g., pigs, horses) animals. The amount of CH4
emission also varies with type, age, and weight of the animal and also depends on
the quantity and quality of the feed consumed. CH4 and N2O both are released
from the manure due to decomposition under anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic
conditions often occur where manure is typically stored in large piles or disposed
of in lagoons.
Land: There are five identified major land use categories, viz. forest land,
cropland, grasslands, settlements, and other lands. Estimation of carbon stock
under this category includes above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass,
deadwood, litter, and soil organic matter. The changes in carbon stock due to
the conversion of land are monitored. Greenhouse gases from this sector include
CO2, CH4, N2O, NOx, CO, NMVOC, and SO2. Wetlands also emit a substantial
amount of GHG gases.
Biomass burning: Forest fire and agriculture residue burning produce N2O,
CH4, CO2 emissions. Field burning of agricultural residues occurs sometimes for
energy and sometimes as a way of disposing of waste.
Liming: Liming is done to maintain the soil pH. Lime releases CO2 from the
agricultural field.
Urea application: Urea which is used for increasing the fertility of soil releases
CO2.
Rice cultivation: Methane emissions from rice cultivation are another major
source of GHG emission from the agricultural sector. Organic material in rice
fields under inundated condition undergoes anaerobic biodegradation and
released as CH4 to the atmosphere from the rice plants through diffusive transport
mechanism.
N2O emissions from managed soils and manure management: Application of
synthetic N fertilizers and organic amendments (e.g., animal manure, compost,
sewage sludge) releases N2O emissions from soils as a by-product of nitrification
and denitrification process.
4. Waste: Waste generation rate from any society are governed by socio-economic
position, and degree of industrialization. It is observed that developed economy
produces greater amount of waste in comparison to low-income countries. There
are observed discrepancies in the amount of waste generation by the urban and
rural population. Urbanization and greater economic prosperity are the two most
important factors of waste generation rate. Prevailing climatic condition also
influences waste generation rate. Several sources of GHGs from waste sector
have been mentioned in Fig. 2.8. GHG emission from waste may be recognized
from the following source categories:
Anaerobic biodegradation of organic matter in solid waste disposal sites by

methanogenic bacteria results in the release of CH4 to the atmosphere. Typically,
solid waste disposal sites are the largest contributor to CH4 under the waste sector.
As per the estimate 5–20% of global anthropogenic CH4 emissions is from waste
sources (Houghton et al. 1997). Incineration and open combustion of waste material
Waste
Solid Waste Liquid Waste
Municipal Domestic Industrial

Industrial Other
Solid Sludge Wastewater Wastewater
Waste Waste
Waste
Domestic Industrial
Incineration Wastewater
Biological and open Wastewater
Disposal Treatment and Treatment and
Treatment Burning
Discharge Discharge
Fig. 2.8 Various sources of GHGs from waste sector

30 S. Maji et al.
release CO2 in the atmosphere, whereas biological treatment of waste and wastewa-
ter treatment releases CO2, CH4, N2O, NOx, CO, NMVOC as well as a small amount
of NH3.
6.2 Identification of Key Source Categories for Inventory Work
It is very important to prioritize key emission sources so that resources can be

efficiently utilized in emission inventory work. However, in identifying key source
categories it must be ensured that all sources of direct GHGs are included in the key
category list. Once the key category sources are identified, subsequent efforts may be
focused on including non-key source categories, also. Much of the evidence of
potential key categories can be compiled from readily available information and
knowledge. Once a gross record of key inventories is established, it becomes much
easier to further improve the records of inventories. Important source categories are
recognized based on the cumulative emissions threshold as determined by the
individual country. It is recommended that key source categories should cover at
least 90% of all emission sources. Regular observation of key source categories over
a certain period will allow establishing the trend as well as the factors of key source
categories of national emission inventory estimates.
6.3 Data Collection: Activity Data and Facility Data
Data collection is a special emphasis on the emission inventory process. Economic

activity data like Gross Domestic Product (GDP), primary energy use, the energy use
per unit of GDP, primary energy mix, per capita energy requirement, etc. provide
useful information about the factors of GHG emissions. Integrating activity data with
facility-level emission data establishes a national inventory of specific greenhouse
gases. Some of the important sources of authentic data come from national statistical
agencies, government departments, research and development centers, NGOs, as
well as records of trade, transport, and service sectors. However, based on the level
of assessment (Tier 1, Tier 2, or Tier 3), sometimes data from existing sources may
not fulfill the objectives and may require generating new data. It is a good practice to
develop a strategy before starting with the process of data collection considering the
main parameters which affect emission or removal rates. There are two basic
approaches for compiling available data:
1. Screening of available data: Screening of available data will help to strategize

further data collection activities which should be given due importance for their
weightage on final emission inventory estimate.
2. Refining data requirements: While collecting data it should be ensured that data
are complete, accurate, consistent, and comparable.
Data collection activities and strategies should be reviewed periodically for

further improvement of the inventory following data quality objectives.
Generating New Data by Measurements When all required data are not available
as per the identified data requirement checklist, the measurement program is
designed. While generating new data by measurement it shall be ensured that
standard methodology and protocol are being followed. The measurement methods
should be validated through available national or international standards before
accounting into the emission inventory list.
If directly applicable data is not available, surrogate or proxy data may be used.
Surrogate data are identified following different statistical or mathematical
techniques. However, it shall be ensured that surrogate data is fit for missing data
and must be highlighted for easy identification by the assessor.
6.4 Quality Assurance and Quality Control
Quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) is very fundamental to the source
apportionment exercise. QA/QC should be followed throughout the process starting
from the data collection strategy to the development of emission factor and finally
estimation of GHG emission level. Data generated as part of the data collection
exercise should meet the quality objectives of data consistency and data accuracy.
There are many statistical and mathematical tools available for the uncertainty
estimate of the data. Approaches of a quantitative assessment of uncertainty estimate
include rigorous investigation of the likely causes of data uncertainty as well as
validation of data through statistical and/or mathematical models. Sometimes data
validation is also achieved through stoichiometric calculations to determine their
representativeness.
6.5 Development of “Emission Factor” (EF) for Different Source

Categories
The development of the “Emission factor” is one of the most vital steps of source
apportionment studies. Emission factor from any source categories (viz. industries,
industrial and domestic fuel combustions, roadside dust, construction activities,
generator sets, etc.) depends on fuel quality, process technology of operation and
emission control methods as well as operating environmental conditions. Many
international institutions compile and publish default emission factor data. Basic
approaches to emission inventory use default emission factor data published by
different government and international agencies whereas detailed emission estima-
tion employs estimating source-specific emission factors that are representative of
national circumstances. Some of the important sources of default emission factor
data include (1) IPCC Emission Factor Database (EFDB), (2) Emission Inventory
32 S. Maji et al.
Guidebook (EEA 2016), (3) US EPA International Emission Factor Databases,

(4) OECD International Emission Factor Databases, etc. When using default emis-
sion factor data, it must be ensured that the data is applicable and representative to
national circumstances.
The development of a country/region-specific emission factor is a complex one
and requires a lot of effort. Emission from any source category depends on distinct
technology in use, processes of operation, local characteristics, and other local
factors which all contribute to the uncertainty estimate of emission factor. Therefore,
the development of country/region-specific “Emission Factor” which is representa-
tive of local conditions is very important to improve the accuracy of emission
estimation. A country-specific emission factor is calculated as the weighted average
of all the emission factors from different typologies of a given emission source,
where the weights are calculated as the percentage of facility data. A QA/QC
approach for EF inventory process should consider the followings:
• Emission Factors to duly consider the load factors.

• Emission Rate during start-up and shut down operation will be different in
comparison to steady-state operation.
• Principal component factor analysis to be performed to determine which of the
input parameters exhibit greater dependence on the EF estimation.
• Sensitivity analysis to be performed to determine dependence and correlation
among input parameters.
6.6 Estimation of GHG Emission Levels
GHG emission levels from any sources are estimated by simply multiplying activity
emission data with emission factor:
Emission ¼ ðEmission factorÞ ðActivity dataÞ
Total facility emission load is calculated by summation of emission from all

sources including fuel combustion, fugitive emission, industrial process, waste
management practices, and any other emissions from the facility:
EF ¼ EE þ EU þ EI þ EO
where, EF total emission load from all sources of a facility, EE total emission load
due to fuel combustion by the facility, EU total emission load due to fugitive
emission by the facility, EI total emission load by industrial process activities in
the facility, EO sum of all other emission sources including emission from waste
management practices, and others as applicable in the facility.
7 Conclusion
Anthropogenic sources of GHGs result in the accumulation of GHGs in the atmo-

sphere, resulting in rapid global warming and disturbing the global energy balance,
leading us into a future of uncertain global climate. The IPCC has demonstrated how
the imbalance in the radiation equilibrium of the earth and atmosphere is impacting
the natural climate systems. The last two decades have witnessed an unprecedented
increase in the rate of global warming. Visible effects of climate change are already
observed on human health, livelihoods, and food security.
There are many sources of GHGs in the atmosphere, including energy consump-
tion, industrial activities, agriculture as well as waste management practices. Among
the different sources, the combustion of fossil fuel is one of the primary sources of
GHG emission. The combustion of fossil fuel releases CO2 in the atmosphere.
Among the direct greenhouse gases concentration of CO2 is continuously increasing
and has become a prime focus of GHG emission reduction priorities. The relative
contribution of fluorinated gases has also increased over the past few years.
Source apportionment studies are specific tools that are used to identify the
different sources and factors of GHG emission. Source apportionment studies
provide estimates of GHG emission levels in correlation with economic activity
data and thus highlight priority areas of intervention of GHG management.
Besides, global population growth, changes in lifestyles, changes in consumption
patterns are some of the other factors of a continuing increase in per capita consump-
tion of energy. It is anticipated that with economic liberalization, urbanization and
industrialization will go on, which directly or indirectly will lead to increase in GHG
emission level in the atmosphere. Effective public policy responses to the climate
change challenges posed by increasing GHG emission level has emerged as one of
the major challenges of the twenty-first century.
Since energy use is the most vital source of CO2 emissions, focusing on the
management of energy demand and supply should be the clear focus of GHG
emission reduction strategies. The greenhouse gas emission reduction strategy
should focus on improved efficiency, new low-carbon technologies, renewable
energy technologies, as well as introducing efficient technologies to have reduced
GHG emission levels. Another important aspect is through proper communication of
climate change impact public awareness should be enhanced, which indirectly will
help in reducing GHG emission levels in the atmosphere.
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Identification of Major Sinks of Greenhouse
Gases 3
Manisha Saini and Sunil Kumar Saini
Abstract
Climate change has been an emerging global concern for the past few decades.
Since the advent of industrialization, the anthropogenic emissions of Greenhouse
gases (GHG), mainly carbon dioxide (CO2), are the biggest contributor to the
global temperature rise. According to the Paris Agreement in 2015, the global
temperature rise needs to be controlled to at least below 2 C by 2050–2100. The
lifetime of atmospheric CO2 is uncertain as only some of it is absorbed by the land
and ocean-based sinks and most of it can remain in the atmosphere for several
hundred years. Marked reduction in the increased levels of long-lived GHG,
specifically CO2, a major contributor in radiative forcing, is thus being considered
of utmost priority in the present time to stabilize the global temperature. To
control unprecedented global temperature rise, measures should be adopted to
control GHG emission and their removal through sinks. Despite numerous efforts
being targeted towards the reduction of carbon emissions, the desired levels of
reduction in emissions are not been achieved. Importantly, the deliberate removal
of carbon from the atmosphere by various natural and artificial sinks holds the
potential to be a promising alternative. Therefore, identification of natural sinks
for CO2 and finding ways to enhance their removal potential and developing
methods to create artificial sinks for deliberate removal of CO2 are critical
research areas. Furthermore, after removal from the atmosphere by various
natural and artificially created sinks, subsequent methods are also being devel-
oped to store carbon in deep reservoirs for an extended period. This chapter
M. Saini
Government College Kosli, Rewari, India
S. K. Saini (*)
Department of Aging and Geriatric Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
e-mail: sunilsaini1403@gmail.com

Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_3
40 M. Saini and S. K. Saini
provides a summary of various natural and artificial sinks of CO2 and other GHGs
and undergoing research on the development of new approaches for their efficient
removal from the environment.
Keywords
Climate change · Greenhouse gases emission · Natural sinks · Artificial sinks ·

Global warming
1 Introduction
Global climate change is the major environmental challenge the world is facing in
the current time. Increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emission is one of
the significant contributing factors to climate change. GHG absorb some of the heat
reaching Earth's surface and thus help in keeping the planet warmer, a process
termed as greenhouse effect. Since industrialization, anthropogenic activities have
caused an enormous increase in GHG emissions. Global GHG emissions have risen
by 41% since 1990 and continue to rise. As per Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) special report on climate change, the global temperature has risen by
approximately 0.8–1.2 C than pre-industrial level due to anthropogenic emissions
and it may rise to 1.5 C by 2030 and about 3 C by 2100 if emissions continue at the
same rate (Allen et al. 2018).
Keeping strict control over GHG emission is an utmost priority to check global
warming and to preserve the earth’s environment. GHG emissions are partly
removed by natural sinks present globally but some of them can remain in the
atmosphere for up to several hundred years and therefore contributing to global
temperature rise (Meyer et al. 2014). In Paris Agreement from the 21st Conference of
Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention in Climate Change
(UNFCCC) in December 2015, recommendations were made to achieve a balance
between overall emissions and removal of GHGs by 2050–2100 to limit the global
temperature rise to well below 2 C above the pre-industrial level (UNCC 2020). To
regulate the atmospheric concentration of GHGs, methods are in development to
create artificial sinks to sequester them and to enhance the removal potential of
already existing natural sinks. Based on the lifetime in the atmosphere (Box 3.1), the
greenhouse gases can be broadly grouped in two categories—(1) Long-lived GHGs
that can stay for more than a century, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2)-, nitrous oxide
(N2O) and halogen-containing gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), perfluorocarbons
(PFCs), etc. and (2) short-lived GHGs that have a lifetime up to decades,
e.g. methane (CH4), ozone, etc. (Rebecca et al. 2016). To better understand the
global budget of greenhouse gases, it is important to evaluate both sources of GHGs
emission as well as their sinks (Table 3.1). Reduction of the GHGs in the atmosphere
is crucial for mitigating climate change and this can be achieved either by reducing
the emission sources of these gases or by enhancing their removal by sinks. In this
3 Identification of Major Sinks of Greenhouse Gases 41
Table 3.1 Greenhouse gases, their sources and sinks

Greenhouse gases Sources (natural and Sinks (natural and
(GHGs) anthropogenic) artificial) Rate of removal
Carbon dioxide Terrestrial respiration, Ocean exchange, ~2 to 5 GtCO2
(CO2) ocean exchange, ocean fertilization, year 1 by natural
wildfires, volcanic photosynthesis, land and ocean-
eruptions, combustion weathering of silicate based sinks (Ciais
of fossil fuels, land-use rocks, forests, et al. 2013)
change, man-made managed croplands,
fires, cement CCS methods
production
Methane (CH4) Wetlands, freshwater Oxidation by hydroxyl ~592 to
1
reservoirs, ruminants, radicals (OH˙) in 785 TgCH4 year
wildfires, landfills, troposphere, coastal by tropospheric
methanogens (methane wetlands, methane oxidation (Ciais
generating microbes), oxidizing bacteria in et al. 2013)
paddy fields, termites, soil (Curry 2007;
decay of vegetation, Zhuang et al. 2004);
livestock, extraction of riparian and coastal
fossil fuels, wetlands, reaction with
combustion of biomass chlorine and oxygen
and fossil fuels radicals in atmosphere
(Cicerone and
Oremland 1988)
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Oxidation of ammonia Chemical reactions in ~10 to 15 TgN
in atmosphere, the stratosphere and yr 1 by chemical
nitrogen cycle in the certain denitrifying reactions in the
soil, fresh water and bacteria in soil, rivers, atmosphere (Ciais
oceans, wildfires wetlands and oceans et al. 2013)
manufacture and use of
fertilizers, combustion
of biomass and fossil
fuels, decay of
livestock manure
Hydrofluorocarbons Refrigeration, Chemical reactions in –
(HCFCs) and propellants and the atmosphere,
chlorofluorocarbons solvents photolysis and reaction
(CFCs) with OH radicals in
stratosphere
Nitrogen trifluoride Semiconductor Reaction with OH –
(NF3) and Sulphur manufacturing, radicals in stratosphere
hexafluoride (SF6) Electrical insulation
and other industries
Perfluorinated Aluminium Reaction with OH –
compounds (PFCs) production, radicals in stratosphere
semiconductor
manufacturing
Data adapted from Ciais et al. (2013)
chapter, natural and artificial sinks of GHGs, their distribution and their impact on
the global budgets have been discussed.
2 Major Sinks for GHGs: Global Scenario and Significance
Major GHG emission occurred after the industrial revolution and is still continu-
ously increasing with the largest emissions reported during the last two decades
(Meyer et al. 2014). Various natural and artificial sinks remove these greenhouse
gases from the atmosphere and reduce rising levels of greenhouse gases. The sinks
for GHGs are categorized into (1) land-based sink, (2) oceanic sink and (3) atmo-
spheric oxidation reactions based upon their spatial arrangement. During
pre-industrial times, there was a balance between GHG emissions from various
sources and their removal by the land- and ocean-based sinks. However, after
industrialization, this balance has been distorted due to increase in anthropogenic
emissions (see Fig. 3.1).
The importance of sinks has been recognized by many countries at the national
level as well as on the global scale especially after the Paris Agreement. For instance,
many countries in European Union (EU) are moving towards net-zero emissions and
making Europe climate neutral by 2050. The government of UK is emphasizing on
the decline in emissions and development of carbon (C)—sequestration methods and
enhance the removal potential of natural sinks to strengthen its climate change
mitigation efforts and to achieve net-zero emissions (CCC (Committee on Climate
Change) 2019). Germany has increased its share of renewable energy sources in
power generation to 40% which produced more electricity than the coal-based power
stations in 2019 (International Energy Agency (IEA) 2020, Global CO2 emissions in
2019). India which is the third largest contributor of GHGs in the world has ratified
the Paris Agreement and has pledged a 33–35% emission reduction by 2030,
Fig. 3.1 A schematic representation of exchange of GHGs between different sources and sinks. A
depiction of cycle of major GHGs (CO2, CH4 and NOx) and their fluxes between different sources
and sinks present in land, ocean and atmosphere
compared to the 2005 level. In the eighth formal meeting of the UNFCCC, held in
New Delhi in 2002, the Delhi Declaration was adopted which called for technology
transfer by the developed countries along with emission reduction. Besides increas-
ing its tree cover to create additional carbon sink of 2500–3000 Megatons of CO2
equivalent (MtCO2eq.). India has also aimed for 40% of its electricity generation to
be either renewable or nuclear by 2030 (Timperley 2019).
Despite all these efforts, the global emissions are still on a rise and we are
continuously facing the ill-effects of climate change. As per IPCC 2014 report,
there is a 66% chance of keeping the global temperature rise well below 2 over the
twenty-first century as compared to the pre-industrial level if the atmospheric
concentration of GHGs is 450 ppm CO2 equivalent in 2100 (Meyer et al. 2014).
But, on the contrary, the emission is already 500 ppm CO2 equivalent in 2019 as per
the report of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States
Department of Commerce (NOAA 2020) which implies that to meet the Paris
Agreement goal, there is a need to cut the carbon emission to zero at a rapid scale
on one hand and speeding up the sequestration on the other. A critical assessment of
sources of GHSs emission and their sinks is vital to design strategies to achieve a
balance between the two. In this chapter, different natural and artificial sinks for the
different greenhouse gases, their distribution and their impact on the global budgets
will be discussed majorly focussing on the sinks for CO2, CH4, N2O and halogen-
containing gases like CFCs, HCFCs, SF6, PFCs, etc. as they have a longer lifetime
and relatively higher Global Warming Potential (GWP). A brief overview of various
C-sequestration methods being adopted globally, the challenges and
recommendations for their execution will also be discussed.
3 Sinks for Carbon Dioxide
The most important GHG among all is CO2 as it is the major gas driving the climate
change and have a lifetime of over 1000 years. CO2 is reported as the largest
contributor to the radiative forcing (see Box 3.1) (NOAA 2020). The cumulative
CO2 emission since 1750 to 2011 was 2040 310 gigatons of CO2 (GtCO2), half of
which was emitted in the last 40 years. Forty percent of these emissions (880
35 GtCO2) remains in the atmosphere, rest is being removed by the land (plants and
soil) and oceanic sinks. To stabilize the climate change, it is highly important to
stabilize the atmospheric concentration of CO2 and this could be achieved by
reducing their emissions and increasing carbon uptake by sinks simultaneously.
The major sources of CO2 emission are the fossil fuel emissions including cement
production, the land-use change like deforestation and extensive cultivation (Meyer
et al. 2014; Uprety and Saxena 2021a). For the decade 2007–2016, use of fossil fuel
and cement industry released on average 34 2 GtCO2 per annum with 94% due to
fossil fuels and 6% from cement production while land-use change (largely defores-
tation) contributed additional 5 GtCO2 per annum (Le Quéré et al. 2017; Sonwani
and Maurya 2018; Saxena et al. 2017). These emissions are partly compensated
through removal by various sinks, but a significant amount remains in the atmo-
sphere that can last up to a thousand years. The net increase in atmospheric
concentration of CO2 is attributed to several factors. One factor is the higher rate of
emission by various sources as compared to the rate of removal by sinks. Con-
versely, in a positive feedback loop a higher concentration of atmospheric CO2
might reduce the efficiency of carbon removal by land and ocean sinks. The reason
for a decline in removal efficiency of land and ocean sinks are attributed to limited
CO2 fertilization on land and the lowering of ocean pH due to saturation of carbonate
which buffers CO2 in oceans, respectively (Menon et al. 2007).
3.1 Oceans as Sink for CO2
Oceans are the largest natural sink for carbon with about 30% of the C-uptake since
the industrial revolution (Meyer et al. 2014). The ocean contains C mostly in the
form of the carbonate (CO32 ) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3 ). There were large
C-fluxes between the ocean and atmosphere in the pre-industrial era with cold water
absorbing the atmospheric CO2 and warm water releasing it back to the atmosphere
in a balanced manner. But with increased atmospheric CO2, net uptake of CO2 by the
ocean has increased creating an imbalance. In the decade 2007–2016, there was an
average imbalance of 8.7 2 GtCO2 per annum (Azapagic et al. 2018a, b).
There are various factors in an ocean ecosystem that affect its functioning as a
potent sink for GHGs which includes temperature, salinity, circulation, biodiversity
and ice cover. One of these factors is marine biodiversity, especially the plankton in
marine water which uptake CO2 for photosynthesis. However, some of it is released
back during respiration while some gets settled in deep waters in the form of organic
matter. Due to rise in surface temperatures and stratification, fixation of CO2 through
photosynthesis may also increase. However, at the same time, the return of required
nutrients to the surface may decrease due to low vertical mixing and overturning
which further reduce the export of carbon to the deeper ocean. The C-uptake is
mostly restricted to the upper surface of the ocean with a little overturning and
mixing which means that most of the deep ocean is still untouched to increased
atmospheric CO2. There are several methods which can enhance the C-uptake by the
oceans. One of the methods is to supply micronutrients required for photosynthesis.
For instance, if the supply of iron is increased to the ocean surface, it could result in
both an increase in marine photosynthesis and an increase in C-uptake (The Envi-
ronmental Literacy Council 2020). Increased uptake of CO2 causes ocean acidifica-
tion which can again alter ocean ecosystem, and the latter may alter the
photosynthesis and carbon export from the surface (Feng et al. 2016). Increasing
ocean alkalinity is another approach which can increase oceanic C-uptake by
increasing the calcium ion (Ca2+) concentration in the ocean. The ocean contains
negatively charged CO32 and HCO3 ions which are regulated by positively
charged ions like calcium ion (Ca2+), so by increasing the ocean’s alkalinity by
adding lime, dissolved CO2 will convert to ionic forms, which will lead to additional
uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere (Renforth and Henderson 2017). Increasing
ocean alkalinity can also reverse the effects of ocean acidification to some extent
(Feng et al. 2016). However, there are certain challenges with this method as there
can be adverse effects on the ecosystem due to changes in the pH and adding lime
can be toxic to some of the marine organisms, therefore, the methodology needs a
close monitoring and precision.
3.2 Terrestrial Biosphere as Sink for CO2
The terrestrial biosphere plays a crucial role in the C-cycle. Several components of
terrestrial ecosystems like vegetation cover, productivity, soil and plant respiration,
etc. influence the C-cycle. Several factors influence the flux of carbon between land
and the atmosphere like temperature, precipitation, CO2, nutrients, etc. If climate
conditions are favourable, productivity increases, which in turn enhances the carbon
uptake from the atmosphere. The carbon flux between the atmosphere and the land
surface is also affected by changes in the structure of an ecosystem in response to a
climate change. For example, relocation of the boreal forest into tundra might result
in increased carbon uptake due to more uptake by the trees than herbs and shrubs,
while an alteration from tropical rainforest to savannah would result in a net flux of
carbon from the land surface to the atmosphere (Denman et al. 2007).
3.3 Forests as Sinks for CO2
In 2015 Paris agreement, decisions were pressed to better understand the role of
forests and forests management in mitigating the climate change. The goal to achieve
a balance between emissions by various sources and removal by sinks requires the
forests to contribute to greenhouse gases removal. Recent studies have also
suggested the importance of the land-use change and forest management in global
C-cycle. The plants and growing trees absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and store in
the form of biomass. But as a forest matures, the uptake of CO2 slows so there is a
need of harvesting of forests in the form of woods and wood products; and therefore,
allowing the regrowth of trees which will ultimately revive the C-uptake by the
forests. By managing forests in this way, the removal of 1–2 GtCO2 per annum is
estimated (Smith et al. 2016). The wood harvested from forests can be used as
building material for construction. In this way, the carbon will be stored in the form
of infrastructure for longer period and harvested forests will regrow to absorb more
CO2 from the atmosphere and building with biomass is a good GGR approach that is
well established method for thousands of years. The techniques to enhance life and
strength of timber are also under development (Ramage et al. 2017). But the major
concern for managing forests like this is the requirement of land for afforestation,
which is around 0.1 hectare for a single ton of CO2 (tCO2) removal per annum for the
next 100 years (Smith et al. 2016). Also replacing natural forests with fast-growing
trees will affect the biodiversity of that forest and doing so on a large scale can also
alter local climate like humidity, soil quality, temperature, precipitation, etc. How-
ever, considering the low energy and less water requirement, this is a cost-effective
method (Brunori et al. 2017; Liu and Guo 2017). Several countries are already
relying upon its forests reserve to balance the GHG output and focusing on the
preservation of forests to meet their NDC goals. Countries like Brazil, Mexico have
set a target to reduce their illegal deforestation to zero till 2030. India has set a target
of enhancing its carbon sequestration annually by 100 MtCO2 through forest
management (Bonn Challenge n.d.).
3.4 Boreal Landscape as Sink for Carbon
Boreal forests play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle as they store about a third
of total terrestrial carbon (Beer et al. 2010; Gauthier et al. 2015). A boreal landscape
has various sources as well as sinks for carbon in its different forms like CO2, CH4,
dissolved organic and inorganic carbon across its various ecosystems like lakes,
streams, grasslands and different tree covers of different ages. All these different
ecosystems have different C-exchange dynamics. Previous studies on different
boreal ecosystems have suggested that boreal landscapes can be a source or a sink
for GHGs like CO2 and CH4 depending on their climatic conditions, species
composition and other factors like fires, extreme weather conditions, etc. (Barr
et al. 2007; Hadden and Grelle 2017). Many researchers have established that boreal
forest floor is a net sink for methane (Ni and Groffman 2018; Machacova et al. 2016;
Lohila et al. 2011). However, some have reported that lakes and streams are a
significant source for Carbon (Hastie et al. 2018). There are various factors like
C-loss in the form of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and inorganic carbon like
bicarbonate and carbonate and carbon discharge via streams that might play a very
crucial role in the C-cycle. Studies have claimed that DOC may account for up to
20% annual uptake of CO2 by boreal landscape (Oquist et al. 2014). Despite all these
discrepancies, various management activities can enhance the C-uptake and biomass
production in a boreal landscape (Lim et al. 2015; Lohila et al. 2011). Recently, Chi
et al. conducted a study on terrestrial and aquatic carbon fluxes in a managed boreal
forest landscape in Sweden to estimate the net landscape carbon balance (NLCB)
and the results showed that the landscape they managed was a net sink for carbon
(39 gC/m2/year). The major component was the exchange of CO2 between the
atmosphere and the landscape, followed by the export via streams and harvest
subject to seasonal variability (Chi et al. 2020).
3.5 Challenges with Terrestrial Sinks
Plants are natural sinks for atmospheric carbon. But there are various uncertainties in
this due to the changes in the land use and land management (Arneth et al. 2017).
The variability in the C-budget at plant level may affect the global C-budget as well.
It is difficult to measure the C allocation to different plant parts and at the same time
the C-loss due to respiration and through root exudates (Chi et al. 2020). Hence,
there is a need for an adequate measurement system for terrestrial C-fluxes and
monitoring of biomass stock to develop a better understanding of any terrestrial
landscape and improved evaluation of their potential for mitigating excess carbon
emissions.
4 Sinks for Methane
Methane is the second-largest contributor to radiative forcing and has a global

warming potential of almost 30 times that of carbon dioxide (by equivalent mass)
over a 100-year time frame (Myhre et al. 2013). Although average atmospheric
concentrations of methane are much smaller than those of CO2 but due to its high
GWP, understanding the causes of increases in global methane concentration and its
removal is equally important as understanding those for CO2 levels, to aid in
designing emissions reduction policy. The natural sources of methane include
wetlands where anaerobic decay of vegetation occurs producing marsh gas and the
decay of vegetation due to the melting of permafrost in the Arctic due to global
warming.
The major photochemical sink for methane in the atmosphere is the oxidation by
hydroxyl (OH˙) radicals which accounts for almost 90% of its removal. This removal
is hard to estimate as the lifetime of OH˙ radicals in the atmosphere is very short
(nearly 1 s). Though the concentration of methane has been continually rising in the
atmosphere since the industrial revolution, there have been no significant changes in
OH˙ radical concentrations in the recent decades as observed, and hence in methane
removal rates. The concentration of methane was remained almost constant since
1993 which was due to emissions at a nearly constant rate. But it has increased
drastically since 2007 due to various sources like wetlands in a warmer and wetter
climate, anthropogenic activities like energy production from natural gas, coal and
petroleum, decomposition in landfills, ruminant animals, paddy fields, etc. On the
other hand, the tropospheric OH˙ concentration has almost remained same over the
past few decades as its sources in the atmosphere are photolysis of ozone and
reaction with water vapours and some other secondary reactions that remain almost
constant over a period of several decades (Myhre et al. 2013). So, there is a need to
look for all other possible approaches and best removal methods for methane. There
are some possibilities like methanotrophic bacteria in soils which can remove
methane by oxidation (Curry 2007; Zhuang et al. 2004) and reactions with chlorine
and oxygen radicals in the stratosphere (Cicerone and Oremland 1988). Allan et al.
suggested that reactions with chlorine radicals in the marine boundary layer as a sink
for methane but owing to their low removal potential, further investigation and
evaluation on how these can be included in GGR methods is recommended (Allan
et al. 2007).
4.1 Wetlands as Sink of Methane and Other GHGs
Wetlands are considered as single largest natural source of methane. Coastal

wetlands are nearby 10% of all the wetlands on earth and they have a very complex
methane cycle so they can be both a source as well as the sink of methane. According
to an estimate, wetlands and peatlands can store up to 70% of terrestrial carbon
(Zedler and Kercher 2005); however, due to degradation and continuous exploitation
this capacity has reduced and some of it might release back to the atmosphere.
Recently, in a global metanalysis on wetlands of around 200 sites, it was found
that natural wetlands were a net sink of CO2 but at the same time, they were the
source for CH4 and N2O, but due to low GWP, they still had the capacity to mitigate
the global warming while all the land use, land-use change type wetlands except
coastal and riparian wetlands were having remarkably higher GWP compared to the
natural wetlands which are subject to changes in the soil salinity, water content, pH,
soil nitrogen and density. Therefore, it was concluded that land use and land-use
change can degrade the natural wetlands and alter their potential to mitigate the
global warming outcomes (Tan et al. 2020).
However, coastal wetlands can be a potential sink for methane. Evidence from
some studies indicates that the microbial biodiversity in coastal wetlands can turn
these wetlands to be sinks for methane (Sun et al. 2013; Uprety and Saxena 2021b).
Coastal wetlands have some microbial methane oxidisers like methane oxidizing
bacteria (MOB), NO2 reducing bacteria of NC10 phylum and anaerobic
methanotrophic archaea (ANME)-1/2a/2b/2c that remain active on the surface,
subsurface and in deep waters, respectively, which can catalyse nitrite reduction
coupled with oxidation of methane (denitrifying methanotrophs), but their mecha-
nism and contribution still need to be explored (He et al. 2019). So, monitoring the
contribution of these wetlands in the global methane budget and to revive the
wetlands and other coastal habitats in their natural state is required to include them
in the greenhouse gas removal methods. The restoration of wetlands will ensure new
carbon sequestration and will also prevent their further loss due to degradation
(Zedler and Kercher 2005). Just like forest restoration, negligible energy and water
is required to restore the wetlands and peatlands to their natural form and as a result
in a lesser land area, a similar level of removal potential can be achieved. The other
co-benefits include the improved water quality and preservation of biodiversity. But
again, a close monitoring to assess the GHG removal, changes in carbon sequestra-
tion and impact on global warming is highly recommended.
5 Sinks for Oxides of Nitrogen
There has been a significant increase in emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) which
include nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) as compared to pre-industrial times.
These variations are majorly anthropogenic, including increased use of fertilizers
and increased fossil fuel combustion (Saxena et al. 2021). The contribution towards
the emission of NO from natural sources and anthropogenic contributions are equal.
Natural sources include oxidation of ammonia in the atmosphere and from the soil.
Anthropogenic sources are the use of nitrogen fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion,
biomass burning and livestock manure decaying.
Fig. 3.2 A schematic representation of the basic process of denitrification. The process is catalysed
be various metal-based enzymes (shown in green circles): nitrate reductase (Nar), nitrite-reductase
(Nir), nitric oxide- reductase (Nor) and nitrous oxide- reductase (Nos)
Destruction in the stratosphere is the known major sink of N2O where a maximum
of it undergoes photolysis to form atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and O. The rest of N2O
react with O to form NO which enter the stratosphere ozone-depleting reaction cycle.
However, some other possible sinks or methods may play a crucial role in future of
global cycle of GHGs. One of these possibilities lies in the oceanic biodiversity
especially certain microbiota which are exclusively found in certain ecosystems in
the ocean such as Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake (USA), coastal wetlands, coastal/inland
ponds which support a lot of exclusive and rare biodiversity that does not occur
anywhere else like algae (Red algae), bacteria (Salinibacteria) and several other
genera of archaebacteria commonly called haloarchaea (e.g. Halobacterium,
Halarchaeum, Halomarina).
Almost all organisms require nitrogen as an essential building block in
macromolecules like nucleic acids and proteins, but microbes play a major role in
converting nitrogen from reduced to oxidized state. Denitrification is considered a
major source of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the atmosphere, but recent researches
have claimed denitrification as a sink for atmospheric NO2. Researchers have found
that some haloarchaeal bacteria could be potent denitrifiers such as Haloferax
mediterranei commonly found in moderate and hypersaline water and soil
(Torregrosa-Crespo et al. 2016; Fernández et al. 2012). To completely understand
the role of denitrifying bacteria, we need to understand the complex process of
denitrification which involves various steps mediated by various metal-based
enzymes. The basic process of denitrification is depicted in Fig. 3.2.
The reduction of nitrate to N2 (Fig. 3.2) is catalysed by some metal-containing
enzymes: nitrate reductase (Nar), nitrite-reductase (Nir), nitric oxide- reductase
(Nor) and nitrous oxide- reductase (Nos) (Richardson and Watmough 1999; Lledó
et al. 2004). Torregrosa-Crespo et al. have discussed the complete process of
denitrification in haloarchaea, their possible role in developing future mitigation
methods and environmental impacts (Torregrosa-Crespo et al. 2018). Biochemical
studies on Nor or Nos enzymes in haloarchaea have not been conducted yet but
preliminary data suggests that last reaction of denitrification is catalysed by Nos Z
like protein just as in bacteria. Some denitrifying bacteria express N2O reductive
enzyme thus could be considered a potent sink of N2O (Qu et al. 2016); whereas
some others have no regulation of denitrifying enzymes and could result in the
release of nitrite and other intermediates of Nitrogen cycle (Lycus et al. 2017; Roco
et al. 2017).
Denitrifying bacteria especially haloarchea and denitrifying methanotrophs
(discussed under section—sinks for methane) have become an area of interest for
researchers recently but in order to ascertain their potential of being a sink more
precise researches need to be done. Comprehensive denitrifiers and denitrifying
methanotrophs are crucial as they can be a potential sink for nitrogenous gases and
methane, but clear understanding of their abundance and efficiency of denitrification
is required and subject of further investigation.
6 Sinks of Halogen-Containing Gases
The major problem with the halogen-containing gases is that mostly they are
man-made and are majorly released in the atmosphere after the industrial era except
a few that occur naturally like methyl bromide, methyl chloride, etc. Most of these
are used in refrigerants as solvents like CFCs and HCFCs. The perfluorocarbons like
CF4 and C2F6 are mainly used in aluminium industry and SF6 and NF3 are electrical
insulators and used in manufacturing semiconductors. Many of the halogen-
containing gases are long-lived and are removed gradually by chemical processes
which makes them persist in the atmosphere for more than 1000 years.
The recent advances in understanding the role of halogens in tropospheric ozone,
pollutant concentration and radiative forcing has highlighted the importance of
further investigation on their measurement and management; precursors and
identifying the surfaces that can help in their recycling or removal. At present, the
available methods to improve our understanding on halogen chemistry are under
development in the laboratories and further field investigations still need to be
carried out. Several chemical based methods have been proposed to degrade
CFCs. Jeen et al. have shown granular iron (Fe) and bimetallic iron, i.e. Nickel-
enhanced iron (NiFe) to efficiently degrade trichlorofluoromethane (CFC11) and,
1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane (CFC113) (Jeen et al. 2014). Studies have suc-
cessfully shown electrochemical based reduction methods to degrade halogen-
containing gases in laboratories, providing a platform to scale up these methods to
industrial level in order to combat these gases from environment in an efficient
manner. Interested readers are referred to an excellent review by Martin et al.
summarizing the methods and electrochemistry of targeted pollutants degradation
and potential techniques and instrumentation to scale up these methods to a larger
industrial-scale system (Martin et al. 2016).
Considering the recent progress made in development of methods to tackle
halogen-containing gases is not yet fully established and given the fact that these
gases are long-lived and persist in the atmosphere for more than 1000 years, it is very
important to reduce their emission by phasing out their production and uses. Kyoto
Protocol (Table 3.2) aimed for phasing out the halogen-containing gases like HFCs
and PFCs, but many countries have still not ratified this protocol. The Montreal
Protocol, an international treaty designed in 1987 and came into force in 1989, aimed
to phase out the production and use of gases such as CFCs and HCFCs, which are
mainly used as refrigerants and pose a potential threat to the stratospheric ozone
layer by 2030. But due to this international agreement and continuous global efforts,
there is a gradual recovery in the ozone hole over Antarctica (Walter 2019).
Table 3.2 GHG sinks: a timeline of global events under UNFCCC and major outcomes
Declaration/
agreement and
year Event and place Discussion on sinks: major outcomes
Kyoto Third Conference of Parties First binding treaty to reduce GHG
Protocol, 1997 (COP3) to the UNFCCC, Kyoto, emissions. The provision was made to
Japan include biological sinks into national
accounting
Committing industrialized countries to
limit emissions, adopt policies and take
measures on mitigation and report to
UNFCCC
Binding emission reduction targets for
industrialized countries was set up to 5%
emissions reduction compared to 1990
levels over the period 2008–2012
Six GHGs were listed- CO2, CH4, N2O,
HFCs, PFCs and SF6
Marrakesh COP7 of the UNFCCC, Marrakesh Accord detailed rules for
Accord, 2001 Marrakesh, Morocco adoption of Kyoto Protocol and
suggested for enhanced scientific
negotiations for development of effective
GHG mitigation policies and for
reporting of progress achieved in
reducing GHGs emissions by the
participant countries in Kyoto protocol
Special climate change fund (SCCF) was
established to finance for technology
transfer, industries, agriculture, forestry
and waste management across the globe
Delhi COP8 of the UNFCCC, New Delhi ministerial declaration called for
Declaration, Delhi, India technology transfer from developed
2002 countries to developing countries
MOP1, 2005 COP11/MOP1 of the UNFCCC, 1st annual meeting of the parties to the
Montreal, Canada Kyoto protocol. Impact of climate change
on under-developed countries was
discussed
The Kyoto protocol came into force after
it was ratified by many countries
The USA, the world’s leading carbon
emitter has still not ratified this protocol
Bali Action COP13/MOP3 of the UNFCCC, Action plan to negotiate GHG mitigation
Plan, 2007 Bali, Indonesia actions
Developing countries were exempted
from legal binding on GHG emission
targets
Copenhagen COP15 of the UNFCCC, USA, Brazil, China, Indonesia, India and
Accord, 2009 Copenhagen, Denmark South Africa agreed to the Copenhagen
Accord which acknowledged the need to
limit the global temperature rise to 2 C
With no legally binding commitments,
countries were asked to pledge voluntary
GHG reduction targets
(continued)
Table 3.2 (continued)

Declaration/
agreement and
year Event and place Discussion on sinks: major outcomes
Cancun COP16 of the UNFCCC, Countries committed to keep global
Agreements, Cancun, Mexico temperature increases below 2 C
2010 Around 80 countries, including China,
India, USA and European Union
submitted their emissions reduction
targets and actions, and agreed upon
stronger mechanisms for monitoring
progress
The Green Climate Fund was established
to help developing countries in mitigating
climate change
Doha COP18 of the UNFCCC, Doha, Second commitment period of the Kyoto
amendment, Qatar Protocol starting from 2013 to 2020
2012 New commitment for Annex I Parties of
Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take part in
second commitment period
Revised list of GHGs to be reported in
second commitment period
Amendments were done in some articles
of Kyoto Protocol where update was
needed
The 37 industrialized countries agreed to
reduce GHG emission by 18% below
1990 level as compared to previous 5%
over the period from 2013–2020
Paris CoP21, Paris, France A landmark in climate change as
Agreement, 196 countries agreed to it
2015 Countries committed to set their emission
and reduction targets known as nationally
determined contributions (NDCs)
Aims to keep global temperature rise
below 2 C and pursue efforts to keep it
below 1.5 C relative to the pre-industrial
levels
Data adapted from Environment and Energy Study Institute (2020) and UN Climate Talks (2020)
7 Artificial Removal of the Greenhouse Gases
The 2015 Paris agreement has set a goal to limit the increase in average global
temperature to below 2 C relative to the pre-industrial levels and efforts to limit it to
at least 1.5 C. To achieve this target, there is a need to reduce the emissions rapidly
and efficiently to maintain a net-zero emission by the next half-century. But there are
certain sectors like agriculture, livestock energy production where we cannot reduce
the net emission to zero, so we need to develop techniques and methodologies to
remove the GHGs from the atmosphere. These techniques and methods are collec-
tively called as the greenhouse gases removal (GGR) methods. As of now, the main
goal behind developing these methods is to remove C from the atmosphere because
CO2 has the maximum GWP (Azapagic et al. 2018a, b). As we have already
discussed the natural sinks for different GHGs that are present globally, but the
removal of GHGs by natural sinks is gradual and is not enough to compensate the
emissions at the extent it is required. The GGR methods are also majorly dependent
on the natural sinks on the land and ocean, and to make them more efficient on one
hand and getting co-benefits like increased productivity and preserving biodiversity
on the other hand is a win-win situation. The below mentioned methodologies were
recommended in the report of the Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering
in 2018 which can help GHG removal from the atmosphere if deployed effectively,
to achieve the target set by the Paris Agreement with-in the given time frame.
1. Afforestation and Forest management: As already discussed in the section

“Forests as sink for CO2,” the growing forests absorb CO2 from the atmosphere
and store it in the form of biomass thus acting as a natural sink for carbon. But as
the forests mature, their carbon-absorbing capacity decline so by harvesting the
forests and allowing them to regrow can enhance their C-removal potential. The
wood harvested from these forests can be used for infrastructure and thus storing
carbon for a longer period. This method requires a lot of land area for afforesta-
tion; however, management of the already existing forests can be done with
minimum energy and water requirement.
2. Croplands management: In order to make the croplands a net sink for GHGs and
increasing C-sequestration capacity of soil, various measures including the selec-
tion of improved varieties, crop rotation, perennial crop system and use of
biotechnology, lesser or optimized use of fertilizers and water management
need to be implemented. Most of these methods are already known and
established so the additional infrastructure is generally not required (Smith and
Friedmann 2017). Estimated soil sequestration of 1.1–11.4 GtCO2 can be
achieved if cropland and grassland management can be deployed effectively on
a global scale (Fuss et al. 2018; Conant et al. 2011; Lal 2011; Minasny et al.
2017).
3. Wetlands and habitat restoration: The coastal wetlands, peatlands can be a
potential sink for carbon if they are restored to their natural form. Protecting
them from further degradation due to human interference and preserving the
natural habitat can also prevent methane and nitrogen emissions as discussed in
detail earlier under section “Wetlands as sink for methane and other GHGs”.
4. Ocean alkalization: Ocean alkalization is a method to increase the ocean alkalin-
ity by adding calcium ions to somehow reverse the effect of ocean acidification
due to CO2 uptake so that its C-uptake potential can improve (refer to section
“Ocean as sink for CO2”).
5. Ocean fertilization: This GGR approach involves the addition of nutrients to the
ocean so that the planktonic removal of atmospheric carbon by photosynthesis
can be enhanced. Thus, by encouraging the growth of oceanic phytoplanktons,
the CO2 removal potential of oceans can be improved and it also increases the
amount of organic matter that settles at the ocean floor and get stored there for a
long time (refer to Box 3.2).
6. Biochar: Adding biochar, an incompletely burnt biomass to the soil can improve
productivity and increase C-sequestration in the soil at the same time (see Box
3.3).
7. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage: It is another artificial CO2 sink,
where CO2 produced by combustion of biomass is captured and stored perma-
nently in some deep fossil fuel reservoirs (see Box 3.4 for more details).
8. Enhanced terrestrial weathering: The enhanced terrestrial weathering is a method
to convert silicate rocks to release metal ions, carbonate and bicarbonate ions
which can be used in various ways. These ions can be washed into the oceans to
increase ocean alkalinity to increase the C-uptake by the oceans, precipitated as
carbonate minerals on land or can be dusted on managed croplands to improve
soil quality. The weathering has the potential to remove 0.5–4.0 GtCO2 per
annum on a global scale if the managed croplands are treated with basalt dust
at the rate of 10–30 tons/hectare (Taylor et al. 2009; Smith et al. 2016). The
advantage of using this technique is that no additional land is required as it will be
applied to the already managed croplands and can also be deployed with biochar
to further increase the soil C-sequestration. The other benefits include increased
crop production and soil improvement (Beerling et al. 2018). However, the
challenges with these techniques are high due to the possibility that enhanced
weathering and mining may harm environment and the water bodies like rivers
and oceans where it will be washed will also change in its quality due to
sedimentation, change in pH and turbidity. To offset some of these ill-effects,
the silicate, mine waste, ashes and slags that are already available can be used but
the technique is naïve and still under development and needs close monitoring
and calibration before deployment on a global scale.
9. Direct air capture and carbon storage (DACCS): DACCS includes various
techniques which use chemisorption (chemical bond-based absorption) of CO2
directly from the atmosphere instead of any source and using this CO2 for
C-sequestration, mineralization or storage. In one of the methods, carbon-
absorbing material is used that absorb carbon from open-air and when saturated,
the adsorbent is soaked in water to release CO2 and allowed to dry for reuse
(Biello 2013). In another method called as carbon engineering, the sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is allowed to react with atmospheric CO2 to produce sodium
bicarbonate (Na2CO3) and water (H2O). Lime (CaO) is then added to regenerate
NaOH and remaining CaCO3 precipitates are then heated to regenerate lime and
CO2 (McGlashan et al. 2012). As per an estimate, there is a storage capacity of
around 900 GtCO2 if depleted oil and gas fields are used (Holloway 2008). But
there are many challenges with DACCS techniques as they are still under
development and require a lot of infrastructure for a large flow of air and
regeneration of separating agent. The impact on the environment also needs to
be monitored before deployment on a global scale.
8 Future Challenges
There are a lot of uncertainties in the terrestrial and ocean sinks for GHGs.
Challenges in determining differences between atmospheric sources and sinks is
another factor as a particular ecosystem can act as a source as well as a sink under
different circumstances. So, determining the difference for estimating their overall
removal potential is very crucial (Fatichi et al. 2019). There are number of models
for estimation, but they all are under thorough observation. The GGR methods have
large removal potential but a clear understanding of usage is required. For example,
many GGR methods like afforestation, terrestrial weathering, etc. require a larger
land area so that these can be implemented only in those geographical areas where
large land area is available. For other methods that involve carbon capture and
storage like BECCS and DACCS, there is a need for more information on C storage.
There should be a clear understanding on the C allocation and C storage before
deployment over a large scale. Close observation of all the GGR methods and
adequate estimation is also crucial. Though remote-sensing observations can track
the large areas like forests, wetlands, etc. but there are underground C pools that
remain unquantified. Another major challenge with different GGR methods is their
impact on the environment. All the GGR methods are being developed to meet the
Paris Agreement goals to mitigate climate change but GGR methods like terrestrial
weathering, ocean alkalization, ocean fertilization, etc. can adversely affect the local
climate. For example, ocean fertilization, where we modify the oceanic ecosystem
on a large scale by increasing the growth rate of phytoplanktons (See Box 3.2) for a
relatively small amount of CO2 removal, can affect the local climate in an adverse
manner. So, it is very crucial to determine the overall environmental impacts, for all
the GGR methods.
Another challenge with GGR methods is related to the financial considerations.
The methods involve the establishment of infrastructure and new technologies that
come at a price, a lot of funding is required from capital markets. For deployment on
a large scale, the methods need to be cost-effective which means the benefits should
overcome the price and including the private players and providing incentives can
help. There are some other challenges also like the permanence of C storage, risk of
leakage, sustainability, the legal and social aspects that need to be addressed before
the methods can be effectively implemented globally.
9 Recommendations
To meet out the challenges with different GGR methods, the countries and institutes
that are developing and installing these methods and techniques to mitigate the
climate change should be encouraged and incentivized. Carbon pricing can be a
good option to cover up the cost of developing and adopting these methods
(Azapagic et al. 2018a, b). There should be an international monitoring and verifica-
tion system that can estimate the removal using international standards to identify
and verify the best-suited approach or approaches to be followed.
Even if we consider the cumulative removal of GHGs by natural sinks and all the
GGR methods developed so far including those which are currently under develop-
ment, the net-zero emissions cannot be achieved until we reduce the anthropogenic
emissions. The main goal behind all the efforts to develop these methods is to
mitigate the climate change and save the planet and biodiversity. Though GGR
methods hold huge removal potential, but the cost factor which requires infrastruc-
ture and deployment on a global scale is also a big challenge. Due to these
limitations, the GGR methods can only aid to a certain extent and if there is no
decline in the current rate of emissions, preventing the environment and climate
change from GHG does not appear to be feasible. Above all, there is no replacement
for emissions reduction.
Box 3.1 FAQs

Radiative forcing: It is the change in the balance of energy absorbed and
energy radiated back by the earth. It is an indicator of increase in the global
mean temperature (Myhre et al. 2013)
Global warming potential: GWP is the amount of heat trapped or amount of
radiative forcing caused by a greenhouse gas over a certain period. It depends
upon the absorption of infrared radiation and atmospheric lifetime of a green-
house gas (Myhre et al. 2013).
GHG lifetime: The lifetime of a gas is the average time it remains in the
atmosphere before its removal. This is measured as the current concentration
of a gas in the atmosphere divided by the rate of removal (Myhre et al. 2013)
Ecosystem C-budget: The balance between C-source and output for any
given ecosystem is called its C-budget. Considering the vegetable ecosystem
and neglecting the lateral C-fluxes, it equals the gross primary productivity—
respiration (GPP-R) that is NEP (net ecosystem production). If NEP is positive
for an ecosystem, the ecosystem is a C-sink (Fatichi et al. 2019).
Box 3.2 Ocean Fertilization

Ocean Fertilization is a method for carbon sequestration that has gained a lot of
attention in recent times. Ocean fertilization is encouraging the growth of
phytoplankton in the ocean. The phytoplankton are microscopic plants that
live in a vast community in the ocean and they respond rapidly to changes in
the environment. They can readily absorb the carbon dioxide for photosynthe-
sis from the atmosphere thus helping in its removal from the atmosphere. By
increasing the growth of planktons in the ocean, the rate of withdrawal of CO2
from the atmosphere can be increased. The carbon trapped by the
phytoplanktons becomes a part of the marine food chain and ultimately
some of it is released back in the atmosphere which is a short term
(continued)
Box 3.2 (continued)

sequestration but there is also a long term sequestration which is in the form of
organic matter that settles in the oceanic bottom forming the sedimentary
deposits that eventually gets buried beneath the oceanic floor and over millions
of years it becomes the source of petroleum reserves but there are certain
concerns related to increased planktons that these may create low dissolved
oxygen zones disrupting the natural cycle and which may further lead to the
production of some other GHGs (Lampitt et al. 2008).
Box 3.3 Biochar

Biochar is a stable, long-lived charcoal-like product produced in the absence
of oxygen by thermal decomposition of biomass, a process called as pyrolysis.
It is a method to store carbon in a highly stable form which is comparatively
resistant to decomposition (Lehmann and Joseph 2015). In this way, the
organic matter in the soil can be stabilized (Weng et al. 2017), the water and
nutrient content can be retained for a longer period and the crop yield can also
be improved (Jeffery et al. 2017). A single ton of biochar produced from
different crops has the potential to remove 2.1–4.8 tCO2 (Hammond et al.
2011; Roy and Dias 2017). Though its efficacy and potential are currently not
established and the cost in deploying pyrolysis facility is also high, the
technique is gaining a lot of attention due to its multiple benefits that can
offset the cost. Biochar added to paddy fields can decrease N2O emissions
(Zhang et al. 2010). Biochar can also stabilise heavy metals in the soil and
prevent their entry into the food chain (Uchimiya et al. 2010). As it is produced
from waste, so the requirement of water and land is low. The technique is
under development in many countries, but it needs close monitoring, verifica-
tion and calibration before use at a global scale.
Box 3.4 Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS)

BECCS is the combustion of biomass to generate energy in combination with
carbon capture and storage (CCS). The CO2 produced from the combustion of
biomass such as wood, corn, algae etc. is captured and stored in deep fossil
fuel reservoirs. Biomass combustion to obtain energy is already an established
process but combining it with carbon capture and storage is still under
development. There are some countries where CCS projects are under demon-
stration stage (International Energy Agency (IEA) Technology Roadmap -
Carbon Capture and Storage 2013 n.d.). BECCS has a great removal potential
(continued)
Box 3.4 (continued)

of 10 GtCO2 per annum (Smith et al. 2016), but at the same time, it has all
those challenges which have been considered responsible for climate change
like land use change for growing energy crops, significant freshwater usage
and nitrogen emissions. A lot of cost for establishing the infrastructure for
CCS besides effective monitoring are some of the challenges which make
BECCS still a debatable GGR method.
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Greenhouse Gas Emission Flux from Forest
Ecosystem 4
Anshu Gupta
Abstract
At the global front, warming of climate is a crucial issue unfortunately due to

augmentation of atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases that is carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Metabolic processes of
plants as well as micro-organisms have an influence and major effect on the
global atmospheric budget of these gases contributing to around 80% of global
warming. The response and reaction of ecosystem to changing climate is
influenced by the “source-sink” relationship of a greenhouse gas. Forests act as
both sink as well as source of GHGs. Application of synthetic fertilizers compris-
ing of Nitrogen and burning of fossil fuels are well-thought-out key components
accountable for atmospheric N-deposition as well as global climate. Many factors
including properties of soil, age of the plant, the distribution of O2, plant species,
root activity, litter layer characteristics as well as C and N substrate accessibility
affect GHG emission exchange between soil with atmosphere. Environmental
factors, climate characteristics, and vegetation type also affect GHG fluxes.
Charcoal is created during most forest fires that may impact various processes
in soil further influencing the GHG fluxes. Besides this, forest fires release
considerable amounts of greenhouse gases into the air and reduce the C storing
capacity of forests, contributing further to global warming. Forest fires incidents
increase both in intensity as well as in frequency with increase in global warming.
Global warming influences the regional climate by changing the ecological
environment of the forests, which further alters the exchange of GHGs between
the atmosphere and forest soils leading to change in local climate. This paper
focuses on the source-sink relationship and GHG emission flux from forests,
A. Gupta (*)
Department of Environmental Sciences, Higher Education Department , Jammu and Kashmir, India
e-mail: anshu.guptaevs@gmail.com

Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_4
64 A. Gupta
various factors impacting the fluxes and measurement techniques. It reviews

various studies involving the GHG emissions from forest ecosystems. It also
focuses on the impact of forest generated GHG by deforestation, forest degrada-
tion, and forest fires on climate and environmental health.
Keywords
Carbon dioxide · Methane · Nitrous oxide · GHG emission flux · forest fires ·
Climate change · Global warming · Environmental health
1 Introduction
1.1 Main GHGs
At the global front, warming of climate is a crucial issue unfortunately due to

augmentation of atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases that is carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) (Han and Zhu 2020).
Although the atmospheric concentration of these two gases (CH4 and N2O) is very
less as compared to CO2, but they have very high global warming potentials of N2O
(296-fold) and CH4 (23-fold). This is the reason why these gases have a drastic role
in worsening global warming (Liu and Graever 2009). It means that to produce the
same warming effect as by one molecule of methane and Nitrous oxide, 23 or
296 CO2 molecules of CO2 may be required, respectively.
1.2 Source-Sink Aspect of Flux from Forest
The response and reaction of ecosystem to changing climate is straightly influenced

by the “source-sink” relationship of a greenhouse gas (Yu et al. 2016). Global
climate change research revolves around dynamics of fluxes of three GHGs (CO2,
CH4, N2O).
Metabolic processes of both plants as well as micro-organisms have an influence
and major affect on the global atmospheric budget of these gases (Richardson et al.
2019). And since 1800, the increase in atmospheric concentration of these three
gases has led to the radiative forcing of climate (Solomon et al. 2007). The enhance-
ment in atmospheric concentration of methane to over 1800 ppb at present from
823 ppb in 1841 during the industrial era (Etheridge et al. 1992; Kirschke et al. 2013)
shows that largely the human activities have led to increase in GHGs, still terrestrial
ecosystems and the atmosphere exchanges these gases naturally (Kirschke et al.
2013).
Diverse types of soils have diverse capabilities to either take up or release
methane gas. Methanogenic bacteria in wetland ecosystems are responsible for
releasing methane whilst methanotrophic bacteria of the upland soils are known to
consume a considerable amount of methane from the atmosphere. The major amount
4 Greenhouse Gas Emission Flux from Forest Ecosystem 65
of N2O comes from different soil processes and these processes account for nearly
35% of N2O emissions globally (Syakila and Kroeze 2011). Microbes have the
potential to generate N2O under both anaerobic as well as aerobic environment
(Khalil et al. 2004), agricultural activities (contributing to one quarter of global GHG
releases), fossil fuel combustion, and industrial actions emit N2O, though the major
N2O is produced by waterlogged soils (Oertel et al. 2016; Syakila and Kroeze 2011).
The atmospheric residence time of CH4 (12 years) and N2O (114 years) are very
short as compared to that of CO2 (5–200 years). Very high radiative forcing of CH4
and N2O makes them very important as GHGs causing global warming (Solomon
et al. 2007).
Each and every natural ecosystem act as carbon dioxide sink, even though some
act as key emitters of CH4 (tundra and wetlands together with peat lands). Tropical
and temperate forests emit significant N2O. Usually natural ecosystems lessen the
net global warming potential (GWP) but wetland ecosystems have an elevated input
to net GWP chiefly because of release of methane from these ecosystems. However,
the tropical forests act as sink for carbon still the ability of tropical forests to reduce
Global Warming potential is insignificant and that is attributed to N2O emissions.
Tropical forests emit Nitrous oxide (N2O) possibly because of rapid mineralization
of N under suitable circumstances of temperature as well as humidity. Natural and
unmanaged ecosystems have a significant input in reducing global warming and
climate change. It has been reported by earlier studies that these ecosystems lessen
the net atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 3.55 0.44 Gt CO2-
e years–1 or ~0.5 ppmv CO2-e years–1 (Dalal and Allen 2008).
1.3 National/International Bodies Involved in GHG Emissions

Regulation
The importance of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in forests was
recognized in the 2015 Paris Agreement and also the significance of increasing them
through sustainable forest management policies. Countries established numerous
goals to mitigate climate change in this conference. These goals included: (1) to grip
the rise in global average temperature to well under 2 C, (2) to reach global peaking
of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as soon as feasible, and (3) to attain an
equilibrium amid human induced release and uptake from the atmosphere in the
second half of this century.
To realize these goals not only deforestation needs to be minimized but also
global sink capacity of forests also needs to be managed and enhanced (Houghton
et al. 2015; IPCC 2014a, 2014b). This can be achieved by increasing the green cover,
improved forest management, reclaiming degraded forest lands, and better utiliza-
tion of wood produce.
66 A. Gupta
2 Emission of Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming
In the absence of greenhouse gases, the temperature of the earth would have been
33 C lesser than the present 15 C. This indicates that greenhouse effect is required
essentially for maintaining life on Earth. But the concentration of these GHGs is
rising in the atmosphere enhancing the greenhouse effect causing global warming
(Arnold 2004). The concentration of methane was 1859 2 ppb, that of carbon
dioxide was 405.5 0.1 ppm and that of N2O was 329.9 0.1 ppb in the
atmosphere of 2017 as per the latest analysis of monitoring from the Global
Atmosphere Watch (GAW) programme and World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) (WMO 2018).
Global warming has become increasingly eminent and distinguished (Wu et al.
2019). There has been a rise of 0.85 C in the average surface temperature of the
earth as compared to that before the industrialization. It is anticipated that this course
will continue and by the end of this century the increase will reach 0.3–4.8 C (IPCC
2014a, 2014b; Subhash 2016).
3 GHGs Emission from Forest and Global Flux

Estimates/Contribution (Table 4.1)
Soil is the main source of greenhouse gases, a main contributor to climate warming
releasing around 5–20%, 15–30%, and 60–80% of CO2, CH4, N2O, respectively,
from soils to the atmosphere every year (IPCC 2007).
Amongst the major sources of N2O emissions soils are also there (Dalal et al.
2003). Application of synthetic fertilizers comprising of nitrogen and burning of
Table 4.1 GHGs emission from Forest and Global flux estimates/contribution
Study Period Estimation Sources
IPCC (2014a, 2014b) 2010 49 109 Mg CO2 eq.
Tubiello et al. (2015) 2010 10.3–12 109 Mg CO2 eq. AFOLU (agri.
IPCC (2014a, 2014b) forestry and
other land use)
Tubiello et al. (2013) 2010 5.2–5.8 109 Mg CO2 eq. Year 1 Agriculture
(non CO2 GHG emission primarily
CH4 and N2O)
IPCC (2014a, 2014b) 2010 4.3–5.5 109 Mg CO2 eq. Year 1 Land-use
change
Montzka et al. (2011) Since Increase in the atm. conc. of CH4
1750 by 8.5 1.3 Gt CO2 eq. Yr 1
Intergovernmental Panel on 65% of total Global emissions of From Soil
Climate Change (IPCC) N2O
(2007a, 2007b)
Intergovernmental Panel on 10 Kg N2O-N emitted per 1000 kg Managed
Climate Change (IPCC) of N-fertilizer applied ecosystem
(2006)
fossil fuels are well-thought-out key components accountable for atmospheric

N-deposition as well as global climate change (IPCC 2013). There has been 3–5
times rise in global annual N-deposition rates over the previous century and it has
been projected to rise additional to two- to threefold by the culmination of this
century (Lamarque et al. 2005). Previous research has revealed that N-enrichment
can accelerate soil N2O emissions (Deng et al. 2020). Besides being a greenhouse
gas, Nitrous oxide also turns to ozone depleting gas in the stratosphere (Intergovern-
mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007b). A mature forest that is rich in
Nitrogen as well as soil organic carbon (SOC) but having a low C:N ratio, once
N-fertilizer is added, has been observed to be a hotspot for N2O emissions (Zhang
et al. 2008).
It has been shown that application of N-fertilizer in managed pine plantations
raised N2O emissions (Brown et al. 2012; Albaugh et al. 2007), at the same time
declining the sink potential of CH4 (Mochizuki et al. 2012).
One of the utmost vital global biological sinks for CH4 are well-drained upland
forest soils. In these soils, the methanotrophic bacteria assimilate methane into the
biomass of micro-organisms in the form of organic C and then in order to meet
energy requirements convert it to CO2. Methanotrophic bacteria are the only
organisms that utilize CH4, but they also emit CO2. The CO2 emitted is generally
in proportion to about 50 % of the CH4 taken up. The extent of oxidation by
methanotrophic bacteria affects the strength of soils to act as methane sinks, which
is in turn effected by environmental factors that manage the process of oxidation. In
addition to this, it has been seen that water logged forest soils are sources of methane
(Rice et al. 2010). Besides this methane is also released combustion of biomass,
fossil fuel production, gut of ruminants, fields of rice paddies and wetland
ecosystems (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007b). Not only
wetland soils but also tropical and upland soils can emit methane during the periods
of heavy precipitation or rainy time of year (Keller and Reiners 1994).
4 GHG Flux Measurement Techniques (Fig.4.1)
The two techniques that are mainly commonly preferred to calculate fluxes between
terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere are chamber measurements and micro
meteorological measurements (e.g. eddy covariance or gradient methods) or a
combination of both (Denmead 2008).
4.1 Eddy Covariance Flux Tower
The micrometeorological method measures the vertical concentration gradients of

the gas using eddies covariance (Bhattacharyya et al. 2013). It is best applied when
the terrain is flat enough, there are steady environmental conditions and for an
extended distance the underlying vegetation extends upwind (Baldocchi 2003).
Boesch et al. (2011) have reported that as compared to closed chamber, the eddy
68 A. Gupta
Chamber System
Open Closed
Eddy Covariance
Environmental
Flux Tower
Measurements
Modelling soil GHG Flux measurement Space borne

Emissions Techniques Measurements
Air borne
Measurements
Infrared Technique
Fig. 4.1 GHG flux measurement techniques
covariance technique is being preferred now days. It is because of its ability to

measure continuous flux covering large scale of area (several square kilometres) and
higher precision (Kumar et al. 2017; Myklebust et al. 2008).
This method totally covers soil, biosphere, and atmosphere. The method leads to
underestimation of fluxes if very low near ground unstable mixing occurs as it does
not work properly under such condition (Papale et al. 2006). This system has 3-D
sonic anemometers, sensors for GHGs and water vapours. It also has the sensors for
the measurement of long and short wave as well as PAR (photo-synthetically active
radiation).
Other sensors for measurement of air temperature, relative humidity and heat flux
are also important. The sensors can also be installed for soil moisture and tempera-
ture measurement at varying depths of 0–90 cm, a rain gauge to measure the rainfall.
In case of closed chamber no skilled person is required to operate as well as to record
data but it is required in this case. Therefore, it is comparatively costly technique.
4.2 Chamber Systems
Chamber systems are the most common and simple technique to estimate GHG
emissions. This technique is preferred as it can store gas samples to be analysed in
future and they do not require power supply at site (Butterbach-Bahl et al. 2016).
The major advantage of chamber technique is that it amplifies the concentration
signal to a significant level that helps in the evaluation of smaller emissions with a
given, low instrumental precision. It is not necessary to have fast response sensors
for chamber measurements. It is cost effective to build manual chambers, they
require batteries in some cases otherwise there is no need of electricity and it is
not difficult to carry to remote areas (Hensen et al. 2013).
For measuring GHG emissions from agricultural soils, closed chamber technique
is the largely preferred. The short-term build-up of emitted gas is measured, in closed
chamber that is placed over the soil surface not allowing the volume of air exchange
across the enclosed surface. (Kumar et al. 2017; Rochette 2011).
Chamber systems are of two types, closed and open chambers. Closed chambers
are further of two types: closed static and closed dynamic ones (Kutzbach et al. 2007;
Rochette 2011).
4.2.1 Closed Chambers

Open dynamic chambers are costlier and technically more sophisticated whereas the
closed static chambers are economically priced which makes them the systems that
are most commonly used. They are used for the analysis of CH4 and N2O fluxes
(Pihlatie et al. 2013; Pumpanen et al. 2004). These chambers have an absorption
method for analysing CO2, in which an alkaline solution traps CO2. Replicates are
produced at several points without requiring any additional sensors. Still there is
underestimation of CO2 in this method (Nay et al. 1994) and is rarely used.
4.2.2 Open-chambers
Open-chamber allows in ambient air through its two openings and creating a
constant gas stream (Kutsch et al. 2009). It is well well-matched and fit for hot
and dry situations in summer with little gas exchange rate. At the air inlet and outlet,
the concentration of gas is analysed. The variation amongst the concentration of gas
at both these points gives the gas flux. Mechanical parts are not compulsory due to
continuous measurement systems (Balogh et al. 2007).
4.3 Space-Borne Measurements
In this remote sensing is applied for measuring GHG emissions. Information on

GHG soil emissions from remote sensing from satellites may be delivered in two
diverse methods. One way is by estimating near-surface CO2 and CH4
tropospherical concentrations. It is based on measuring the intensity of the reflected
sunlight in small wavelength bands in the visible and short-wavelength IR portion of
the spectrum (Boesch et al. 2011).
4.4 Air-Borne Measurements
It uses sampling techniques that sample gases from various transects ranging from
low altitude to high altitudes, range of diverse land use patterns. But the limitation of
this measurement is that it delivers data only up to a spatial distance of 10–100 km
and that also over a short period of time (Desjardins et al. 1997, 2010; Kustas et al.
2006; Pattey et al. 2006).
70 A. Gupta
4.5 Soil Emissions Modelling
As other methods produce only prompt data, in order to decentralize as well as to

estimate global budgets and emissions, it is very significant to go for modelling GHG
emissions from soils covering local to global scales. Soil emission modelling
frequently preferred to compute GHG emissions from soils, and from agricultural
lands in particular (Abdalla et al. 2011).
4.6 Environmental Measurements
As environmental and meteorological variables are important in the understanding

and modelling of ecosystem-atmosphere flux data, therefore, this method measures
these main variables. These measurements reported include air temperature, solar
radiation, net radiation, precipitation, and air pressure. In addition to these, soil
temperature at 10 cm depth (thermocouple) and water table depth can be measured
30 m from the base of the tower. These data are reported at a 30-min temporal
resolution. For example, even though the solar radiation measurements are taken
every 15 s, but only the 30-min mean is logged (Richardson et al. 2019).
4.6.1 Infrared Techniques

This technique makes use of the capability of gases to absorb infrared light at unique
wavelengths. In the measurement cell, sample gas is injected where the IR beam
illuminates the sample (closed path system) otherwise the IR beam can be used in the
outside air also (open path system). Till date only closed path measurement systems
have been used for N2O, even though open path systems are presently under
progress (Hensen et al. 2013).
5 Factors Governing GHG Production and Emission from

Forests Ecosystem
Many factors affect the GHG exchange in forest soils with the atmosphere (Fig. 4.2),
including temperature, moisture, pH, texture of soil and also by the distribution of
O2, root activity, age and species of vegetation, properties of the litter layer and
substrate availability (Gundersen et al. 2012; Gritsch et al. 2015).
GHG fluxes are also affected by various other factors like environmental, climate,
and vegetation (Pelster et al. 2012; Desjardins et al. 2010).
5.1 Land-Use and Land Cover Changes
One of the main vital factors that has been recognized to impact GHG emissions to
the atmosphere is land-use history (Ishizuka et al. 2002; Merino et al. 2004). When
ecosystems like forests, grasslands, and peat lands are being transformed into
Fig. 4.2 Factors governing GHG production and emissions from forest ecosystem
agricultural lands deliberately then it affects GHG emissions from soils significantly.
It can be due to the reason that change in land-use type alters the soil properties and
considerably alters the soil organic carbon dynamics (Merino et al. 2004) there by
disturbing GHG emissions (Ishizuka et al. 2002; Merino et al. 2004). After a forest
land is transformed into an agricultural land, the carbon stored in the top 7 cm layer
of soil the is lost (30–35%) within the first 30 years whereas no significant changes
occur under plough depth (DeGryze et al. 2004). The global carbon-sequestration
potential of agricultural soils amounts to 0.73–0.87 Pg C year 1. It has been reported
that the global warming potential of forest soils was much higher than that of
grassland soils, which suggests that whilst planning management strategies for
greenhouse gas mitigation in the studied regions land-use type must be taken into
account (Lang et al. 2011).
5.2 Substrate Availability
Lubbers et al. (2013) suggested that although earthworms are advantageous for soil
as they enhance soil fertility, arouse carbon sequestration in soil aggregates, but also
elevate the emission of main GHGs. In various organic wastes including manures,
soils, and sediments, numerous microbial activities happen constantly. These
72 A. Gupta
activities are the principal sources of greenhouse gases (GHG) and create sources or
sinks that are not only spatially but temporally diverse as well (Butterbach-Bahl et al.
2016).
At the ecosystem scale, processes releasing (respiratory fluxes) as well as con-
suming CO2 (fixation by photosynthesis) are taken into consideration, therefore, at
this level soils can act as net sinks as well as sources for CO2. It has been observed
that three times the carbon currently found in the atmosphere is stored by the soils to
a depth of 1 m (Batjes 1996; Butterbach-Bahl et al. 2016). As a result, a number of
soil and plant processes like photosynthesis, mineralization, and litter fluxes to the
soil are affected by changes in land use and land management. This can either cause
mobilization of soil C and N stocks or change soils to C sinks with adequate
management. In order to decrease the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere as
well as to protect climate, the latter is a significant practice. It is termed as “re-
carbonization” of our terrestrial ecosystems (Lal 2009).
GHG fluxes are altered by various environmental changes like the increased
availability of N and vanished litter layer due to forest fires. Charcoal that is
produced by forest fires due to incomplete combustion of organic matter could be
very important in sinking soil N2O flux in temperate forests (Kim et al. 2011).
A number of studies have reported the GHG fluxes of coniferous forests. Ju et al.
(2016) have found previously that as compared to broadleaf forests, in coniferous
forests the soil ecosystem was enormously metabolized, and the CO2 flux was very
much high. On the contrary, Leckie et al. (2004) believed that the rate of minerali-
zation of soil carbon and nitrogen of coniferous forest was reduced because the litter
layer was loaded with refractory compounds, thereby further resulting in lower CO2
flux. Wang et al. (2010) reported that thick litter layer of coniferous forests cut-off
rainfall, thereby decreasing the soil water content. It enhances CH4 absorption
capacity of coniferous forests soil than broadleaf forest soil.
5.3 Temperature
Soil temperature affects the variations of trace gas emissions from soil. Rising up of
soil temperature leads to higher emissions and also higher soil respiration rates as a
positive feedback response of increased metabolic activities of microbes. Due to rise
in temperature, the soil respiration is enhanced, forcing methane and N2O emissions
and reducing O2 concentrations in the soil (Butterbach-Bahl et al. 2016). The
variations of NO and N2O emissions (74% and 86%) can be explained by soil
moisture and soil temperature, respectively (Schindlbacher et al. 2004; Uprety and
Saxena 2021a). With rise in temperature, there is an exponential increase in Nitric
oxide and CO2 emissions (Fang and Moncrieff 2001; Ludwig et al. 2001; Tang et al.
2003; Uprety and Saxena 2021b).
Enzyme activities are influenced by variations in soil temperature, whilst changes
in oxidation reduction conditions can favour sequentially different microbial pro-
cesses in soil. For example, anaerobic conditions are created due to field irrigation
and water logging of rice paddies, thereby slowing down aerobic decomposition but
it initiates a series of microbial processes that use compounds and elements other
than O2 as electron acceptor (Saxena et al. 2021). This finally leads to production of
methane by methanogens under anaerobic conditions (Conrad 1996).
5.4 Precipitation and Soil Water
Water logging enhances the bulk density of soil which might reduce the effective
diffusivity of CH4 and O2 available in soil, limiting the utilization of methane at the
water logged sites. Due to this, methane sinks get converted to methane sources.
Besides lowering the soil methane consumption rates, water logging increases N2O
emissions rates of soil. This increases N availability in soil considerably that
increases N2O fluxes significantly for at least 1 year after logging. Likewise, logging
in tropical rain forests grows the emission of CH4 and N2O for at least 1 year after
logging, thus potentially contributing to global warming (Yashiro et al. 2008).
5.5 Soil pH-Values
Microbial activities in soil are greatly influenced by many factors including soil
pH. Methods to control soil pH can also affect soil GHG emissions. Such as by
applying lime to the soil, the carbonate applied to the soil will be released as carbon
dioxide (Snyder et al. 2009; Sonwani et al. 2020). GHG emissions from soil are
reduced due to low soil pH (acidic), carbon dioxide emissions were highest at neutral
pH. The most favourable pH-value promoting methanogenesis (CH4 production) lies
between pH 4 and 7 (Dalal and Allen 2008; Cuhel et al. 2010).
Denitrification under acidic pH of soil emit NO, whereas higher pH conditions
promote NO emissions released by nitrification (Remde and Conrad 1991). N2O
emissions reduce only under acidic soil situation. Alkaline pH enhances nitrification,
since the balance between NH3 and NO3 shifts to ammonia (Nugroho et al. 2007).
However, no significant relationships between NO and N2O emissions and pH-value
were found (Pilegaard et al. 2006).
5.6 Nitrogen
Across all ecosystems, addition of N increased CH4 release by 97%, reduced CH4
uptake by 38%, and enhanced N2O emission by 216%. Most frequently N addition is
known to increase C-sequestration in forest without consideration of N stimulation
of GHG production in other ecosystems. Even though there has been an increase in
the global terrestrial C sink by N addition but the CO2 reduction could be mainly
counterbalanced (53–76%) by N stimulation of global CH4 and N2O emission from
multiple ecosystems (Liu and Graever 2009).
74 A. Gupta
5.7 Salinity and Sodicity
Saline–sodic soils can be a significant contributor of N2O to the environment. Many

factors like application of N-fertilizer, irrigation, and precipitation may considerably
raise the greenhouse gas (N2O and CO2) emission from saline–sodic soils (Ghosh
et al. 2017). Soil pH affects nutrient cycles (C and N) by controlling activities of
microbes occupied in the transformations of C and N elements. Traditionally, lime is
applied to soils to overcome the problems related to soil acidification, but this also
influences cycling processes of C and N, thereby affecting greenhouse gas (GHG)
flux in soils (Kunhikrishnan et al. 2016).
5.8 Increasing CO2 and Atmospheric N-deposition
Even though the emissions and uptake of GHGs particularly in forest ecosystem, are
biologically mediated, but natural or man-made factors and climate changes
influenced environmental variables, strongly control these GHGs. They include
increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations, nitrogen (N) deposition, and fires.
High moisture content of soil as well as increased evaporation from forest floor
leads to increase in stomatal closure of leaf. This has been observed to decrease CH4
consumption with CO2 enrichment (Kim 2013). Plants build-up diverse physiologi-
cal, morphological, and anatomical changes in reaction to increased concentration of
CO2, CH4, and other pollutants (Gupta 2016).
5.9 Vegetation
Soil respiration gets impacted by a number of factors like vegetation age and type of
tree. The highest soil respiration level was found highest in the youngest spruce
stands when 10, 15, 31, and 47 years old stands were compared (Saiz et al. 2006).
Lower fine root biomass caused by increased age lead to the decreased soil
respiration.
The higher organic inputs caused higher microbial respiration which
compensated the decrease in emissions due to the increased stand age (Saiz et al.
2006). At the grassland site the C-sequestration capacity improved owing to a very
high biodiversity consisting of Leguminosae and C3 and C4 plants (carbon fixation)
in a balanced ratio (Fornara and Tilman 2008). N2O emissions from Fertilizer-N at
agricultural soils were very high as compared to legume-N (Schwenke et al. 2015).
Different ecosystems act as source and sinks for methane. Tropical humid forest,
wetlands, rice paddy fields, and termite mounds are significant emitters of CH4
whilst seasonally dry forests and savannahs are generally CH4 sinks (Valentini et al.
2014).
5.10 Soil and Plant Characteristics
The GHG exchange in forest soils with the atmosphere gets affected by many factors
such as temperature, moisture, pH, and texture of the soil, the distribution of O2, root
activity, stand age and species, litter layer characteristics as well as C and N substrate
availability (Gundersen et al. 2012; Gritsch et al. 2015).
Variations in the properties of soils result due to various plant characteristics like
diverse tree covers, growth beneath the litter, and roots exudates of different tree.
These characters along with soil properties affect composition and diversity of
microbial community, and changes GHG emission from soil (Livesley et al. 2009;
Jang et al. 2006).
5.11 Forest Fires
Due to the incomplete combustion of organic matter, during most of the forest fires,
charcoal is created. This charcoal may influence various processes (physical, chemi-
cal, and biotic) in soil. Charcoal has a capacity to absorb, it influences the conversion
as well as preservation of C and N in soils (DeLuca et al. 2006; Forbes et al. 2006), it
could also influence soil GHG fluxes in particular, directly or indirectly. Being a very
stable form of carbon, charcoal has the capacity to be a valuable sink for C (Kim
et al. 2011).
Forest fires are also an important source of Polycyclic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in
the environment (Sonwani et al. 2016b). As the fire ash has the capacity to be easily
eroded away, the PAHs present in the fire ash in fire soil carried away to water
bodies, where they could enter food chain affecting the organisms at various trophic
level. It could also contaminate water resources (Faboya et al. 2020).
Upland boreal forests in permafrost and non-permafrost soils are recognized as
CH4 sinks during the fire succession. Even then a strong trend yet needs to be
identified (Ribeiro-Kumara et al. 2020).
6 Impact of Forest Generated GHG on Climate

and Environmental Health
Forest ecosystems have an important function in the carbon and nitrogen cycles,
thereby maintaining 86% and 73% of the plant and the soil carbon pool, respectively
(Pan et al. 2011). Global warming influences the regional climate by changing the
ecological environment of the forests, which further alters the exchange of GHGs
between the atmosphere and forest soils leading to change in local climate (Sonwani
et al. 2016a).
Wu et al. (2019) have reported with rising temperature, the CO2 and N2O rate of
emission of the three forest types enhanced but it led to reduction in CH4 absorption
rate, thus enhancing the atmospheric greenhouse effect.
76 A. Gupta
Permafrost soils are considered huge pools of carbon and nitrogen (Jorgenson and
Osterkamp (2005). Soil active layers and permafrost has >30% of the world’s
carbon, whilst the upper 3 m of permafrost stores 31–102 Pg of total nitrogen
(Harden et al. 2012). More living space and matrix for microbes will be created in
the permafrost as the thickness of permafrost active layers increase due to climate
warming, releasing the ancient carbon and water stored in there. This raises the
emission of GHGs (Ozlu and Kumar 2018) and causing climate warming (Schuur
et al. 2015).
Pearson et al. (2017) provided a consistent evaluation of forest degradation
emissions across 74 developing countries covering an area of 2.2 billion hectares
of forests, between the years 2005 and 2010. Greenhouse gas emissions from forest
degradation exceeded those from deforestation. They estimated 53%, 30%, 17%
were from timber harvest, wood fuel harvest and forest fire, respectively, making a
total annual emission of 2.1 billion tons of carbon dioxide. These percentages
differed by region: timber harvest was as high as 69% in South and Central America
and just 31% in Africa; wood fuel harvest was 35% in Asia, and just 10% in South
and Central America; and fire ranged from 33% in Africa to only 5% in Asia. Of the
total emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, forest degradation
accounted for 25%.
6.1 Deforestation and Climate Change
The climate is impacted differently due to deforestation upon different types of forest
(Seymour and Busch 2016). Carbon emissions per unit of land area are more by
clearing tall, dense forests as compared to clearing low, sparse forests. Despite the
fact that peat soils cover just 3% of global land area still they store 20–25% of all soil
carbon. Deforestation taking place on carbon rich peat soil, has a particularly severe
impact.
In some environmental conditions, deforestation can enhance the factors increas-
ing malaria risk which may include mosquito growth and biting rates. Besides these
factors, deforestation is also connected to changes in social and economic conditions
that have an effect on malaria rates in humans (Bauhoff and Busch 2020).
6.2 Forest Degradation and Climate Change
In the decade 2001–2010 the greenhouse gas emitted from due to degradation of
forests were a quarter of those from cutting of forests in the same decade with
substantial variation across countries, suggested by a 2015, although this data is
uncertain (Federici et al. 2017). Forest degradation can also lead to increase in
deforestation besides causing climate change. For example, people get easy access
to forests due to road connectivity for carrying out logging and mining activities in
forests and it makes easier for them to convert the forests completely to agriculture.
Spain
Portugal
Italy Avg. Annual wildfire

emissions (Gg CO2)
Greece
France
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Fig. 4.3 Average annual wildfire emissions (Gg CO2) (Vilén and Fernandes 2011)
6.3 Forest Fires and Climate Change
With the rise in average global temperature due to global warming, the frequency
and duration of periods with elevated weather are expected to increase leading to
increase in forest fire incidents as well as their size (Marchal et al. 2020), which is
one of the major causes of global warming (Faboya et al. 2020). Fire incidents are
strongly influenced by major factors like climate and weather. There is a correlation
between the forest area burnt due to fire and drought caused due to summer (Vilén
and Fernandes 2011). Both C and N cycling in forest ecosystems are affected by
forest fires. It further affects exchange of major GHGs between soil and atmosphere
(Kim et al. 2011). Forest fires emit carbon dioxide along with other GHGs along with
a lot of smoke that enters the atmosphere. The C storing capacity of forests also
diminishes. These lead to enhance global warming as well as influence climate
change (Erianti et al. 2020). The very high quantities of greenhouse gases released
into the atmosphere impact not only forests ecosystem but also cause pollution. Both
nitrous oxide and methane emitted have more impacts on global warming as
compared to carbon dioxide. Emissions other than carbon dioxide from forest fire
correspond to about 10–12% of total carbon-dioxide-equivalent fire emissions in
developed countries (Federici et al. 2017). Vilén and Fernandes (2011) reported
yearly wildfire emission of (1341, 359, 5816, 4409, 1719) Gg CO2 from France,
Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain, respectively (Fig. 4.3).
7 Conclusion
This paper reviews GHG emission flux from forest ecosystems and a range of
methods of measuring GHG fluxes. It also focuses on factors affecting the GHG
exchange in forest soils with the atmosphere. The main factors affecting GHG
emissions flux from forests ecosystems are known but still important geo databases
which can act as representative maps for GHG emissions from forests are
78 A. Gupta
unavailable. Such globally incomplete databases slow down true and verified global
representativeness. It has also thrown light on forest generated GHG and its impact
on climate as well as environmental health. The global emissions from forest
degradation exceeded that of deforestation. More data and research are needed on
impact of forest generated GHGs and forest degradation on climate and environ-
mental health. More research needs to be done on the management strategies
involving factors responsible for GHG emission fluxes, to mitigate climate change.
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Effect of Greenhouse Gases on Human
Health 5
Sarah Naiyer and Syed Safdar Abbas
Abstract
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the essential component for our planet earth to
maintain an ambient condition for our survival. These gases in collaboration form
an atmospheric layer which protects direct UV rays from reaching the earth.
Human activities have increased the use of these gases artificially for many
commercial purposes. Along with global warming and climate change green-
house gases have adverse impacts on human health. Although human body has
the capacity to cope with short-term exposure of these gases, long-term high
concentration exposure becomes detrimental. The chronic exposure slowly
affects multiple different organs primarily including the respiratory system,
cardiovascular system, the central nervous system (CNS), the immune system,
the digestive system and often the reproductive system. This chapter summarizes
the mechanism of action and the adverse effects of greenhouse gases on human
health and the primary target organs in an attempt to better understand the
consequences of our actions.
Keywords
Greenhouse gases · Human health · CNS · Respiratory system · Cardiovascular
system · Immune system
S. Naiyer (*)
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
e-mail: snaiyer@uic.edu
S. S. Abbas
Cafal Clinic for Psychiatry and Consultation Services S.C., St. Charles, IL, USA

Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_5
86 S. Naiyer and S. S. Abbas
1 Introduction
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) absorb solar energy and emit infrared radiation. GHGs
act like a glass walls of a greenhouse and are therefore called the greenhouse gas. By
trapping the solar energy, GHGs keep Earth’s climate habitable for us and all other
species. In turn Earth surface emits infrared radiation (IR) back to the atmosphere,
where water, CO2, and methane absorb it. This absorption is restored lapse rate
toward adiabatic stability through convection and evaporation (latent heat). At
higher altitudes IR photons escape to the space (Easterbrook 2016). The average
temperature of Earth can be as low as 18 C, from the present 14 C without the
greenhouse effect (Ozgener and Hepbasli 2005).
The amount of heat absorbed or reradiated back to the surface is determined to life
by the extent of various GHGs in the atmosphere. Many human activities are
accountable for the gradual increases in the extent of GHGs. Since 1700s and
early 1800s (industrial revolution), a much higher concentration of GHGs is being
released into the earth’s atmosphere. Approximately 70% increase in the GHG
emissions has been observed between 1970 and 2004. CO2 discharge rose by
about 80% back then. Most of the GHGs occur naturally in the atmosphere but are
emitted more due to human activities (e.g., carbon dioxide), while others such as
synthetic halocarbons are contributed solely due to human activities. Human emis-
sion sources result from energy-related activities like combustion of fossil fuels,
deforestation, agriculture, land-use change, waste management and treatment
activities, and various other industrial processes (Sonwani et al. 2016a; Sonwani
and Kulshrestha 2018; Saxena et al. 2021; Sahu et al. 2015).
Although the effect of constant direct exposure of human body to these gases
appears negligible, the increasing concentration of these gases along with time are
the key cause of various human ailments. One of the most exposed and affected
organs of our body is the respiratory system which might lead to breathing problems
and asthma. Other affected organs include the cardiovascular system owing to
hyper- or hypotension, the CNS affecting the brain cells which may lead to memory
loss, the immune system damping the defense mechanism of the body to fight
against infections, the digestive system, and often the reproductive system. This
chapter is written in an attempt to summarize the adverse effects of each greenhouse
gas on human health, the mechanism of action of these gases on different organs and
tissues when present in higher concentrations and the positive health effects of
mitigating these gases.
1.1 Major GHGs
The main GHGs constitute of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor,
and ozone. These greenhouse gases are growing out of proportion and warn to
change our surroundings severely, due to which it will be very difficult for living
organisms to survive on this planet, one factor accounting for rise in the temperature
of earth and thus, global warming. The rising concentrations of these gases will
continue to have adverse conditions if not controlled.
5 Effect of Greenhouse Gases on Human Health 87
1.1.1 CO2
CO2 occurs naturally in the atmosphere as part of the global carbon cycle. It is a
colorless, tasteless, odorless, and non-flammable gas that is denser than air and may
collect at lower levels, generating a scarcity of oxygen (IPCC 2013), which is the
primary requirement of our survival. CO2 concentration is maintained in the atmo-
sphere by natural sinks that eliminate carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and help
normalize its atmospheric quantities. Of all the GHGs, CO2 is the most important
anthropogenic greenhouse gas as it currently accounts for the highest share of the
warming accompanying the human activities, which has increased atmospheric
loads via combustion of fossil fuels, other emissions sources, and deforestation.
These activities enhance and disturb CO2 concentration at an unnatural and unsus-
tainable level. Rising CO2 concentration adds to the greenhouse effect, quickens
global warming (Cox et al. 2000) and effects human health.
1.1.2 Ozone
Ozone a gas of stratosphere is also found in the troposphere due to human actions
including photochemical reactions that involve NOx and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) (Sonwani et al. 2016b; Sahu and Saxena 2015). The primary anthropogenic
VOC contributing to the formation of O3 in polluted regions, in troposphere is
methane (Norback and Nordstrom 2008). Since the lifetime of CH4 is approximately
8–9 years, it reacts slowly and affects the global background concentrations of O3.
Mitigating CH4 concentration reduces the O3 concentrations in almost the same
proportion in polluted regions as in countryside regions (Norback and Nordstrom
2008; Lu et al. 2015). Ozone (O3) has substantial effects on human health world-
wide. Twenty-one thousand four hundred pre-mature deaths each year are associated
with O3 (European Environment Agency 2007) (In the EU) making it one of the
major pollutants in the atmosphere. Both human and plant life are adversely affected
by the ground level ozone. Higher concentration of O3 directly affect the respiratory
tract causing subsequent health impacts (Saxena et al. 2017; Saxena and Sonwani
2020; Mills et al. 2018).
1.1.3 Methane (CH4)

Methane (CH4) is an alkaline gas which is colorless and odorless at low
concentrations but has a sweet smell at higher concentrations. The amount of
methane in the atmosphere is about 2.2 ppm by volume. Since it is highly reactive
to oxygen, it is explosive at mixtures above 5–15% in air. These concentrations are
significantly lower than the concentration at which asphyxiant risk is reported. It has
a lifespan of around 15 years as it is very slowly damaged by other chemicals in the
atmosphere. Of all the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) methane’s contribution
to the formation of ground level ozone or photochemical smog is trivial. Over the
past 250 years methane concentration in the atmosphere has more than doubled and
has the potential to put the health of millions at risk.
1.1.4 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) also known as Freons, were at one point of time very
frequently used as aerosol propellants, refrigerants, metal degreasers, in fire
extinguishers, and as a dry-cleaning solvent. It was in 1974 when scientists reported

ozone depletion as a consequence of CFCs released in the atmosphere. Gradually the
use of CFCs was reduced but it is still found in many appliances (Uprety and Saxena
2021a). Their volatile nature makes it easy for them to reach the stratosphere. In the
stratosphere they deplete the ozone molecules. Their atmospheric lifespans can also
be long sometimes, lasting thousands of years. It is only the sunlight that removes
many fluorinated gases in the far upper atmospheric layer, making these gases the
most intoxicating and long-lasting type of GHGs emitted by human activities. CFCs
are reported to have adverse health impacts on multiple human organs.
1.1.5 Nitrous Oxide

Nitrous oxide also known as laughing gas is a greenhouse gas which is 300 times
more intoxicating than CO2. EPA reports that the average life of N2O at the earth’s
atmosphere is 114 years where it absorbs radiation and traps heat. It is naturally
emitted in the atmosphere as path of nitrogen cycle which involves its circulation
within the atmosphere, plants, animals, and soil and water microorganisms (Uprety
and Saxena 2021b). The microorganisms play a very important role in the formation
and breakdown of N2O. N2O depletes ozone and the environmental costs of
continued global use of N2O may not be insignificant. Along with other organs of
the body N2O is reported to affect the reproductive system which may lead to
abortion.
1.2 Sources of GHGs
The major contributors of all the GHG emission include electric power stations,
industrial processes, agriculture production, and fossil fuel burning. CO2 is naturally
present in the earth’s atmosphere as a trace gas and a product of cellular respiration
or burning of fossil fuel including coal, natural gas and oil, trees, solid waste (van
Groenigen et al. 2011). The main source of CO2 in the non-industrial indoor
environment is human metabolism. Methane is released naturally from decomposi-
tion. It is produced by many natural and human-influenced sources. Natural sources
of methane include termite mounds and in low-oxygen environments, such as
swamps or landfills. People add methane to the atmosphere through digestive
processes in livestock and agriculture, waste decomposition in landfills, and fossil
fuel production such as coal mining and natural gas processing and distribution.
Another major sources of methane are the production by microbes (methane-
producing bacteria) living in anoxic conditions like landfills, wetlands, septic
systems, sewer, butts, and stomach of ruminants (Keppler et al. 2016; Levitt et al.
2006). Natural gas, used to generate electricity in power stations for domestic and
commercial heating, and in the chemical industry constitutes mostly of methane. It is
used in hospitals to alleviates sepsis (a clinical syndrome accompanied by multiple
organ failure) induced liver and kidney injury and is shown to inhibit pyroptosis and
apoptosis (in vivo and in vitro experiments). It exhibits anti-oxidation, anti-inflam-
mation, and anti-apoptotic properties as studied in mouse models (Boros et al. 2012)
Unlike many other greenhouse gases, fluorinated gases have no natural sources and
only come from human-related activities. CFCs were at one point of time very
frequently used as aerosol propellants, refrigerants, metal degreasers, in fire
extinguishers, and as a dry-cleaning solvent. It was in 1974 when scientists reported
ozone depletion as a consequence of CFCs released in the atmosphere. Gradually the
use of CFCs was reduced but it is still found in many appliances.
Chlorofluorocarbons and HCFCs are being phased out under an international agree-
ment, called the Montreal Protocol. Major N2O sources of emission from anthropo-
genic activities include agricultural practices like synthesizing fertilizer and animal
waste management contribute about 67% of emission. Other sources of emission
include combustion of solid waste, fossil fuel, and domestic wastewater treatment.
Other factors include industrial process, biomass burning, atmospheric deposition,
and human sewage. It is cheap and widely available gas used as an analgesic in the
health care sector. It is used in dental care practices and during the primary stages of
labor and pregnancy. Sometimes it is also used in the later stages of pregnancy and
post-pregnancy procedures like removal of placenta, laceration or episiotomy repair,
and uterine curettage (Collins et al. 2012).
2 Trends of GHGs Levels Considering Past Several Decades
Over the last few hundred years the global atmospheric concentration of these
greenhouse gases has risen considerably. If the rate of increase continues with the
same speed it would be very difficult to combat the harmful effects of these gases on
human health. The beginning of the industrial era led to a substantial increase in the
CO2 concentration rising from an annual average of 280 ppm in the late 1700s to
401 ppm in 2015 accounting for an increase of 43% (IPCC 2013). The concentration
of methane has more than doubled since preindustrial times almost reaching to a
level of 1800 ppb in today’s time. The level of nitrous oxide has increased since
1920s reaching to a level of 328 ppb. The concentration of many halogenated gases
like CFCs and HFCs have increased rapidly over a few decades, since they have
been incorporated into industrial products and processes. Since these are ozone-
depleting substances, they have been phased out of use. Between 1979 and 2014 the
amount of ozone in the atmosphere decreased by 3% while that in the troposphere
increased by 3%. It is very important to incorporate the measures to mitigate and
reduce the concentration of these gases in the atmosphere in order to live healthy.
3 Impacts of GHGs
Other than global warming, greenhouse gas emissions also have effects on precipi-
tation, such as rain and snow, habitats for living organisms, farming, trade, loss of
endemic species, and human health. According to some studies, the increasing
temperature of the tropical region may also be responsible to spread their diseases
confined to the temperate regions.
4 Impacts of GHGs on Human Health
Many greenhouse gases directly target the human respiratory system causing bron-
chitis and asthma. Some affect the central nervous system and the immune system
while others are reported to be carcinogenic and even cause death (Fig. 5.1).
4.1 Mechanism of CO2 Effect on Human Health
Intracellular mitochondrial metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates releases

CO2. This CO2 accumulates and forms carbonic acid which decreases the blood pH
making it acidic. To retain the acid-base balance in the blood the CO2 is discharged
from the human body (Geers and Gros 2000). The coordination of internal respira-
tion (transport of CO2 from cells to blood) and external respiration (transport of CO2
from blood to the lungs to be exhaled into the atmosphere) maintains this balance
(Gordon and Visscher 1949).
The condition of increased CO2 level in the blood is called as hypercapnia. Acidic
pH or high partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) dissociates oxygen (O2) from oxyhemo-
globin (Arthurs and Sudhakar 2005). High pCO2 supplied to the lungs induces high
pCO2 in the alveoli. CO2 freely passes the alveolar membrane into the blood,
resulting in higher CO2 concentration in arterial blood (PaCO2). This higher CO2
concentration leads to an acute or chronic respiratory acidosis (Guais et al. 2011).
Fig. 5.1 Overview of greenhouse gas effect on human health

4.1.1 Human Health Impacts Due to CO2

CO2 exposure can affect human health at many levels (Fig. 5.2). Short-term expo-
sure causes suffocation by the displacement of oxygen because of which it becomes
hard to breadth. This leads to incapacitation and unconsciousness, headaches,
difficulty in concentration, sometimes vertigo and double vision and fits along
with Tinnitus (a ringing in one or both ears). At higher concentrations it may produce
a stinging sensation in the throat and nose as the gas dissolves in the mucous forming
carbonic acid. Other effects include increased heart rate and palpitation. Higher
levels of exposure may be destructive for human health and life threatening. CO2
can rapidly cross the blood–brain barrier and diffuse into the brain causing a
deficiency of oxygen and thus hypoxemia. Direct contact of liquid CO2 can cause
frostbite or blisters. Changes in bone calcium and body metabolism may also be a
consequence of prolonged CO2 exposure.
Respiratory acidosis is one of the major effects of CO2 toxicity. It can be either
due to acute or chronic exposure. It happens when the lungs cannot replace the CO2
causing the lowering of blood pH. This increases the rate of respiration, metabolic
stress, increased brain blood flow, and increased minute ventilation (above 10,000
ppm), lower capacity for exercise tolerance in workers when gasping against inspi-
ratory and expiratory resistance (above 30,000 ppm), headache, anxiety, dizziness,
confusion, and dyspnea (above 50,000 ppm), perspiration, dim vision, vomiting,
incomprehension, hypertension, and loss of awareness and stupor (above 100,000
ppm) (Azuma et al. 2018). Chronic respiratory acidosis may become stable and
tolerated by the body, as the kidneys produce bicarbonate in response which
balances the acid-base ratio of the body. But chronic exposure can result in loss of
memory retention, excessive sleepiness during day and insomnia, and temperament
fluctuations.
In two separate mice experimental studies where neutrophils were exposed to 2 h
at 1000–4000 ppm and 2000 or 4000 ppm CO2, respectively, showed that micropar-
ticle produced have increased interleukin-1β (IL-1β) content. In the first study the
effects did not increase upon increasing the concentration of CO2 to 10,000 or
Fig. 5.2 Major CO2 toxicity symptoms (CNS: central nervous system)
20,000 ppm (Thom et al. 2017), while in the second study the mice also exhibited an
increase in neutrophil and platelet activation, and diffuse inflammatory vascular
injury, including vascular leaks in brain, muscle, and distal colon (Thom and Lean
2017) suggesting a novel pathway for the effects of low-level exposure to CO2.
In another study human subjects were tested for an inhalation exposure of CO2 at
1000 ppm and were shown to possess marked changes in respiratory movement
amplitude, peripheral blood flow increases, and the cerebral cortex functional state.
Studies have also been done where two groups were given different concentrations
of CO2 exposure and compared. At exposures higher than 1500 ppm for 2 h
symptoms included high blood pressure and heart rate compared to 600 ppm
exposure group. Other symptoms included problems with cognitive, urinary, sexual,
and digestive systems when compared between 600 and 2500 ppm CO2 exposure.
Sick building syndrome is also associated with an increase of indoor CO2
concentration. The symptoms appear when within the building and improve when
not in the same surrounding (Ross et al. 1997). Symptoms in the syndrome are
related to the upper and lower respiratory tract, eyes, and skin and include headache,
fatigue, and difficulty concentrating (Finnegan et al. 1984). In a study conducted on
355 college students 100 ppm increase in indoor CO2 concentration (range,
674–1450 ppm) was reported to be significantly associated with headache dry throat,
tiredness, and dizziness independent of other indoor environmental factors, includ-
ing temperature, relative humidity, and air exchange rate (Norback and Nordstrom
2008; Lu et al. 2015). The sick building syndrome symptoms include higher risk for
dry cough, wheezing, asthma and rhinitis (Simoni et al. 2010).
4.2 Mechanisms of Ozone Effects
The respiratory system is the primary organ targeted by O3 in multiple ways.

Because of the bipolar nature of Ozone, it causes direct oxidative damage to the
cells of the tissues. It also causes indirect damage by diverting the energy of the cells
for the production of defense mechanisms and the formation of antioxidants to
neutralize its effects (Quality and Group 1995).
The lungs of the body are protected for oxidative damage by a lung lining fluid
(LLF). The LLF comprises different components including the proteins and lipids.
Ozone responds to antioxidants, within the LLF. It also reacts with other components
including proteins and lipids, giving rise to derived oxidation products, giving rise to
a number of secondary responses including an influx of inflammatory cells at the site
of attack. This influx damages the fine blood/air barrier and interferes with the
normal functioning of the lung.
The determination of a dose–response relationship for the assessment of human
health impacts becomes extremely complex as individuals react differently to O3
exposure. The scale of harmful effects ranges from targeting lung tissue through the
respiratory symptoms especially in cases more prone to pre-existing disease
conditions, including asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, sufficient
to cause hospitalization or even death. Evidence suggests for O3 exposure can cause
acute as well as chronic effects.
4.2.1 Effect of Ozone on Human Health

Pathophysiological effects of O3 on humans being have been listed in Table 5.1. The
human body could either have an acute or chronic exposure to the ground level O3.
The factors that regulate an individual’s reaction to O3 include number of factors
including genetic factors, age, and already prevailing cardiorespiratory disease. It is
well studied that people with asthma are at a higher risk for adverse effects of O3
exposure. They responded by showing higher airway hypersensitivity and
aggravating the disease symptoms as compared to healthy individuals. It has been
reported that chronic O3 exposure shows higher response to bronchial allergens
(Scannell et al. 1996).
The lung function responses to O3 are shown to vary with age. The surface area
available for O3 absorption chances with age and therefore children are the most
susceptible, due to higher O3 absorption. Studies on different mice and rat strains
have confirmed the significance of genetic and molecular makeup for O3 suscepti-
bility, highlighting the genome targets responsible for regulation of exposure
response. Some human studies have also shown that genetic variations and poly-
morphism for different enzymes and inflammatory genes (GSTM1, NQO1, and
TNF) may modulate the effects of O3 exposure on respiration and airway inflamma-
tion making the symptoms more varied (Chen et al. 2007). However, it has been
reported that although chronic exposure adversely effects lung function, it also
develops tolerance and resistance if the exposure is continuous (Kulle et al. 1985).
Acute low dose O3 exposures for 1–3 h is studied to cause inflammatory response
increasing the permeability of lung lining thus increasing the risk of other secondary
infections due to changes in host defense (Gilmour et al. 1993; Leikauf et al. 1995).
There is also evidence that repeated O3 exposures over several days results in a
reduction in inflammation but also leads to lung tissue damage (Jorres et al. 2000).
The O3 exposures makes individual with allergy and asthma show more response for
airway susceptibility for allergens as reported in laboratory animals. This airway
response persists for long and is recovered much more slowly as compared to lung or
respiratory system response (Folinsbee et al. 1988; Kehrl et al. 1999).
Table5.1 Pathophysiolog- 1 Reduced lung function

ical effects of O3 on humans
2 Respiratory Problems and cough
3 Airway inflammation and hyperreactivity
4 Increased airway permeability
5 Irritation in throat, eyes and mucous membrane
6 Wheezing and shortness of breath
7 Increased risk of heart attack
8 LLF antioxidant depletion
9 Asthma and chest pain
O3 is also known to cause indirect cardiovascular mortality by sharing the

pressure load with the respiratory system or through inflammatory mediators
released into the blood stream by the lung (Bell et al. 2007). The cause of asthma
itself owes to chronic exposure to ambient air pollution in children. Studies done in
different areas with varying air quality is a better way to comprehensively conclude
this evidence. The combined effects of O3 and PM have also been studied in in
human and animal studies. Both the O3 and PM alone exert less adverse effects as
compared to their exposure together with respect to lung tissue injury (Bosson et al.
2007). Healthy adult exposed to SO2 or NO2 continuously also report to increase O3
absorption (Atkinson et al. 2001). These studies suggest that O3 increases the effect
to allergen challenge. However, the effect of pollen and mold spores along with O3
exposure in asthmatic subjects could not be established (Anderson et al. 1998).
O3 is also studied to be associated with a decrease in life span. Group studies
including individuals exposed to varied long-term concentrations of O3 are done to
access the mortality rate. These rates were found to be associated with cardiovascular
ailments (Pope et al. 2002). Thus, O3 have substantial additive consequences on
health in a synergic or antagonistic manner with many other environmental factors,
including pollutants, allergens or temperature. The rate of O3 synthesis increases in
hot temperature sustained for several days and leading to a higher rate of exposure to
both high temperature and O3 and thus higher mortality rate. These results are
suggested by two studies from Belgium (1994) and France (2003).
4.3 Mechanism of Methane’s Action on Human Body
Methane can either be inhaled near areas close to its emission sites or due to its
leakage from sever at our homes or it can be ingested in some rare events by eating
methane contaminated food. It displaces oxygen and suffocates the person, who
faces difficulty in breathing. When the oxygen level depletes, the person can become
numb and unaware which could be fatal in some cases. The oxygen stored in the
body fluid is then used by the body leading to dehydration.
4.3.1 Health Effects

Methane causes asphyxiation by displacing oxygen, a state which leads to lack of
oxygen and may be death. Its symptoms include headache, dizziness, rapid breath-
ing, clumsiness, emotional upsets, and fatigue. The low availability of oxygen
causes nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, and convulsions, which may cause the
body to collapse ultimately leading to death. In the year 1937 a methane gas
explosion in Texas caused the death of 300 students and faculty members. High
levels of methane can cause mood changes, slurred speech, vision problems, and
facial flushing. Lack of oxygen can permanently damage organs including the brain
and heart. In one incident a very short exposure of high concentration of methane in a
sealed room caused complete loss of consciousness in a person who was accidently
exposed to the gas (Jo et al. 2013). Other symptoms include heart palpitation causing
an abnormal and uncomfortable sensation of the heart that beats rapidly and out of
sequence. Methane exposure also causes lack of motor coordination. Even in the
most familiar surroundings, the person will not be able to judge and knock things
around. The low level of oxygen in the body gives rise to cognitive problems. The
person is unmindful, has memory loss and poor judgment. Some patients are also
reported to display flu-like symptoms. These symptoms aggravate, at higher expo-
sure. Epilepsy, pneumonia, memory loss, depression, claustrophobia, seizures, and
heart problems are all the symptoms associated with patients suffering from methane
poisoning. The effects of chronic exposure may last from months to years. This
symptom reduces, when the person moves away from the area that is high in
methane gas concentration.
Skin contact with liquefied gas causes frostbite causing itching, prickling or
numbness, and burning sensation and stiffness in severe cases. It may also lead to
blistering, tissue death, and infection. A direct contact with eye may freeze the eye
and cause permanent eye damage and even blindness.
However, the symptoms of methane poisoning are difficult to diagnose as they
are similar to many other medical conditions. There is no method to determine the
level of exposure and many times, they are mistaken for flu, chronic fatigue,
depression, and migraines. They are also not visible immediately after exposure.
In case of methane poisoning an immediate supply of oxygen using a life support
mask is required. The person may also have to be put on an intravenous drip in order
to avoid any further dehydration.
A bi product of methane is CO which in itself is deadly. If methane gas is burnt
and there is paucity of air, carbon monoxide will be produced. If produced in large
quantities, carbon monoxide can prove to be fatal for the person. Many of the
symptoms of CO are similar to methane poisoning including rapid heartbeat and
high blood pressure. CO attacks the central nervous system and my cause
hallucinations, illusions, and heightened emotions. Due to lack of controlled experi-
mental studies nothing can be said about the effect of methane exposure on
embryotoxicity, teratogenicity or reproductive toxicity. It is also not reported to be
mutagenic or carcinogenic. Furthermore, more elaborate studies are needed to
highlight the effect of methane on human health.
4.4 Mechanism of Action of Chloroflouro Carbons (CFC)
CFCs are primarily absorbed by inhalation, and to a lesser extent through ingestion
and through the skin. CFCs are preferentially stored in fat tissue. Almost all absorbed
CFCs are cleared from the body within 24 h. According to the reports of the New
Hampshire Department of Environmental Science and it directly affects the central
nervous system (CNS) when inhaled. The CNS is part of the nervous system
consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS integrates the received information
and coordinates the activities of all body parts. The result is the symptoms of alcohol
like intoxication, reduced coordination, lightheadedness, headaches, tremors, and
convulsions. Inhalation of very high concentrations can cause disturbances in heart
rhythm. Intentional sniffing of the vapors has caused some deaths, presumably from
disruption of heart rhythm. Laboratory animals exposed to high levels of CFCs have
not resulted in any observable adverse health effects. Exposure to high concentration
of CFCs could potentially cause asphyxiation, according to the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention.
Humans can come in contact with CFCs through ingestion or skin contact. After
dermal interaction with CFCs, some people might have skin irritation, or dermatitis.
According to the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Sciences, exposure
to pressurized CFCs, such as that from a refrigerant leak, can cause frostbite on the
skin. Ingestion of CFCs can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea or other upset to the
digestive tract. CFCs are also linked to impair the human immune system. These
problems might include difficulty breathing or injury to other organs including the
heart, kidneys, and liver. The University of Georgia also reports that overexposure to
the sun suppresses overall immune function or the skin’s natural defenses.
As we already know CFCs contribute to the loss of the protective ozone layer,
which blocks ultraviolet rays from the sun. This exposes more people to UV
radiation, which can cause skin cancer. According to a study in the USA, one in
five Americans develops skin cancer in his or her lifetime. Even if they do not
develop skin cancer, some individuals experience wrinkled, thick or leathery skin
from too much sun exposure (the University of Georgia). Additionally, increased
contact with ultraviolet rays because of the depletion of ozone layer can cause
cataracts, macular degeneration, and another eye damage. CFCs exposed to high
temperatures can degrade into more acutely toxic gases such as chlorine and
phosgene.
Research involving different animal species exposed to CFCs directly did not
show any evidence of carcinogenic effects other than skin cancer by ozone deple-
tion. Although the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has not yet
formally evaluated CFCs for their carcinogenic potential, the available studies are
not sufficient to infer the carcinogenic potential of CFCs. In a study of CFC12
inhalation exposure to guinea pigs liver damage effects were observed while an oral
dose of CFC-11 in laboratory animals, an increased mortality rate was reported.
Although the use of CFCs was phased out under an international agreement, “The
Montreal Protocol”, CFCs are still present in the environment because of their
former use in refrigerators, freezers, and air conditioners. Moreover, CFCs degrade
slowly in ground water, and thus may still be found as environmental contaminants.
4.5 Mechanism of Action of Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide directly targets the folate and methionine cycles in the body. Vitamin
B12 is a cofactor required by methionine synthetase to convert homocysteine to
methionine which plays a direct role in DNA synthesis. N2O oxidizes the cobalt
required for the activity of methionine synthetase enzyme and renders it inactive,
hindering DNA synthesis. It has the potential to cross placenta and thus effect both
the maternal and fetal metabolic cycles. It also synthesizes ROS adding up to genetic
stability and DNA damage (Fig. 5.3).
Fig. 5.3 Mechanism of action of nitrous oxide
Table 5.2 Human health Impaired DNA synthesis Megaloblastic anemia

effects of N2O
Neurotoxic
Immunosuppressive
Impaired wound healing
Teratogenicity
Hyper homocysteinemia Myocardial ischemia
Atherosclerosis
Endothelial dysfunction
Venous thrombosis
Misc Blindness
Cell apoptosis
4.5.1 Effect on Human Health

Human health effects due to the exposure of nitrous oxide have been mentioned in
Table 5.2. Nitrous oxide inhibits methionine synthase which is required for the
synthesis of methyl tetrahydrofolate (MTHF) in liver (Wronska-Nofer et al. 2012).
MTHF in turn is an essential component for the synthesis of choline synthesis, DNA
synthesis, and cellular reproduction (Nagele 2013). This inhibition leads to less
thymidine production impairing DNA synthesis and thus organogenesis. The activ-
ity of methionine synthetase is reduced to 50% within an exposure of a few hours,
while an exposure of 12–24 h gives rise to pernicious anemia where the body has a
deficiency of red blood cells (Amos and Hinds 1982). The population that is already
having other ailments or sickle cell anemia are more prone to these effects
(Ogundipe et al. 1999).
It is reported that blood plasma homocysteine levels are increased by the
mutations in MTHFR enzyme exhibiting metabolic changes leading to increased
coagulation, endothelial adhesion, and changes in vascular response (Myles et al.
2008). It is also shown to affect the cardiovascular system by causing endothelial
dysfunction and platelet aggregation (Badner et al. 2000). Of all the inhaled
anesthetics used in medical conditions N2O is also reported to be teratogenic in
animals (Mazze et al. 1984) causing abnormal fetal development and should be
avoided during pregnancy more specifically in subjects with hypertension,

pre-existing endothelial dysfunction and increased cardiovascular risk.
N2O exposure increases fetal reabsorption and many skeletal deformities along
with spontaneous abortions and decreased fertility rate (Vessey 1978). The anesthe-
sia is administered to compromise the host immune system by lowering the
components involved in host defense mechanism. Almost 40% of exposed patients
complain of post-operative nausea and vomiting. This also results in reduced wound
healing. N2O affects the immune system by reducing the migration of monocytes
and neutrophils at the site of infection and is known to inhibit the lymphatic system
and cell-mediated cytotoxicity (Moudgil et al. 1984). Its long-term exposure also
leads to a decrease in the number of white blood cells and granulocytes consistent
with the abnormalities in DNA synthesis and cell cycle in bone marrow (Parbrook
1967). Only six hours of N2O exposure lead to a decrease in cellular ATP,
compromising the viability and function of alveolar macrophage (Voisin et al. 1984).
The use of N2O as an anesthetic in dentistry makes dentist more prone to
exposure (Vallejo and Zakowski 2019), making it important for them to use effective
scavenging (Malamed and Clark 2003). Sometimes it is also reported to be abused as
a potential drug by doctors themselves. An acute exposure of 100% N2O inhalation
may lead to asphyxiation, cerebral hypoxemia, and even death. Its chronic exposure
may also cause peripheral myeloneuropathy or sometimes permanent neurological
disfunction. Its exposure is also linked to metabolic, genotoxic, and epigenetic
effects.
On the other hand, N2O also targets folate cycle which plays a role in de novo
thymidylate (dTMP) and purine synthesis (Misselbeck et al. 2017). This leads to
impairments which cause thymidine to uracil substitution error and thus DNA
damage and double strand break (Palmer et al. 2017). The effect is more pronounced
in case of low vitamin B12 or folate levels (Nagele et al. 2008). Its exposure can
generate reactive oxygen species leading to other mechanism of epigenetic
modifications, DNA damage, and even cell apoptosis (Fleming et al. 2017).
Rapidly growing brain cells experience cellular damage and cell death when
exposed to N2O combined with halogenated inhaled anesthetics (Savage and Ma
2014). It also leads to increased ROS production in neurons along with lipid
peroxidation, defects in mitochondrial function, apoptosis and degradation of
neurons, with long-term cognitive damage and delayed learning (Boscolo 2013). It
also disrupts the coordination between cerebral metabolism and blood circulation
increasing intracranial pressure. Patients with severe head injury or cerebral tumor
are not recommended for its use as a neuro anesthetic (Marie 2000) N2O acts as an
antagonist of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, elucidating its effects (Maze
and Fujinaga 2000). Blindness has also been observed in cases of vitreoretinal
surgery upon N2O exposure which leads to expansion of air space.
5 Complexities Assessing Impact of Greenhouse Gases

on Human Health
One of the biggest challenges during studying the impact of greenhouse gases on
human health includes the measuring of its impact on human health and this aspect
has multiple dimensions. The studies are either based on experimental or epidemio-
logical studies. These methods are then used to evaluate the effects of these gases
using different models over a particular area and interval to study the dose–response
or exposure–response relationship to interpret the impacts of these gases on human
health keeping in mind the measured effects. One of the serious limitations using
such study models is the confined places of monitoring sites or measured effects in
different countries. Other than this major problem there are a number of other factors
that play key roles and should be well-thought-out while inferring the results of these
studies to call for a significant effect. Some of these factors include the effects of
temperature, the behavior of these gases in the presence of other pollutants and a
combined effect on human health.
The second important question is the quantification of the measured impact on
human health. This quantification is extremely important for modifications in policy
making and demands significant assessments of population exposure and baseline
health data. Nonetheless, a lack of precise baseline health data in many countries
accounts for the number of aspects that limit the precise health evaluation. This could
miss important individual consequences of exposure, the difference in the assess-
ment based on acute and chronic effects and these factors together may affect the
understanding of epidemiological study results leading to ambiguous interpretations
with respect to the true exposure–response correlation.
Another problem includes the differences in the behavior of different human
populations to the same level of exposure. In this case a threshold which does not
affect a group of population will cause savior health impacts on a different popula-
tion. This is where it becomes important to access health impacts keeping different
cutoff for threshold when analyzing data.
For example, in case of health impact assessment for EU Clean Air for Europe
(CAFE) a threshold of 35 ppb was adopted (Commission of the European
Communities 2005), while the air entering Europe from the Atlantic frequently
comprises more than 35 ppb O3 concentration.
Estimates of population exposure to the greenhouse gases also vary among
different gases. These studies are done on the level of indoor or outdoor exposure
studies and may not satisfactorily exemplify individual exposure as most of the time
spent by population is indoors, with variable levels of greenhouse gases.
6 Control Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions to Protect

Human Health
It is extremely important to control and mitigate the amount of GHGs looking at the
diverse range of adverse health effects it causes along with global environmental
effects. There are multitude of policies already established with the vision to prevent
the environment in becoming a gas chamber. In this section we will discuss some of
the effects of these mitigation strategies on human health and the related potential
outcomes. Strategies including carbon capture and sequestration improve ground-
water availability and quality decreasing direct contaminant intake (Markandya et al.
2009). One of the direct results of reducing CO2 levels include reduced acidosis
maintaining the blood pH and thus normal functioning of heart, brain, kidney, and
respiratory system. Decreased fossil fuel combustion and increased production of
biofuels and employing more bio reusable methods for energy production like
hydroelectricity, wind turbines, and solar energy reduce a lot of pollutants directly
protecting many of the ailments linked to the respiratory tract infection including
asthma and cardiovascular conditions. Other strategies include capture of methane
emission and reduce ruminant livestock production helping reduce methane and O3
pollution. Animal dietary feed additives including probiotic interventions, supple-
mentary fats, and organic acids might also play a role in methane reduction in the
agriculture sector (Islam and Lee 2019). These prevent us from the risk of develop-
ing some cancer types along with reducing other generic issues including acute
respiratory symptoms. These might also decrease the incidents of O3 related
pre-mature deaths. Wisely using the active more of transportation or public trans-
portation help reduce GHG emission substantially reducing air pollutants and
directly reducing the risk of asthma, lung related problems, and hypertension
conditions (Remais et al. 2014). Many other less harmful gases are used as a
replacement for CFCs and should be preferred in the household as well as industry.
Reduced environmental CFCs decrease the risk of skin cancers, cataracts, muscular
degeneration, and eye damage. It may also help boost our immune system and
reduce the chances of cardiac arrythmia and asphyxiation. While N2O mitigation
by air quality monitoring and modelling and applying emission control strategies
might prevent bronchitis and damage to the respiratory tract mucous lining. All these
strategies in coalition with increased green space also affect the mental health of
many depressed individuals (Younger et al. 2008). Improving awareness about
reduction opportunities and promoting recognition of emission prevention, mitiga-
tion, and the positive health impacts is one of the most important strategies. Broad
adoption of the policies including modern technologies should be encouraged.
7 Conclusion
Most of the greenhouse gases target our respiratory system, making the lungs of
growing children more prone to their adverse health effects. We do not have
definitive answers to many questions regarding the effects of greenhouse gases
and their threshold. Also, because these parameters vary from population to popula-
tion and also each individual may respond differently depending upon their tolerance
and previous diseased state. Due to the constrain of limited studies done in the
regions including Asia, Africa, and Latin America where productions of greenhouse
gases are estimated to rise over the coming few decades, comparable valuations are
not available. In such zones higher greenhouse gas intensities are anticipated to
increase human exposure increasing mortality and morbidity rate.
WHO has ranked, the morbidity from all types of air pollution as one of the top
10 causes of disability (Murray et al. 1996). There are now hundreds of studies
reporting the effects of short- and long-term exposure from developed and develop-
ing countries to current air pollution intensities of particulate matter. They report the
death rates, medical visits and checkups, hospitalization, complications with breath-
ing and bronchitis, a range of heart ailments and lung damage in children and adults
(Link and Scott 2003). Strategies to alleviate GHG throughout the world would lead
to substantive and prompt solutions to the people living in urban areas. GHG
mitigation strategies confined for each region may provide significant public health
benefits from the undesirable impacts of GHG. The strategies to lower fossil fuel
combustion emissions should not be postponed, which would otherwise lead to
mortalities and health effects related to pollution. Health effects should be a major
source of inspiration during policy making and should not be overlooked. If the
adverse health effects along with their full economic and social impact become an
integral part of discussions of climate policy making, it would instigate
reconsidering the immediate ways of mitigating greenhouse gases, including
technologies that to reduce emission and replace the use of some gases.
Various sources of GHG emission include fossil fuel combustion for energy,
manufacturing activities, agricultural activities, and deforestation. An internationally
agreed software and methodology has been developed and updated by IPCC’s task
force, for accessing national level greenhouse gas emission and mitigation. The use
of this methodology is encouraged by all the countries that are a part of IPCC and
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). Other than
the efforts taken by the organizations it is very important for us to recognize the
health effects and be aware of the immediate actions we can take in order to avoid
exposure.
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Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gases
Emissions: Implications in Food Production 6
and Food Security
Harpreet Kaur
Abstract
Future food production is highly vulnerable to climate change with implications

for global food security. This effect is exacerbated by air pollution which further
impacts food production negatively. Most of the research on climate change
impacts on agriculture focuses on the role of temperature and precipitation.
However, anthropogenic climate change is a result of emissions of both long-
lived greenhouse gases (GHGs) and short-lived climate pollutants. Tropospheric
ozone, methane (GHGs), and black carbon are important short-lived climate
pollutants and important GHGs that impact yields of major food crops directly
or indirectly through climate. This chapter reviews the relationship between air
pollutants, climate change, and food security. Furthermore, the chapter focuses on
India where air pollution has become a major concern for health and food
production. The review reveals that there is a tremendous decrease in crop
productivities all around the world with significant contribution from ozone
pollution, especially in India. The wheat crop in the green revolution belt is
more impacted by air pollutants than climate change which is a concern for food
security at country as well as global scale.
Keywords
Food security · Short-lived climate pollutants · Crop production · Indo-Gangetic

plain · Crop residue burning
H. Kaur (*)
M2 Climate and Ecosystem Services, AgroParisTech-Institut, Paris, France
e-mail: harrpreet.ecology@gmail.com
Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_6
108 H. Kaur
1 Introduction
The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)—two aims at ending hunger, achieve

food security (FS), and improve nutrition by promoting sustainable agriculture. The
SDGs emphasize its time to rethink how our food is grown, shared, and consumed.
The focus now is to explore new opportunities along with the existing ones to make
agriculture and allied sectors more sustainable while ensuring production of nutri-
tious food for all as well as generating decent incomes while protecting the environ-
ment.1 The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) definition of FS encompasses
four key dimensions—availability, stability, access, and utilization. FS is defined as
‘situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and
economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’. The first dimension—
availability of the food relates to the ability of global farming systems to meet the
food demand. This includes the climatic conditions required for food production as
well as the range of socio-economic conditions and cultural factors that determine
the response of farmers to market. Climate change (CC) and air pollution directly
impact the production of agricultural products. A number of studies quantify the
agronomic yield change using AEZ tools or IIASA2 Basic Linked System economic
models for assessing the economic impacts of CC for both, with and without
adaptation scenarios (Fischer et al. 2002). The second dimension—stability relates
to the individuals who are a higher risk of losing their access to food or food
production. Climate variability exacerbated by input of radiative forcing air
pollutants is an important cause of unstable access. Access, the third dimension,
covers access of adequate resources for acquiring appropriate nutritious food. Food
prices and incomes are important element for this dimension of FS but are not just
limited to these two factors. Lastly, the utilization component incorporates food
safety and nutrition aspects which include availability of clean and sanitary
conditions across the entire food chain (Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007). Presence
of air pollutants influences this aspect differently for rural and urban environments
(Sun et al. 2017).
This chapter reviews the current state of food insecurity globally, CC, and air
pollution (with a focus on ozone) impacts on FS, and the importance of considering
short-lived climate pollutants (SLCP) or some of the GHGs like ozone (O3) and
methane (CH4) and the other pollutant, Black Carbon (BC) along with CC studies for
future food production studies.
1
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger.
2
Agro-ecological zone methodology by International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis.
6 Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gases Emissions: Implications in Food. . . 109
2 How Climate Change Influences Food Security?
According to FAO’s recent estimates, 9.2% of the world population (around 700 mil-
lion people) were faced severe levels of food insecurity in 2018 or even possibly
experienced hunger because of the quantities of food consumed. Looking beyond
severe extents of food insecurity reveals that an additional 17.2% (~1.3 billion
people) in the world, did not have regular access to nutritious and sufficient food
in the same year resulting in moderate levels of food insecurity. Combining the two,
a staggering number of 2 billion people have moderate to severe levels of food
insecurity—this is a little more than 1/4th of the global population. Figure 6.1a
shows SDG Indicator 2.1.2—prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the
population, based on the food insecurity experience scale (FIES)3 and Fig. 6.1b
shows the variation in the concentration and distribution of food insecure population
across different regions in the world. Most of the food insecure people live in South
Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa where a large number of people live in rural areas and
are poverty-stricken. These regions have extensive areas of low agricultural produc-
tivity, a steadily degrading resource base owing to pollution, and high climate risks
(Fig. 6.1b, FAO 2016).
CC has profound and direct impacts on agriculture and food systems (Brown and
Funk 2008). Lobell et al. (2008) analysed climate risks for crops in 12 food insecure
regions (mostly in Asia and Africa). The authors show that several crops important
to food insecure populations will suffer negative impacts. Increased temperatures
and changes in the precipitation patterns are likely to reduce yields of corn, wheat,
and rice in the next two decades. Therefore, to keep up with the anticipated increase
rise in population and incomes of the people, especially in the developing world, the
global food production needs to increase by 60–110% (Tiwari et al. 2013). Pugh
et al. (2016) show that 43, 28, 40% of the area under wheat, maize, and rice will be
located in climate—vulnerable area by the mid-century. This implies that the
attainable yields in these areas are projected to decline. Notably, the areas most
vulnerable to climate are not only located in the low-producing regions; crops grown
in these areas correspond to 43%, 33%, and 37% of the production of maize, wheat,
and rice, respectively, presently at global scale.
Food production is not only vulnerable to CC; air pollution too has important
implications on global FS (Tai et al. 2014). Regulation of tropospheric O3 produc-
tion has been identified as an important strategy to safeguard crop production besides
CC. Air pollution and global CC though usually studied separately are closely
related because the nature of energy production (primarily fossil fuel based) and
consumption patterns drive their release in to the atmosphere (Burney and
Ramanathan 2014; Shindell et al. 2017). Important win-win solutions can be derived
in terms for food production and human health when these are considered together
(Bollen et al. 2009). In terms of emissions of ammonia (NH3), nitrogen oxide (NOx),
and methane (CH4)—agriculture, forestry, and land use (AFOLU) are important
3
https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-02-01-02.pdf.
110 H. Kaur
Fig. 6.1 (a) SDG Indicator 2.1.2—prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity, based on
FIES, Source—FAO. (b) Region-wise concentration and distribution of food insecure population,
Source—FAO
sources. NH3, NOx, CH4 are not only important precursors of O3 formation, they
contribute significantly to CC.4 In the developed countries, environmental laws of
the mid-1990s concerning air and water pollution now mandate agricultural nutrient
management in order to control emission of precursors of GHGs and tropospheric O3
(Jacobson et al. 2002; Saxena et al. 2021).
4
ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter11.
2.1 Link Between GHGs, Air Quality, and Climate
WHO Director General at the first WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution called
air pollution a ‘silent public health emergency, causing approximately 7 million
premature deaths worldwide’. There are important health and ecosystem impacts of
SLCPs such as O3, CH4, and BC. BC is a component of Fine Particulate Matter that
is considered most harmful to human health, is also a primary driver of air pollutant
induced mortality (Sonwani et al. 2016, 2021; Sonwani and Kulshrestha 2018; Goel
et al. 2021). On the other hand, CH4 does not have any direct human health effects at
the ambient concentrations but it contributes to the formation of tropospheric O3. O3
not only affects human life by causing premature deaths because of respiratory
illnesses but also damages plants leading to crop losses worth USD 11–18 billion
each year (Avnery et al. 2011a, b). The special report by Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 C emphasizes that
though a speedy reduction in CO2 emissions is indispensable, it will not be sufficient
unless profound reductions in the emissions of non-CO2 climate forcers such as CH4
and BC are achieved. Reductions in CH4, BC, and tropospheric O3 are inextricably
linked to human and ecosystem health, development, and sustainability benefits.
Reducing these SLCPs not only limit global warming but also evade air pollution
related premature deaths, and loss of millions of tons of crops. This has important
positive implications on FS concerns and averts climate tipping points that worsen
long-term climate impacts. In the absence of reductions in both CO2 and SLCPs,
temperature increase is likely to exceed 1.5–2 C by mid-century making CC
adaptations harder to achieve (Shindell et al. 2017). For example—the phasing-out
of fossil fuel will help cut the release of CO2 and air pollutants, it will, however, not
be enough to improve the quality of air or climate as emissions from additional
sectors such as agriculture are significant.
2.1.1 Agriculture: A Source of Greenhouse Gases and Air Pollution

It is well established that agriculture has profound impacts on the environment in
almost all the regions of the world (Foley et al. 2005). These impacts are apparent
across various interlinked pathways such as land use land cover change, emission of
greenhouse gases (GHGs), excessive water consumption and pollution, biodiversity
loss, etc. (DeFries et al. 2004; Gibbs et al. 2010). Change in land management
practices, technological advancement, fewer crop failures, and use of high yielding
varieties have substantially accelerated the global crop production. In total, a 47%
rise in production of crops of all groups occurred during 1985 to 2005 of which
cereal and oil crops showed maximum increase (Smith et al. 2014; Mueller et al.
2012). Similarly, the number of animals reared for meat and dairy production has
increased up to 3.4 times the numbers in 1970 (FAOSTAT 2010).
However, this increase has come at a great cost of loss in ecosystem services
(other than provisioning) and biodiversity, environmental pollution, and ozone
depletion. Rockström et al. (2009) introduced a novel concept of Planetary
Boundaries (PBs) to estimate a ‘safe operating space’ for Earth’s key processes
that should not be transgressed to avoid unacceptable risks to humanity. Of the nine
identified boundaries of different scales and characteristics, agriculture and related
112 H. Kaur
activities have pushed at least four in the zone of insecurity; anthropogenic alteration
of biogeochemical cycles (nitrogen and phosphorous) being an important one. This
disservice has arisen from maximization of provisioning services via conventional
agricultural intensification (Steffen et al. 2015; Campbell et al. 2017). It is also
crucial to consider the nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) cycles in regional and
global climate impacts that are not only gravely affected by human activities, their
responses are non-linear as well (Arneth et al. 2010). For instance—a single
nitrogen-containing molecule can have a series of impacts on the environment.
This is because reactive nitrogen (Nr) can very easily move among the different
mediums of air, soil, and water. Galloway (1998) defined the N cascade as ‘the
sequential transfer of Nr through environmental systems and which results in
environmental changes as Nr moves through or is temporarily stored with each
system’. 50% of the Nr applied to agricultural fields gets incorporated in the crops to
be used by humans or as animal feed. The rest ‘leaks’ to the atmosphere as N2O,
NH3, NO, NO2, denitrified to N2, or enters the hydrosphere via leaching.
According to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, AFOLU is responsible for 1/4th
of the total GHG emissions and a rise in these emissions is anticipated with the
increasing demands of meat products in the developing world. NH3 released from
the use of Nr in fertilized lands and animal rearing is accountable for 75% of the
global emissions (Fao 2016). In the atmosphere, NH3 forms secondary particulate
matter (PM) by reacting with acidic species such as SO2, NOx, to form ammonium-
containing aerosols, constituting a major fraction of PM2.5 aerosols in the atmo-
sphere (reference). PM is considered more lethal than other air pollutants because of
its role in degrading air quality and visibility as well as changing the atmospheric
radiative balance. Agriculture is viewed as the primary culprit for NH3 pollution in
the USA and Europe. Nonetheless, traffic and industrial emissions are important
NH3 sources in the urban environments (Erisman et al. 2008; Wang 2007).
It is important to note that emissions related to agriculture do not only occur
during the crop cultivation cycle, emissions take place across the food supply chain
as well—processing, distribution, and consumption. While the focus of air pollutant
formation in routine farming practices has been well documented (Stehfest and
Bouwman 2006), limited attention on the ancillary emissions via agro-input
industries, transportation, often lead to underestimation of agriculture related
emissions. Nonetheless, various life cycle assessment studies and modelling studies
focussing on the role of food trade in disturbing nitrogen and phosphorous cycles on
large spatial scales attempt to fill this important research gap.
Agriculture, in turn, is adversely affected by air pollution. Toxic air pollutants
such as tropospheric O3, heavy metals, sulphates, nitrates via diffusion, wet and dry
deposition influence the plant biochemistry and often times accumulate in the food
chain harming plants and animals (Nagajyoti et al. 2010; Rai et al. 2010; Uprety
and Saxena 2021). GHG emissions such as CH4 and N2O, besides affecting the crop
productivities via O3 formations in the lower atmosphere, alter the distribution and
behaviour of species influencing the productivity of agricultural fields in the long
term (Ren et al. 2011; Lobell and Gourdji 2012). A large number of field
experiments have proved that NOx, O3, SO2, and PM obstruct photosynthesis or
change the plant organizational structure and function (Rai et al. 2010; Saxena et al.
2017). There are some indirect effects of air pollution that warrant attention, for
example—a 10 ppb decrease in atmospheric O3 increases the productivity of agri-
cultural worker by 4.2% (Graff Zivin and Neidell 2012). Most of the existing
literature mainly connects the volatility in domestic food price to unpredictable
weather shocks, fossil fuel and hence energy prices, international food market, and
governmental policies (Mueller et al. 2012). Sun et al. (2017) examined the effect of
air pollution on demand and supply of food articles and concluded that higher air
pollution has the potential to decrease the prices of perishable food items at least in
the short term. However, there is a paucity of studies establishing connections
between the effects of air pollution and food volatility.
3 Role of SLCP and Greenhouse Gas (Ozone and Black

Carbon) Emissions in Food Production
Production of ozone in the troposphere via catalytic reactions of carbon monoxide,

NOx, and non-methane volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight.
Besides having a deleterious effect on the human health, O3 causes substantial
damages to vegetation including grasslands and crops (Ainsworth et al. 2012;
Mauzerall and Wang 2001). O3 increases the susceptibility of plants to diseases,
reduces growth and reproductive capacity, increases senescence, and reduces crop
yields. O3 creates odd-oxygen species on penetration through stomata that oxidizes
plant tissues, altering gene expression causing changes in the metabolic activities by
impairing degrading proteins and chlorophyll and impairing photosynthesis (Booker
et al. 2009). A number of large scale experiments done by National Crop Loss
Assessment Network (NCLAN) in the USA in the 1980s and under the European
Open-Top Chamber Programme (EOTC) in the 1990s reveal that substantial losses
in crop production occur due to ambient O3 concentrations (Mauzerall and Wang
2001). Even though large scale experiments comparable to the programmes in the
USA and Europe have not been conducted in countries of the developing world—
small scale field experiments and modelling studies have documented the potential
risks of O3 pollution (Wang and Mauzerall 2006; Agrawal et al. 2003; Rai et al.
2010).
O3, therefore, among various air pollutants has been considered to be particularly
damaging to crops (Ainsworth et al. 2012) generating crop losses amounting to US
$11–18 billion in the year 2000 alone (Avnery et al. 2011a). Nonetheless, peak O3
concentrations in North America and Europe are declining due to reduction in the
precursor emissions (Ashmore 2005). Owing to a rapid expansion of economy and
anthropogenic activities, there is an increased emission of O3 precursors in the
developing countries. Rising emissions of these precursors is also important for
the global FS as some of these precursors are long-lived and can be transported
between countries (Fiore et al. 2009). Studies examining the statistical historical
relationship between ozone precursor emissions and crop yields are largely missing
(Burney and Ramanathan 2014). Several authors have nonetheless, used chemical
114 H. Kaur
transport models to simulate atmospheric ozone concentrations. The modelled O3

concentrations can then applied concentration–response (CR) relationships derived
from field experiments to estimate crop yield loss caused by ozone exposure. The
following studies present such examples.
Rita et al. (2009) estimated O3-induced reductions in the crop yield for present
and near future for the crops such as wheat, maize, and rice on the global scale. They
used CR functions obtained from various field studies and simulated O3 precursor
emissions for the year 2000 and 2030. In this study, 2030 is assumed as the
optimistic ‘current legislative scenarios’ under which the air quality legislation that
are presently approved would be fully implemented. The present-day global crop
yield loss as calculated by Rita et al. (2009) are significant for wheat and soy crops at
12% and 16%, respectively. These losses are small for O3 tolerant rice and maize
(3–5%). The yield loss reduction increases only marginally under the optimistic
2030 scenario for developed nations; however, significant losses occur primarily in
the developing nations where the emission regulations are completely absent or
lenient.
Avnery et al. (2011a, b) estimate the crop production loss worldwide to be
79–121 million metric tons (MT) of wheat, maize, and soybean combined. They
illustrated the loss in crop production with the seasonal distribution of O3. The
growing season of maize and soybean in the northern hemisphere overlaps with the
highest summer O3 concentrations in Northern America and the EU. Similarly, O3
exposure is highest during the wheat growing season in central Brazil, eastern India
along with Bangladesh, and Middle East. This explains the crop loss figures for
wheat (21–93 MT), 58% of the total losses, maize (13–32 MT)—15%, and soybean
(15–26 MT)—27%, amounting to huge economic losses faced by the USA, followed
by China, and India. In total, these three countries together account for 59% of the
global economic crop damage—primarily due to O3.
3.1 Considering O3 with Temperature Extremes Under CC
As discussed in the Sect. 1, CC through temperature extremes have detrimental

effects on the crop yields, therefore, ozone regulation and adaptation along with CC
adaptation have been proposed as important factors for future food production.
However, the effectiveness of the different climate and ozone adaptation measures
remains largely an open question as the efficacy of such strategies will depend on the
varieties of crops grown and the co-evolution of air quality with the regional climate
(Tai and Martin 2017).
Tai and Martin (2017) developed a Partial Derivative-Linear Regression Model to
incorporate temperature extremes in the estimation of spatial variability of the
sensitivity of crop yield to O3 exposure following the two IPCC Representative
Concentration Pathways (RCPs)—RCP 8.5 and RCP 4.5. The RCP 8.5 for 2050
relative to 2000 represents a business-as-usual pathway following a universal
increase in the O3 concentration except in the USA. RCP 4.5, on the other hand, is
an intermediate pathway in which there is a global decrease in the O3 concentration
due to control on release of O3 precursors (with exception of South Asia). There is a

worldwide warming of 4 C and increase in O3 concentrations in RCP 8.5 scenario
leading to a decrease in the wheat production by 13% in the USA and 8.9% in
Europe. Reduction in maize and soy crop yields, however, are more affected by
temperature increase. In the RCP 4.5 pathway, there is a worldwide decrease in the
surface O3 concentration (except for Africa and India) and worldwide warming of
3 C, generating very different trends for wheat production. While US registers an
increase in the wheat production by 17% due to reduced O3, the effects of reduced
O3 are counterbalanced by increase in the temperatures leading to no statistically
significant change in wheat production. Nonetheless, the model predicts a decrease
in maize and soybean production in the USA and Europe due to elevated
temperatures.
There is a dearth of large scale experimentation on O3 impacts on crop yields
outside the USA and Europe. Most modelling studies utilize CR functions that do
not typically account for the variability in temperature, nutrient, and water availabil-
ity over large geographical areas—factors that can modify crop responses to O3. O3
regulation, however, plays a significant role in alleviating warming-induced losses in
crop production such that it is important to investigate the interplay between O3,
CO2, crop physiology, and biochemistry to arrive at conclusive results. For example,
higher CO2 can act as a modulating factor in O3 impacts due to strong coupling
between CO2 uptake, photosynthesis, and stomatal opening. Elevated CO2 is
expected to reduce the flux-based risk of O3 damage to leaves due to reduced
stomatal conductance (Klingberg et al. 2011).
As for BC, its impact on radiation and crop growth are straightforward. Being an
absorbing aerosol, it is considered as a climate warming agent. It reduces both direct
and diffused light available to plants thereby lowering their yields. The effects of BC
are difficult to isolate as it is co-emitted with organic carbon by open biomass
burning, indoor biomass combustion for cooking and heating, and fossil fuel com-
bustion (Forster et al. 2007) or it mixes with other scattering aerosols in the
atmosphere to create particles of varying radiative properties. Auffhammer et al.
(2006) estimate the impact of Atmospheric Black Clouds (BC is an important
constituent) on rice harvest, 3.94% during 1966–1984 and 10.6% during
1985–1998. This reduction in rice production is higher when combined effect of
atmospheric black clouds and GHGs are considered and a simultaneous reduction of
both factors can benefit rice farmers. The authors point out that it is difficult to
project if such complimentarily occurs in the reduction of yields of other crops. This
is because of limited understanding of impacts of atmospheric black clouds on the
regional climate. Also, the climate sensitivity of crops varies with regions.
Reductions in the emission of O3 precursors and GHGs have multiple benefits
besides food production and security. These chemical species are closely related as
their occurrence in the atmosphere is largely influenced by fuels and technology used
for energy production and the pattern of their consumption (Bollen et al. 2009). In an
analysis based on practical reduction measures for BC and CH4, Shindell et al.
(2012) showed that ‘win-win’ benefits appear for near-term CC, human heath,
agriculture, and cryosphere. However, the magnitude of these benefits vary strongly
116 H. Kaur
across regions. For example, the measures targeting CH4 emissions cover coal
mining, gas production, and municipal waste management including emissions
from landfills and waste water, livestock manure management, and rice paddies—
technological measures usually target BC formation via incomplete combustion, and
regulatory measures include banning agricultural wastes. The authors argue that
these measures can substantially offset the rise in global mean temperatures over the
next few decades via reduction in concentration of tropospheric O3, CH4, and
BC. These chemical species allow for a rapid climate response because of their
short atmospheric lifetime in contrast to CO2 emission reductions which has a longer
atmospheric life span. Such measures have important manifestation for crop produc-
tion in India, China, Pakistan, and Brazil. The measures related to CH4 lead to global
climate and agricultural gains compared to BC which has more human health related
consequences. Nonetheless, regulated BC emissions reduce regional hydrological
cycle disruptions and cryosphere melting in the Artic and Himalayas that improve
regional agricultural yields.
4 Food Security, Food Production, and Air Pollution:

Scenario in India
Achieving food security is one of the most pressing issues for the fast growing Indian
economy and rightly so as more than one-third of the population is absolutely poor
and one-half of all the children face malnourishment in one way or the other. The
concerns surrounding food security span from the viewpoint of food production
including vulnerabilities from climate change, air pollution, land use change dynam-
ics, etc. to national policies defining the distribution and access of the agriculture
produce including international treaties such as WTO, making food security a
multifaceted matter. Discussing all the contributing factors is out of this chapter’s
context, therefore, the following section discusses the food production aspect of food
security, how it is impacted by air pollution and influence of crop production on air
quality.
4.1 Performance of India in Terms of Food Availability
After independence, India was a food deficit country for almost two decades and
only became largely self-sufficient after the green revolution (GR). GR resulted in a
tremendous increase in the production of food grain crops, especially food grains
that played an important role in the Indian food security scenario. The production of
food grains increased from about 50 million tons in 1950–1951 to around 280 million
tons in 2017–2018 (Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare
Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare Government of India 2017–2018). The
production of oilseeds, cotton, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables, and milk production
also increased substantially during this time period. Production of wheat benefited
the most from the Green Revolution which almost tripled in the next three-four
decades and had an important role to play in the reduction of India’s food insecure
status (Fao 2016). However, despite this, the Global Hunger Index ranks India 55th
out of 120 countries and India’s food security status situation is termed ‘alarming’.
In a period of two decades, from 1990 to 2010, Gross Domestic Product as well as
per capita income in India grew at 7 and 5% annually, respectively. India, however,
registered only a marginal decrease in the percentage of undernourished people—
from 210.1 million in the year 1990 compared to 194.6 million in 2014, failing to
meet the Millennium Development Goal of halving the number of people suffering
from hunger. Global Hunger Index (2014) puts 12 Indian states under ‘alarming’
category. The number of underweight children is significantly high in the states of
Bihar (43.9%), Andhra Pradesh (31.9%, and Madhya Pradesh (42.8%) (National
family Health Survey Reports 2015–16) with 12 states falling under ‘alarming’
category in terms of malnourishment.
Even though India has maintained a satisfactory level of food production since
the GR, wheat and rice yields have begun to decline in some Indian states, counter-
ing decades of crop yield increments led by technological innovations (Lin and
Huybers 2012). Decline in soil health, loss of biodiversity, reduction in the avail-
ability of fresh water, climate change, and air pollution are jeopardizing the
country’s food security scenario. There is little scope for a horizontal expansion of
cultivation because of rising conflict between development, agriculture, and biodi-
versity conservation. 114–145 million ha of land is considered ‘degraded’ in India.
Imbalanced fertilization, crop residue burning, excessive tillage, poor irrigation and
water management are some of the most common reasons for decline in agricultural
soils around the country. For example, intensive farming of rice and wheat has
created imbalances in the soil chemistry. Almost 20 million tons of nitrogen,
phosphorous, and potassium (NPK) is removed from soils by growing crops.
However, the addition of organic and inorganic fertilizers does not suffice for the
removed nutrients such that the gap between addition and removal of NPK nutrients
is 8–10 million tons (Tandon 2004).
Air pollution, though primarily considered an important threat to human well-
being, is also recognized as one of the most important threats to the future food
production. Pollutants in the air such as O3, BC, sulphur dioxide, interfere with the
physiology and biochemistry of plants to an extent that it causes yield losses. This
occurs via various pathways—reduction in the amounts of photosynthetic pigments,
changes in metabolic activities, inhibition of various physiological processes, etc.
(Agrawal et al. 2003; Agrawal 2005; Biswas et al. 2008). The following section
elaborates on the role of air pollutants primarily O3 and BC on the yields of
important crops such as wheat and rice in India, mostly in the Indo-Gangetic Plain
(IGP). Both O3 and BC have a warming effect and have an important role to play in
regional and global climate change. IGP is vital to India’s food security because of
its role in the supply of staple food grains to not only in India but also globally. India
banned rice exports during the 2007–2008 food crisis, starting a cascade of export
bans by various nations, setting off food riots. India exported huge quantities of rice
(4.4. million tons) and wheat (6 million tons of wheat) in the year 2006; India’s
impact on the global food security can be gauged from these figures (Burney and
118 H. Kaur
Ramanathan 2014). Owing to tremendous increase in air pollution in India, it is

imperative to study the extent of impacts on crop production.
4.2 Air Pollution Status in India
There has been a progressive increase in the air pollution in the developing countries.
Rapid and unplanned urbanization, increase in the number of motor vehicles, use of
low quality fuels, poor road maintenance, and ineffective environmental regulations
are a few of the many contributing factors to this problem. The progressive degrada-
tion of air is not only an important risk to health but has also become an economic
drag for the country. The welfare loss from air pollution is almost 6% of the GDP.
The air quality has been progressively deteriorating since 1990 such that only
one-third of Indian cities were able to meet the national standard for annual concen-
tration of PM2.5—40 μg/m3. In total, 97% of the Indian population in 2017 was
estimated to be exposed to unhealthy levels of respiratory PM. High levels of air
pollution are pervasive in the highly populated IGP such that 15 out of the 20 most
polluted cities are in India and most of them are in IGP (Hindu 2019). There is a
dramatic build-up of pollutants every year before monsoon which is commonly
referred to as Atmospheric Brown Clouds, the high aerosol optical density retrievals
show persistence of haze pollution over this area. This clearly points not only to the
emissions of air pollutants from megacities such as Delhi in IGP but also from
activities at country level such as biomass burning and domestic fires (Singh and
Kaskaoutis 2014). In comparison with other megacities in the world, Delhi along
with other big cities in IGP, the contribution of BC to PM2.5 is higher (Beekmann
et al. 2015). Daily averages of PM2.5 concentrations typically fall in the range
100–200 μg/m3 and reaches to 1000 μg/m3 occasionally; WHO safety guidelines
for PM2.5 is 25 μg/m3/24 h. Extensive use of biofuels for domestic purposes and crop
residue burning post-harvest are important sources of BC for mega cities in IGP as
well as the entire South Asian region. In Delhi, there is a strong seasonal pattern to
PM2.5 pollution, a distinctive maximum for PM2.5, organic carbon and BC can be
seen in autumn, followed by prominent levels in winter (the kharif crop season with
important implications on crop productivity—discussed later in the chapter), and
spring concentrations. The yearly minima for PM2.5 and BC can be observed during
summer months followed by monsoons. Also, contemporary signatures of C-14
based BC show that significant amount of BC is contributed by biomass burning
(Bikkina et al. 2019).
4.2.1 Biomass Burning in Northern Indian States

The air pollution in India especially in the northern states which form the Green
Revolution belt has become a regular top story in national and international news.
There has been an increase in the particulate matter levels in air by 42% in the last
two decades. Air pollution was considered as the greatest risk to human health before
the COVID-19 crisis (WHO). In post-monsoon months, the air quality in Delhi
deteriorates to hazardous category. Not only this, in the last few years, the Air
Fig. 6.2 (a) Rice crop residue left on the field after harvest of the crop (b) A farmer setting fire to
the rice residue
Quality Index was reported to have consistently hit the maximum of 999—exposure
to such polluted air is parallel to smoking almost two packs of cigarettes a day. No
wonder, Delhi and surrounding areas have been repeatedly referred to as a ‘gas
chamber’. Such low, in fact, toxic air quality not only has adverse health effects.
India ranks only second to China in the number of premature deaths (approximately
600,000 annually) attributed to outdoor air pollution. Moreover, air pollution
damages property, crop yields, etc. The World Bank (2017) reported that the welfare
losses from air pollution have increased by 7% in India annually since 2013. There
are numerous combustion emissions from multiple sources—solid fuel use at house-
hold level, coal-fired power plants, burning of agricultural residues, and industrial
and transportation-related sources. Biomass burning has become an important con-
cern in the National Capital Region (NCR) of Delhi which is severely affected by the
crop waste burning in the neighbouring states of Punjab and Haryana (Jethva et al.
2018; Kaskaoutis et al. 2014). The carbonaceous particles generated from biomass
burning in these states are distributed downstream over the Indo-Gangetic plain.
This leads to formation of a severe haze even post-monsoon with record high levels
of PM2.5 concentrations.
Fires from residue burning, peak twice annually during pre-monsoon (April to
May) and post-monsoon (October to November). This corresponds to the burning
after wheat and rice harvests respectively. The north-west states of Punjab and
Haryana have seen a tremendous increase in crop yields as well area under agricul-
ture (Jethva et al. 2018, see Box 6.1). The root-bound crop residue left behind after
mechanized harvesting of wheat and rice is difficult to remove; burning of this
biomass is considered to be the fastest and cheapest way to clear the agricultural
fields for the next cropping season (Gadde et al. 2009; Vadrevu et al. 2011; Kumar
et al. 2015) (Fig. 6.2). Kumar et al. (2015) report that almost 7–8 billion tons of rice
crop residue is burned post-monsoon each year in the state of Punjab itself. The
residues generated form wheat and rice biomass burning release accumulation mode
aerosols that contribute to the PM2.5 fraction and such agricultural activities can
significantly contribute to emission inventories not only at regional scales but also at
national and global geographic scales (Hays et al. 2005).
120 H. Kaur
Bikkina et al. (2019) used air mass back-trajectory cluster analysis to comprehend
the contribution of biomass burning to BC concentration over Delhi. The authors
show that air masses over Delhi are substantially influenced from the north-western
IGP sector Delhi during winter (90–100%), autumn (~80%), and spring (~70–80%).
The synoptic meteorology during early-autumn and late-spring favours the transport
of BC-laden air masses from these regions to Delhi. Biomass—BC has a more
marked effect in the autumn/winter months due to a relatively lower atmospheric
boundary layer (~300 m) and the prevailing north-eastern monsoon. Conversely, the
biomass burning has less influence on pollution status in Delhi because of the
seasonal reversal of winds and a higher boundary layer height (>1 km) (Tiwari
et al. 2013). This explains why wheat residue burning has less impact over the
pollution levels in Delhi compared to rice residue burning in autumn months.
4.3 Temporal Evolution of Food Crop Production and Vegetation

Index in North India and Its Relation to Air Pollution
Satellite imagery shows an increase in the leaf area of vegetation that is strikingly
prominent in India and China. Eighty-two percent of this greening in the Indian
sub-continent has been primarily due to croplands with a minor contribution of 4.4%
from forests. Increase in leaf area (2000–2017) could be due to direct effects of land
use management as well as indirect factors such as climate change, carbon dioxide
fertilization, etc. (Chen et al. 2019). Jethva et al. (2018) show a marked increase in
the pre-harvest normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) for the year 2016 in
north-western states on India compared to 2002. There has been a marked greenness
of the crop fields that relates to the increased crop productivity in this region. An
increase in crop yield also means an increase in the amount crop residue produced.
Figure 6.3 shows an increase in NDVI in the time period 2002–2016 and a similar
increase in fire incidences during the same time period. This can also be attributed to
an increased cropping intensity. The rice and wheat varieties used traditionally had
longer growth cycles and therefore wheat-rice rotation was possible only in some
areas. With the availability of short duration, photoperiod non-sensitive rice
varieties, it became easier for the farmers to grow these cereals in each Kharif–
Rabi season on the same piece of land. A high yielding rice variety needs 120–130
days (June–July to October–November) which is then followed by a high yielding
110–120 days’ wheat crop (November–December to March–April). Farmers in
north-western India traditionally burn the residues left in the fields in order to clear
and prepare the fields for the next cropping season. However, now an increase in the
amount of crop residue generated not only in per hectare but also on a larger area.
Since rice is a water-intensive crop, the rice cultivation can legally begin only around
monsoons in order to prevent diversion of scarce water resources. Therefore, the
almost overlapping time periods of rice harvesting and wheat sowing leaves a small
time window for the farmers to get rid of the rice straw. The amount of straw
generated per cropping cycle is also high. This largely depends on the crop type,
environmental factors, and harvesting practices. A comprehensive evaluation of
Fig. 6.3 Increase in the NDVI for the states of Haryana and Punjab and an increase in the fire
counts from 2002 to 2016 (above). A Gaussian fit of the number of fire counts observed post-harvest
in Haryana and Punjab (below)
residue burning in Indian north-western states with policy implications is presented

by Kumar et al. (2015). Gupta et al. (2004) estimated that for every 4 tons of rice or
wheat grain produced about 6 tons of residue straw is generated which equates to a
residue to crop production (RCR) ratio of 1.5. Regardless of the RCR estimates,
significant amount of straw is produced per cultivation cycle. On an average,
15 million tons of paddy straw is generated of which 8–9 million tons is set on fire
in open fields (Mukerjee 2016; Kumar et al. 2015). Number of peak fires also
increased in the time period 2002–2016. An increasing trend of ~6 μg/m3 (4%) is
estimated over the same time period adding up to 60%. From 2009 to 2016, the mean
value of PM2.5 was calculated to be 28% higher than 2002 to 2009-time period. This
is found to be consistent with the increase in fire counts (almost 30%) over the crop
burning region in north-west India (Jethva et al. 2018). The high levels of smog
created by this activity of such a large geographical scale along other sources of air
pollution, the crop yields are taking a serious hit. The incidences of floods and
droughts have increased in the bread-basket IGP primarily triggered by climate
122 H. Kaur
change, high levels of air pollution, that too, coinciding with the peak crop growth
periods is posing a threat to food production.
Box 6.1 Agricultural Growth in Punjab and Haryana: The Two Main
Green Revolution States
India has been one of the primary beneficiaries of the Green Revolution
(GR) which aimed at promoting high-yielding varieties of rice and wheat.
Over the past 50 years, rice and wheat production tripled in the country such
these cereals contribute three-quarters of the total cereal production in the
country (44% and 30% respectively) (International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics 2015). The increased production has also been
translated to their increased consumption in India. Rice and wheat comprise
much of the per capita calorie consumption—60% in urban and 70% in rural
households (DeFries et al. 2018).
The Green Revolution states Punjab, Haryana, and parts of Uttar Pradesh
produce almost 95% of all the food grains which goes out of these states to the
central pool of the country to deed the food deficit areas through public
distribution system. Agriculture in this GR zone is characterised as the base
of the food security in the country by being the pillar of the public distribution
systems. In the state of Punjab itself food grain production undertook a big
leap from 3.16 million tons in 1960–1961 to 28.35 million tons in 2011–2012
(Kumar et al. 2015). This process also led to homogenisation of cereal
production. For example, in the monsoon months for the years between
1966 to 2011, the total cropped area for monsoon cereals remained constant
but the area harvested for rice increased by 7.3 Mha, an increase from 52% to
67% and productivity increased from 1186 kg/ha to 3741 kg/ha. In the same
time period, the area under wheat crop increased from 1.61 Mha to 3.51 Mha
and productivity from 1544 to 4898 kg/ha (International Crops Research
Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics 2015).
GR brought about the arrival of new high yielding varieties for wheat, rice,
maize and millets along with a suite of other inputs such as agro-chemicals
such as fertilizers and pesticides, farm mechanization, and irrigation. During
the first decade of implementation of GR, the technology was limited to wheat.
The subsequent decade from mid-70s to mid-80s, the new seed-fertilizer
technology of GR was extended to rice crop as well. These trends—higher
yields of rice and wheat as compared to other crops and the input and output
price structure led to homogenization of wheat-rice cereal production in GR
states to wheat and rice. There is a stark difference in the farm management
structure in GR states compared to rest of the country—crop intensity is 188%
as opposed to 138% in rest of the country, NPK fertilizer consumption is
244 kg/ha in comparison to India’s average of 144 kg/ha, 97% of total
production is irrigation-based, and high yielding varieties are used for 95%
(continued)
Box 6.1 (continued)

of the total cereal production (International Crops Research Institute for the
Semi-Arid Tropics 2015; Kumar et al. 2015; Davis et al. 2019).
The growth story of cereal production in the bread-basket of India is
accompanied by grave environmental concerns as well. These range from
excessive extraction of ground water, pollution of water bodies, increased
salinity of soil, decreased agricultural diversity to a seasonal spike in the air
pollution in the Indo-Gangetic Plain from biomass burning in the fields.
4.4 Crop Yield Losses Due to Climate Change and Air Pollution
The impacts of ozone pollution on percentage decrees in wheat and rice crop yield
productivity with respective field studies or models have been mentioned in
Table 6.1. The problem of climate change is probably the most complex problem
of the twenty-first century. It is an important threat to the agricultural activities
around the world and has important implications on the food security keeping in
mind that there will be 9 billion people on earth by the turn of the century. An overall
increase in the temperature by 1–4 C is indicated for India along with high
variability in rainfall over different regions. In a study conducted by Rai et al.
(2010) to assess the vulnerability of Indian districts to climate change, variables
that determine the exposure of a district to climate change—increase in drought
incidences, increase in minimum temperature, and decrease in rainfall during the
monsoon onset months of June and July, emerged as important factors. Considering
the continued rise in population in India, more food will be needed to feed the
population. Current agricultural practices are severely stressing the natural resource
base; it is estimated that the Indian natural resources are 3–5 times more under
pressure compared to the rest of the world. There is a rapid decline in soil health—a
huge fraction of soils in the GR agricultural belt are considered unproductive, over
Table 6.1 Studies estimating the impacts of O3 pollution on wheat and rice crop yield productivity
using field studies or models. The percentage values are percentage decrease in the yields due to O3
exposure
Study Method Wheat (%) Rice (%)
Rita et al. (2009) TM5 global model 28 8
Avnery et al. (2011a, b) MOZART-2 global model 30 –
Debaje (2014) Observations 21 –
Ghude et al. (2013) WRF-Chem model 5 2
Sinha et al. (2015) Observations 18–27 12–14
Lal et al. (2017) Observations 15 16
Sharma et al. (2019) WRF-Chem model 16 11
124 H. Kaur
Fig. 6.4 (a) States representing over 85% of wheat production. (b) Aerosol optical depth at 550 nm
coinciding with the wheat harvest months of March, April, and May. (c) 24 h average surface ozone
mixing ratio (ppbv) during the same months. Source: Burney and Ramanathan (2014)
extraction of underground aquifers, loss of biodiversity as well as rising air pollu-

tion, all exacerbate the food security issue (Paroda et al. 2018).
Research has established that Indian agriculture is already negatively impacted by
the current climate change trends, reducing relative yields by several percent
(Auffhammer et al. 2012). Temperature and precipitation will continue to impact
the crop yields in India, however, these two variables play only a partial role in
India’s changing crop yields. Human-induced climate change is a consequence of
both long-lived greenhouse gases (LLGHGs) as well as SLCPs (short-lived climate
pollutants). O3 and BC—the two important SLCPs impact crop yields by directly
altering the crop physiology or indirectly through climate. These SLCPs are a matter
of concern as their concentration has risen phenomenally in India over the past few
decades. A dramatic build-up of BC and O3 occurs along with other pollutants over
the IGP every year before the onset of monsoon. Figures 6.4 and 6.5 show IGP with
high O3 surface concentration in the wheat and rice growing areas belonging to IGP.
It is therefore, imperative to understand the specific role of SLCPs to assess the
overall impact on food security not only by climate change but also air quality.
Fig. 6.5 (a) States representing over 80% of rice production. (b) Aerosol optical depth at 550 nm
coinciding with the rice harvest months of August, September, and October. (c) 24 h average
surface ozone mixing ratio (ppbv) during the same months. Source: Burney and Ramanathan (2014)
A number of studies exist that quantify the impacts of O3 on crops individually by

using intensive fields based measurements or modelling studies (references from
Sharma et al. 2019). Nonetheless, the quantification of impacts of O3 and BC is
complicated. There is a paucity of near surface O3 and BC concentration data over
the Indian sub-continent. Because of a lack of long-term records of O3 and BC, the
best proxy is the emission inventory of aerosol and O3 precursors. Emissions of O3
precursors, namely NMVOCs and NOx are rising in India, however, the ratios of
these vary dramatically over different regions country (Burney and Ramanathan
2014). Moreover, BC is co-emitted with other aerosol precursors and there’s a
mixing with other species as well. Also, the non-linear nature of tropospheric O3
formation and difference between the availability of NOX over urban and rural
environments, leaves a lot of speculation in the estimates. A large uncertainty exists
in the crop yield loss estimates for India in the scientific literature. There is a
difference up to 30% between different estimates using global and regional models
(Sharma et al. 2019).
126 H. Kaur
The IGP has elevated levels of O3 (40–60 ppbv) which can be attributed to heavy
pollution loading, intense solar radiations, and less precipitation (Ojha et al. 2012).
Conversely, O3 mixing ratios are found to be below 45 ppbv along most of the IGP
during the rabi period. This is because (a) there is less solar radiation during these
months and (b) there are stronger emissions of NOx which result in lowering of O3
(Kumar et al. 2012). This has important implication on the wheat productivity
because of two main reasons. First, the period pf high O3 concentration coincides
with wheat’s growing period. Second, wheat has been shown to be more sensitive to
O3 concentrations than rice in chamber experiments. Burney and Ramanathan
(2014) estimated the impacts of both LLGHs and SLCPs simultaneously on wheat
and rice yields. Important findings were
1. Wheat yields over IGP were 36% lower in the year 2010 for climate and SLCPs
emission
2. In case of rice, yields were 20% lower compared to yields in minus climate and
SLCP emissions trends
3. 90% of relative yield change can be attributed to SLCPs for wheat as against
trends in temperature and precipitation. This implies that the relative change in
yields for wheat may be lower bound for the climate given that irrigation
mitigates the impacts of increased temperature through soil moisture to some
extent.
The results of this study become more important for air pollution impacts when
seen from state-wise perspective. Most significant effects for both wheat and rice
occur on the states of Uttar Pradesh (UP) and Uttaranchal (Fig. 6.6). Over one-third
of India’s wheat and one-fourth of rice is produced in UP which is also the most
populous state if the country. SLCP emissions-led decrease in wheat yields is up to
50% compared to no climate and pollution scenarios. UP, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh—the primary wheat-producing
states in India have large negative SLCP impacts. On the other hand, Punjab and
Haryana show little to no impact of either SLCPs or climate (statistically insignifi-
cant at 90%) but have greater uncertainties compared to other states, and across
alternative models specifications (Burney and Ramanathan 2014). Similarly, Sharma
et al. (2019) estimate that relative yield loss is between 15 and 30% in IGP with
higher values in the eastern part (Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh) compared to
western (Haryana, Punjab). However, crop damages due to O3 were shown to be
higher (tons/model grid area) for Punjab and Haryana.
In case of rice, the overall impacts of climate and pollution impacts are lower.
Also the state-wise variation is less compared to wheat. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu are two least polluted (air) states in India and show relatively higher climate
impacts. These two states have also featured significant increase in the growing
season temperatures. IGP zone—marked for its high air pollution exhibits a decrease
of 15% in relative crop yield due to SLCPs. Haryana and Punjab as well show a
similar pattern in case of rice, this was, however, not true for wheat for these two
states. As discussed in Box 6.1, Punjab and Haryana are the most technologically
Fig. 6.6 Relative yield of crops resulting from changes in temperature and precipitation (climate)
and ozone and BC (SLCPs) for wheat (above) and rice (below). Source—Burney and Ramanathan
(2014)
advanced states for agricultural production in India. Not only do they have highest
yields and highest yield gains over the last few decades, the crop yield gaps are the
lowest not only in India but also in the world. The seasonal changes in the production
of O3 due to the presence of precursors can likely explain the difference between
SLCPs sensitivity for both crops (Burney and Ramanathan 2014).
These results could, however, be skewed as meso-scale transport of pollutants
occurs by winds which will also suggest the policy on local and transported
pollutants. Most importantly, Burney and Ramanathan (2014) along with other O3
impacts studies demand a more detailed and widespread surface O3 and SLCP
monitoring network that can be used in modeling studies. This would help in a
comprehensive analysis of correlation between local emissions, local tropospheric
O3 formation, and direct/diffuse radiation.
The above discussed studies clearly highlight that there is a significant impact on
the crop yields from air pollutants such as SLCPs. The wheat-producing states such
128 H. Kaur
as UP is especially hit hard and the rice producing states in other parts of IGP have
also been negatively impacted. The yields loss for wheat is almost 24 million tons of
wheat with an economic value of $5 billion which can be attributed to SLCPs.
Therefore, mitigation of SLCP emissions in India will have important implication on
domestic and global food security.
5 Conclusion
The chapter presents a review of the impact of air pollution, GHGs, and CC on
FS. Air pollution and CC though closely related are studied in isolation in the context
of food production. Very few studies combine impacts of SLCPs as well LLGHGs to
study future impacts on crop yields. Controlling the emissions of SLCPs such as
CH4 and O3 is not only important for slowing the projected global warming by 0.5

C over the next 25 years, it has many benefits—both direct and indirect towards
achieving SDGs. Improvement in crop yields resulting from reduction in air pollu-
tion has the potential to negate expected CC—related yield losses. This is appealing
as curtailing SLCP will produce immediate results capable of counteracting impacts
of CC and sea-level rise that are locked in from the historical emissions of LLGHGs
and SLCPs. It is expected that farmers will opt for crop varieties that are resilient to
pollution stress and even alter management practices to help minimize the losses; air
pollution mitigation, particularly of O3 precursors, will play a significant role in
future global FS. In case of India, a tremendous improvement in the air quality is
required to maintain the crop yields in regions of GR belt where the yield gap
between actual yield and yield potential is low and to improve the yields in other
parts of the country. Biomass burning is an important seasonal contributor to air
pollution which also coincides with the peak cultivation season for wheat and rice,
therefore, effective policies are needed to deter farmers from burning their crop
residue. Also, crop residue management should be given prime importance. This
chapter primarily focuses on ozone and black carbon and climate change for wheat
and rice, impact of other pollutants in comparison with and addition to climate
change should be made to get obtain a clearer picture of crop yield reductions.
Nonetheless, the review reveals that lack of reliable data for air pollutants especially
ozone is an important deterrent in analysing the impacts.
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Optimization of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Through Simulation Modeling: Analysis 7
and Interpretation
Saraswati
Abstract
This chapter presents a brief review on the computational model used for the
simulation and optimization of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) for the abatement of
climate change. The description of different types of model is given which are
used for the simulation of GHGs to address the climate change. The detailed and
extensive descriptions of the physical processes of climate change have been
explained by a more sophisticated tool like general circulation model which are
tested directly or indirectly through back-casting of historical climate data. These
models are grounded theoretically and empirically with physical laws. These
models are described to clear the significant uncertainties about the transportation
of the greenhouse gases (GHGs) pollutants through the atmosphere and the effect
of GHGs on the rainfall, sea level, atmospheric and oceanic temperature. The
multi-equation computer models like integrated assessment models (IAMs) are
also described for addressing climate change to evaluate the profits and cost of
climate strategy options. These models answered the question like how we can
avoid global warming at a lower cost. The different models are described in detail
in the chapter which are used for the simulation of GHGs for curtailing the
climate change. These models are addressing the need of transformation in the
energy system, adoption of new technology like low-carbon technology, different
scenario analyses and economic approaches for reducing the GHGs emissions in
the atmosphere.
Keywords
Climate change · Emissions · Models · Simulation · Optimization
Saraswati (*)
Environmental and Water Resource Engineering Division, IIT Madras, Chennai, India
e-mail: ydv.srs@gmail.com
Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_7
136 Saraswati
1 Introduction
The gases are known as greenhouse gases (GHGs) which trap heat in the atmo-
sphere. The increased concentrations of GHGs recently are mainly because of
anthropogenic activities involving industrialization, fossil fuel burning, energy pro-
duction, application of nitrogen fertilizers in farming and deforestation etc. GHGs
are essential for the living of human being on the earth. The average temperature of
15 C on surface of Earth is due to the heat retention capacity of GHGs which makes
the earth habitable. The increasing concentration of these gases results in more
warming, which leads to rapid climate change (Quaghebeur et al. 2015). The
fundamental gases as highlighted by the Kyoto protocol are nitrous oxide (N2O),
methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O), and hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs). These gases results in the global warming and climate change by virtue of
“greenhouse effect” and make it cause of concern worldwide (Li et al. 2016; Smit
et al. 2014; Uprety and Saxena 2021).
The increase in the amount of greenhouse gases results in massive, entitling,
non-linear, eventually abrupt, and inevitable changes in physical and biological
systems (Dong et al. 2019; Mitchell 2009). The social and economic stability and
climate change are interrelated which is making it a subject of intellectual interest
from many years. The global warming is in progress as witnessed by the scientific
community for the last 20 years that lead to climate change which will negatively
affect the humankind. The warming of the climate system in the last 100 years is a
growing concern (Hare 2012). The emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) continue
to grow rapidly even after 20 years of international attention. The threshold of
natural variability is going to exceed by modern climate change. The changes in
the atmospheric composition are mainly due to human activities (Karl and Trenberth
2003). The emissions linked with use of energy, modernization, and changes in land
use are the predominant causes of atmospheric disruption. The magnitude, vogue,
and source contribution of greenhouse gas emission is highly uncertain. The human
being has to take some stringent control measures to reduce GHGs emissions in the
future.
There are critical uncertainties present related to the transportation of the green-
house gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere and influence on the sea level, rainfall,
oceanic, and atmospheric temperature. The uncertainties can be reduced with the
measurements of these gases, which represent the occurrence of the multitude of
emission processes, vigorous and pertinacious gradient in the local atmosphere and
contribute a significant part of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions
(Mitchell et al. 1995). The changes in the earth’s climates have occurred in the
past and will occur in the future for sure. The counterbalance of increasing GHGs is
necessary to hinder anthropogenic intrusion with the earth’s climate system. The
earth’s climate is always changing, the diversification depends on the place and time
which are minute in some places while disastrous at other places. There are compli-
cated natural changes happened in the past in the earth’s climates as evidenced by
paleoclimatic specimens. The global climate has been altering owing to anthropo-
genic activities and noticeably tends to varying even more speedily. The expedition
7 Optimization of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Through Simulation Modeling:. . . 137
of the processes due to human activities results in huge concern in the issues
pertinent to climate change and variation (Peterson 2006). The theory and dynamical
model associated with climate change should be mainly used to determine the
climate predictability. As the climate is always variable, questions like how large
the future changes will be and where and how rapidly they will occur are the main
focus of scientific research (Hassler and Krusell 2012). The atmospheric
measurements and models can be used for the characterization and quantification
of greenhouse gas fluxes. The model simulations with observations can be compared
by taking into account all familiar constrain and there is also a need to put together
the quality-controlled data of the parameters which are sensitive to climate change.
The reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emanation can be accomplished through
development and implementation of policies which result in the improvement of the
air quality and also leads to efficient use of energy and resources (Ray and Grannis
2015). The evaluation of probable future emission scenarios can be done using clear
and distinct high-tech fiscal models by policymakers for assessment of environmen-
tal and monetary burden of ongoing or projected emission goals and protocols. The
abatement of climate change can be done by considering the available mitigation
option through comparison of input and output in different suitable models and
exploration of the originator which contributes to the noticed changes (Edenhofer
et al. 2006) which are explained in many studies focusing on model comparison
(Kohler et al. 2006; Morrison et al. 2015; Tavoni et al. 2015). The long-term climate
curtailment can be achieved by evaluating the current scope of different energy
models and examination of pathways to reach there. The explication of the scenario
of particular sets of technology and resource options can be done by models for
mitigation of GHGs which can help in policymaking. The variety of queries
answered by models can be determined by the framework and approach of a
model. This review paper is written for defining the different type of models used
for the simulation and optimization of GHGs by addressing climate change.
2 Need for Climate Modeling
The actions regarding climate change can be taken with two approaches: adaptation
and mitigation approach. The meticulous previsions of future climate variation and
changes, which can be due to human activities or natural in origin, are necessary for
the adaptation of society to the climate change. The perspective of adaptation
outlines are normally of the order of years to decades and may depend upon other
non-climate factors (Mercure et al. 2018). The questions such as the level at which
CO2 concentration must be settled to abstain perilous climate change, the
decussating of thresholds in the system which may provoke fiasco are difficult to
answer (Nordhaus 2013). The question raised by the society cannot be answered by
developing a refined theory as there is an interaction of different disciplines like
atmospheric physics, oceanography and ecosystems science. The alliance among
different components of the biospheric system and their responses could be under-
stood by discerning historical events and processes. The information gained from
138 Saraswati
these observations articulates the foundation of the model buildup, on which future
climate anticipation can be done.
The predictions can be made with the arithmetical models of the climate system
which imitate the considerable actions and their interactions, rather unrefined but
practical solution (Akhtar 2011). The observations are interpreted by physically
based modeling through conceptual understanding of GHGs, preeminence surveil-
lance of the climate system over time. The fluid flow Navier–Stokes equations which
are derived from physical laws are solved by Climate models while predictive
models worked on the basis of fitting of complex functions to data. The prediction
of climate change cannot be made on the basis of empirical approaches as the
computation outside the historical training period could not be made by such models.
The computational techniques have to be used for the solving of equations. There are
three classes of models explained below.
2.1 Energy Balance Models (EBMs)
The mathematical statements for global or hemispheric low quantities are solved by
these notably low-order models. The large ensembles can also be formed by these
models. The hypotheses about techniques can be tested by these models which also
help in proximate the results of sophisticated models. The regional scale profile
cannot be provided by these models. Södergren et al. (2018) investigated the
non-linear interactions between surface albedo, water vapor and cloud cover fraction
feedbacks and effect of these feedbacks on changes in temperatures by a newly
developed EBM. The ice–albedo feedback, evapotranspiration, and greenhouse
warming effects were also investigated by a new energy balance model (EBM) as
observed by Dortmans et al. (2019).
2.2 Earth System Models of Intermediate Complexity (EMICs)
These models are cheap enough for providing large ensembles, though are complex
and more computationally expensive (Stott and Forest 2007). The formulations of
these models have been done through the application of coarse numerical grid by
reducing the dimensionality of the atmosphere and ocean from three spatial to two
spatial scales. They interconnect the extremely sophisticated global climate model
(GCM) to energy balance models (EBMs). The sensitive analysis method can be
used to recognize the most sensitive parameters that control the simulations of
several important parameters of global water and energy cycle as illustrated by
LOVECLIM which is an Earth system model of intermediate complexity (EMIC)
as reported by (Shi et al. 2019)
2.3 Global Climate Models or Global/General Circulation Models

(GCMs)
These models are the most complicated and the most computationally expensive
(Huebener et al. 2007) which resolved the three-dimensional flow of the ocean and
atmosphere in the optimum grid and also included unresolved sub-grid-scale pro-
cesses. The assemblage with tens to hundreds of representatives can be produced by
employing standard supercomputer resources (Murphy et al. 2007). The highly
novel computing techniques have been used for producing much larger ensembles
(Frame et al. 2007). Regional scale predictions and prediction for exotic variables
such as extreme precipitation can be made with the help of these models only.
3 Energy Models
These models provided the results related to the requirement of transformation in the
energy systems. These models explain the need of potency amelioration in trucks,
cars and low or zero-carbon electricity and fuels, buildings of end-uses, aggressive
following of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs), demand curtailment and large
reductions of non-energy GHG emissions. The benefit of direct economic cost and
generation of net saving are also suggested by these types of studies. These studies
also explicate about the large indirect macroeconomic benefits which may be due to
the switch in occupation and financial venture which result in larger fiscal returns
than prevalent energy expenditures. The ideal markets, impeccable competition, and
zero execution costs are some of the presumptions of these models (Yeh et al. 2016).
These models do not specify the ways of achievement of the transformative changes.
The comprehensive optimization of building can be done with urban building energy
models. (Happle et al. 2018) reported that the attitude of the inhabitant largely
determined the energy demand of buildings. The different urban building energy
models used worldwide particularly in terms of their inhabitant behavior modeling
approaches are given in Table 7.1. The space heating and cooling in residential
buildings result in substantial amount of GHGs emissions (Naber et al. 2017).
Various models are used for examining the potentiality of mitigation policies in
increasing energy efficiency in the building stock (Table 7.2). The different energy
models are given below.
3.1 Scenario-Based Stock-Turnover Model
The perception of modelers decides the assumption of rate and type of technology
and use of resources in this model which is both back-cast and forecast based. The
database of technology stock can be calculated by these models which occasionally
also calculate the cost derive from technology lifetime and pace of retirement. These
models are suitable for answering the “what if” questioning like what will be the
impact with the adoption of these technologies (Yeh et al. 2016). The higher degree
140 Saraswati
Table 7.1 Urban building energy modeling studies that use deterministic space-based, stochastic
space-based, and stochastic person-based approaches (Happle et al. 2018)
No. Tool used Inhabitant behavior Reference
1 UMI Presence, lighting, appliance, and HVAC use (Reinhart et al.
2013)
2 CEA Presence, lighting, appliance, and HVAC use, hot (Fonseca et al. 2016)
water use
3 TEASER Presence, lighting, and appliance use (Remmen et al.
2018)
4 CITYBES Occupant presence, lighting, appliance, and (Chen et al. 2017)
HVAC use
5 DiDeProm Presence, lighting, and appliance use (Kazas et al. 2017)
6 TEASER Presence, lighting, and appliance use (Schiefelbein et al.
2015)
5 SOB Presence, lighting, appliance, HVAC, and window (An et al. 2017)
operation
Table 7.2 Models for individual building, district or municipality building and national building
stock assessment (Naber et al. 2017)
Building type Model type Country Reference
Individual building Optimization and Finland (Hasan et al. 2008)
simulation model
Optimization and United (Jin and Overend 2012)
simulation model Kingdom
Optimization and Sweden (Olofsson and Mahlia
simulation model 2012)
District or Bottom-up engineering Switzerland (Heeren et al. 2013)
municipality building model
Bottom-up engineering Germany (Erhorn-Kluttig et al.
model 2013)
Bottom-up statistical Netherland (Mastrucci et al. 2014)
model
National building Bottom-up simulation Canada (Aydinalp-Koksal and
model Ugursal 2008)
Hybrid model USA (Zhou et al. 2014)
Bottom-up statistical France (Charlier and Risch 2012)
model
of clarity and traceability related to presumption and effect of these postulates on the
outcomes makes these models answerable to these types of questions. The main
limitation of these models is that they may rely too much on expert’s postulation
related to technology insertion rates. E3's PATHWAYS and CALGAPS are
scenario-based models used by researchers in California (Greenblatt 2015; Mahone
et al. 2015).
3.2 Bottom-Up Optimization Model
The overall cost of the system decides the technology expenditure optimization in a
bottom-up optimization model. The minimization of overall costs of the system with
the fixed energy services demands and maximization of social welfare with the
responsive energy services demands relative to changes in prices is the result of this
model. The model presupposes ideal circumspection and accomplishes investment
totally based on the costs of technology and resources from the outlook of a single
decision maker. This model is suitable for asking the question: what are the minimal
worth technology and capital option for achieving a policy goal, mainly for those
that manifest trade-off between different areas. One of the drawbacks of this type of
model is that real-world choices usually contain markets, which are not exhibited in
these models. The choices of consumer are rarely made totally on costs alone, as
significant heterogeneity exists in demand and preferences of consumer (Train 1986;
Yeh et al. 2016). The decisions of consumer are generally dominated by comfort,
cognition with technologies, imperil approach, or market impediment (e.g. lack of
apprehension) (Gillingham and Palmer 2013) which are mostly lacking in optimiza-
tion framework.
3.3 The Macroeconomic Models
The consolidated time range and provincial (panel) data are the basis for statistical
estimation methods which helps in construction of macro-econometric model. The
economy inclusive wealth allotment, fabrication and computation of income
checked by government, wealth vendor, and other business associates are some of
the forecasting strengths of this model. The macroeconomic models such as com-
putable general equilibrium (CGE) models elucidate direct and indirect economy-
wide impacts of technology, utilization, servicing, and revenue with the acquisition
of counterfeit technologies and assets whereas other models’ emphasis especially on
piles of low-carbon technologies and their head-on costs (Yeh et al. 2016). The
queries related to income growth, drudgery trade, GDP impacts, economy response
at the sectoral level can be answered by these models. But, these models are unclear
in connection with the effects of particular technology drive or varieties.
3.4 Economic-Dispatch Production Simulation Model
The optimization of functioning order at very high temporal resolution for the
electric sector is done by an economic-dispatch production simulation model. This
is done with the functioning and authenticity limitation within an area’s generation
fleet, transmission system and for the supplying of electricity demand at the lowest
cost (Yeh et al. 2016). The impact of changes in electric sector can be comprehended
with the help of this model for taking the decision related to operation, expedition,
storage, and investment. The electricity demands, inclusive of total demand as well
142 Saraswati
as hourly and seasonal demand patterns, need to be exogenously predicted, which is

a drawback of this model as there is a lack of system outlook outside of the electricity
sector. The probable shifts in demand level like increased electricity demand due to
increased adoption of electric vehicles, demand reduction in response to higher
prices, time of use due to demand response policies or EV charging behavior, or
interactions with the other sectors cannot be anticipated or estimated. These types of
interactivity can be managed through scenario analyses and approximated and
recapitulated with other economy-wide models.
4 General Circulation Models (GCMs)
The anthropogenic activities will keep on altering the composition of atmosphere all
through the twenty first century. The prediction of climatic consequences of the
increasing GHGs concentration in the atmosphere is a big question in front of the
scientific community, which can be solved by the most sophisticated tools known as
general circulation models (GCM). The enhanced global warming and linked cli-
mate disruptions over the next century have been predicted by the numerical climate
experiments recently, but their results are highly dependent on model projections.
The fluid dynamics and thermodynamics is the basis of general circulation model
which described the atmosphere and ocean in a specific way. The past, present, and
future meteorological conditions of climatic system along with global ocean circu-
lation can be studied by GCMs (Stute et al. 2001). The study done by (Nashwan and
Shahid 2020) proposed a framework for the selection of GCMs. They have done
selection of GCMs on the basis of their capability to recreate the spatial patterns for
various climate parameters. Sa’adi et al. (2020) has used the past-performance and
envelope approaches in combination for the selection of GCMs and observed
increase in temperature in the Borneo Island. The CMIP5 is a General circulation
model (GCMs) which has given projection of increase in temperature of global
surface by 2–5 ºC between 2000 to 2100 due to human activities. (Scafetta 2016)
reported that these projections are used as justification for the use of expensive
mitigation policies for the reduction of GHGs exudations. The General Circulation
Model (GCM) is mostly used when dealing especially with global climate change.
The atmospheric and oceanic movements along with many other chemical and
biological factors are accounted by the general circulation model for weather
forecasting as well as for understanding and predicting the climate change. The
one example of GCMs models is given below.
4.1 Coupled Atmosphere–Ocean Climate Model (CNRM)
The influence of rising quantities of greenhouse gases and aerosols on the simulated
water cycle can be studied by running a time-dependent climate change experimen-
tation by using the coupled atmosphere–ocean Climate Model (CNRM). The atmo-
spheric trace gases concentration, oceanic temperature and salinity profiles are the
different parameters which are used for the simulation. First the simulation has been
done for the concentrations observed in 1950s. Then the simulation has been
performed for 150 years by taking a 20-year spin up. The simulated climate has
been observed for two-time frame of 30 years, i.e. 1970–2000 and 2070–2100. The
reasonable simulation has been achieved by the model for the present-day climate.
The simulation for the twenty first century represents increase in precipitation. The
water vapor cycling rate and the precipitation efficacy are the two crucial attributes
which effect the precipitation as observed from the simulation results (Douville et al.
2002).
5 Global Climate Model
The complicated interrelations between the climatic system, environment and human
activities can be understood with the development and uses of scenarios by the
scientific community. These scenarios are considered for the probable depiction of
the future state of socioeconomic, technological, and environmental conditions, the
emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols, and the climate. The development of
model based scenarios can be done with the use of sequential process for utilizing in
climate change research (Moss et al. 2010). The physical climate system can be
understood with the help of global climate model. (Dosio and Panitz 2016) has
projected an ensemble of climate change for Africa by comparing simulations of four
global climate models (GCMs) in a coordinated regional climate downscaling
experiment (CORDEX). The investigation of temporal variation of GCM uncer-
tainty is necessary for taking long-term decisions for dealing with climate change as
observed by (Dosio and Panitz 2016). It was observed that the fundamental behavior
of the physical processes that run the climate is captured by the climate model at
various resolutions. The main focus of these models is only on natural systems, but
the socio-economic systems which are affected by natural systems, are not
represented by these models.
6 Integrated Assessment Modeling
The socio economic and biophysical systems can be combined with the application
of extrapolated trends or frameworks to run the climate model. But the existing
dynamic feedbacks can be disregarded with such approach. The gaps can be bridged
by establishing an integrated assessment modeling approach inside a simulation
scenario of system dynamics.
6.1 Need for Integrated Modeling
The global climate change will affect the society and the economy; the tackling of
global climate change by taking adoption measures will result in a considerable
144 Saraswati
economic burden. The inflation in emanation of greenhouse gases is approximated

that it will exceed one-half of total global emissions by the end of one hundred years.
The integrated assessment modeling gives a user friendly framework for assembling
knowledge from a vast extent of area which make it as a powerful mechanism for
increasing the interaction amid these groups (Ackerman et al. 2009). The
geo-physical and economic stocks are integrated in most of the economic studies
of climate change which also include integrated assessment Model (IAMs). The
economic measures in the integrated modeling not only include the quantities but
also valuations. Economic activities are converted into monetized values utilizing a
prevalent entity of account and then to correlate various approaches by their percus-
sion on total values or a suite of values in the economic analysis. While dealing with
climate change through economic approaches, the following questions have been
posed. How sharply the country reduced the emissions, what is the time frame of the
emission reduction, the distribution of reductions across industries and countries.
The cost of curtailing climate change versus the casualty of expeditious climate
change is observed in economic analysis of climate change. The countries must
concede whether and how much reduction of GHGs can be done for the cost of
delaying climate change. The costly steps are mostly required for reducing the GHGs
emissions (Nordhaus 2013). The reduction in the fossil fuels consumption, use of
different formulation techniques, practice of alternative fuels and energy sources are
some of the steps which can be taken for reducing GHGs emission. The parts of the
economy which are shielded from the climate like air-conditioned houses and most
fabricating processes are little impaired straightly by climate change as suggested by
economic studies. However, the unmanaged, mostly natural ecosystems, like as rain
fed agriculture, seasonal snow-packs, and river run-offs may be significantly
affected.
6.2 Integrated Assessment Model
The different facets of climate change can be considered in isolation. The socio-
economic sector of climate change can be combined with the scientific prospect of
climate change by some researchers for alternative strategy assessment under
extrapolated climatic conditions. Such models are known as integrated assessment
models (IAMs) (Tavoni et al. 2015). The concepts that assimilate information from
two or more discipline into a single structure can be defined by integrated assessment
models (IAMs). These models are sometimes theoretically explained but
characterized mainly as computerized dynamic models with varying levels of com-
plexity (Kelly and Kolstad 1999). This broadly define an integrated assessment
model, as any model that incorporates scientific and socio-economic prospect of
climate change predominantly for the intention of evaluating alternative strategy for
climate change control (van Vuuren et al. 2006). The integrated assessment models
can be used for illustration of mitigation strategy into climate consequences and
interpretation of global climate targets into regional liabilities and also conveys the
timing of emissions curtailment. The “when” and “where” questions can be
contended with these models which are the main elements of climate policy
considerations.
The suggestion given by the international climate agreements and regional
climate action can be quantified with integrated assessment models (Rogelj et al.
2013). The suggestions for achievement of climate objectives in an integrated and
rigorous framework can be investigated with integrated assessment models (IAMs)
(McCollum et al. 2011). The interactions amid land-use, energy, economic, and
climate systems can be accounted with these types of numerical models. The inter-
temporal objective function can be maximized and a set of equilibrium can be
simulated with some models which are differing in the sectoral, technological, and
economic portrayal. The global long run scenarios (Kriegler et al. 2013) for a domain
or countries generated by models can help in making climate and energy policies and
also explicates long-term climate objectives into potential medium-term course of
actions (Pachauri et al. 2013). Weyant et al. (1995) described three objectives of this
models (1) Climate change containment strategy assessment (Computation of super-
lative climate strategy), (2) Identification of causes behind climate change by
discerning the sensitivity of the climate change to a particular sector and also
structured multiple ambit of the climate change issues into the same structure, and
(3) The quantification of relative significance of climate change in the subject of
other environmental and non-environmental issues faced by humankind.
IAMs can be divided into two types of models—policy evaluation model also
known as simulation model and policy optimization model (Weyant et al. 1995). The
paths of important variables are generated by Policy evaluation model which is also
known as equilibrium model. But it does not optimize an economic result. The
alternative paths or policies can be evaluated by using Policy optimization model
having an objective function which is a measure of economic welfare. The different
policies can be compared with policy evaluation models while optimization models
can be carried out in a non-policy way. The policy evaluation models are usually
easy to solve computationally than optimization models. Lists of the important and
widely used IAMs are mentioned below.
6.2.1 The Asian-Pacific Integrated Model (AIM)

The scenario analyses of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can be done dedicatedly
by the Asian-Pacific Integrated Model (AIM) which is an Asia-Pacific regional
model. This model also predicts the impact of global warming. This model is
basically developed to investigate the global warming picture in the Asian-Pacific
region, later eventually be associated with global model to produce global projec-
tion. The greenhouse gas emissions, the global climate change, and the climate
change impact model are important part of AIM model which is “top-down and
bottom-up” model (Matsuoka et al. 2001). The time horizon included in AIM model
is from 1990 to 2100. There are nine regions which are part of AIM model: South
and East Asia, the Middle East, China and Central Planned Asia, Africa, Central and
South America, USA, Western Europe OECD and Canada, Pacific OECD, Eastern
Europe and Former Soviet Union. A general equilibrium model (Asian-Pacific
integrated model/computable general equilibrium) and a spatial land-use allocation
146 Saraswati
model (Asian-Pacific integrated model/platform for land use and environmental

model) was used for estimating the maximum bio-energy potential under environ-
mental protection policies (biodiversity and soil protection) and societal transforma-
tion measures from demand and supply side (Wu et al. 2019). The research
framework of this study is shown in Fig. 7.1.
6.2.2 Dynamic Integrated Model of Climate and the Economy (DICE)

This is a dynamic integrated model of climate change developed by William
Nordhaus in which choices are made by producer and consumer amid current
consumption, staking in profitable capital and lowering emissions to restrict climate
change (Nordhaus 2018). The stabilized population and output eventually yielded,
which are otherwise evidently pretended to downgrade asymptotically to zero
(Parson et al. 1997). The Cobb–Douglas production function is present that interpo-
late devastation from climate change where individual user overestimate the reduced
value of serviceability of consumption. This model requires energy in production
which is produced by use of technologies and energy sources. Renewable energy is
used instead of fossil fuel, due to which the tariff per unit of energy come to be high
priced while the carbon emanation per unit of energy decline. The carbon-free
technologies have been used varying from energy saving to renewable energy
formation. It represents the use of carbon-free fuel which is defined as “backstop”
technology which removed carbon from the atmosphere by using zero-carbon
energy technology. The windmills, solar power, and carbon eating trees are some
of the defined technology. The backstop price is expected to be initially large and to
reduce over time with the use of carbon-saving technology.
Fig. 7.1 Research framework (Wu et al. 2019)

6.2.3 Feedback-Rich Energy-Economy Model (FREE)

This model is a dynamic, disequilibrium model developed by (Fiddaman 1998)
which is used for single region. The learning curves, economies of scale, and
embodiment of technology and energy intensity attributes in capital stocks are
some of the features of this model (Fig. 7.2). The structure of the FREE model is
endogenous which epitomize the global energy-economy system and global bio
geo-physical processes. The economy structure is owned from DICE model while
energy systems and energy-economy coupling of FREE are derived from the
Sterman model (Rye and Jackson 2018). The different parameters like genesis of
economic outcome, endowment, energy supply and demand, reduction, and energy
technology advancement are firmly linked to one another (Fiddaman 2002). The
endogenous carbon and energy tax policies are some features of this model which
are not common in the IAMs. The non-energy based exudation like CO2 and
radiative forcing from other GHGs are exogenously treated in this model.
6.2.4 Integrated Climate Assessment Model (ICAM)

The interactions among various parts of atmospheric, economic, and demographic
components along with energy resources was understood and explored by the
development of this model (Tavoni et al. 2015). The ICAM model subdivides the
whole globe into 17 regions, where each region has its own population, economy,
and strategies for reciprocating to climate change (Dowlatabadi and Morgan
1993a, b; Lave and Dowlatabadi 1993). The insufficient number of negative feed-
back loops results in prediction which go beyond possible results in the case of
Fig. 7.2 A schematic of FREE model (Fiddaman 1998)

148 Saraswati
system dynamics based long-range model. The adaptive agents present in the ICAM
easily handled these types of issues.
6.2.5 Integrated Model to Assess the Greenhouse Effect (IMAGE)

The integrated model to assess the greenhouse effect (IMAGE) was formed by Jan
Rotmans in the connection of land-use changes and their effect on the bio geochem-
ical cycles. This is one of the first unified models of climate change which is the
result of Rotmans’ determination and skill. In this model, emissions, climatic
outcomes, sea-level rise, and the calculations of energy are present within a solitary
framework. Integrated model for the assessment of the greenhouse effect (IMAGE)
model used for the assessment of factors which control GHGs emissions and
concentrations in the Netherlands (Van Vuuren et al. 2011). IMAGE 2.0 is the
second version of this model which is the result of advancements in global change
modeling that happened during the 1980s at the International Institute for Applied
System Analysis, Luxenberg, Austria. The RAINS (regional air pollution informa-
tion and simulation) model (Alcamo et al. 1991) and the BIOME model (Prentice
et al. 1992) have major contribution in the development of IMAGE 2.0 which have
given perceptions regarding rule based simulations and process based models
application, a geographical scale and spatial mapping which result in accurate
calculations of IMAGE 2.0.
6.2.6 Integrated Global System Model (IGSM)

The emissions, natural ecosystem, natural biochemical cycles, climatic system, and
the economic development are the different components which makes the basis of
this integrated global system model (Prinn et al. 2013; Prinn et al. 1992). The
connection of both science and policy is the main objective of this model develop-
ment. The human induced impacts and natural processes which are participating in
climate change are addressed by this model to examine a wide variety of policies and
to solve queries relevant to climatic uncertainties and feedbacks (Prinn and Hartley
2011). The IGSM pattern-scaling technique was used in different models by several
researchers (Blanc et al. 2014; Schlosser et al. 2013; Strzepek et al. 2013). The main
constituents of this model are chemistry, atmospheric, and oceanic circulation. The
fundamental ecosystem processes which are distributed in 18 terrestrial ecosystems
are parts of IGSM. The consequences of changes in climatic and atmospheric
composition on ecosystem and the interrelationships amid natural emissions, chem-
istry, ecosystem, and climate are studied by this model in details as it has sufficient
biogeochemical and spatial detail (Prinn et al. 2013; Prinn 1999).
6.2.7 Mini Climate Assessment Model (MiniCAM)

The Edmonds-Reilly-Barns (ERB) model (Edmonds et al. 1996; Edmonds et al.
1994) and the agriculture, forestry, and land-use model (ALM) (Edmonds et al.
1997) are the models which are run with the Mini Climate Assessment Model
(MiniCAM), also acknowledged as GCAM (Kim et al. 2006) for the estimations
of global greenhouse emissions (Hedenus et al. 2013). The demands for three types
of energy utilities like transportation, industrial, and residential/commercial, as an
act of cost and profit, are estimated with the energy demand module of the model.
The emission of N2O, CO2, and CH4 represents the usage of fossil fuel in case of
energy. The emanation of these gases represents changes in land-use, fertilizer
usage, and the kind of livestock in case of agriculture. The improvement in model
has been done by some researcher to make it fruitful tool for dealing with uncertainty
(Jebaraj and Iniyan 2006; Scott et al. 1999). Initially this model has 11 regions,
further increase to 14 regions that contributes whole world coverage: USA, Canada,
Western Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand, Eastern Europe, Former Soviet
Union, Latin America, Africa, Mid-East, China, India, South Korea, Rest of South
and East Asia.
6.2.8 Regional Integrated Model of Climate and the Economy (RICE)

The economic activity is integrated with the emissions, sources, outcomes of
greenhouse gas emanations and climate change in the regional integrated model of
climate and the economy (RICE) which is a dynamic, regional, and general equilib-
rium model (Nordhaus and Yang 1996). The selection of climate change strategies in
view of economic compact and national self-concern by the different nation can be
asked by this RICE model. The common format of the RICE model is identical to the
DICE model with integration into regions. The upgradation in the DICE/RICE
model is continuous from the time of their development. Many researchers have
done advancements on the basis of DICE/RICE model. The upgradation is mainly in
the economic system as compared to earth’s physical system of the model (Wang
et al. 2017). The DEMETER model and ENTICE model were developed by (Van der
Zwaan et al. 2002) and (Popp 2004) on the basis of DICE/RICE model. (Wang et al.
2017) also form a model known as China-US climate protection model based on
DICE/RICE model. The world is divided into 10 different domains in the RICE
model, but often accumulated for the simplicity. The initial capital stock, population,
and technology are main components of this region. The integration of the climate
related sector with the economic model is the main feature of the RICE model
(Nordhaus and Yang 1996).
7 Conclusion
Human beings are facing the greatest challenge of climate change which is a
noticeable incident with the capacity for disastrous impacts. The prediction of future
climate is necessary for determining the actions taken to adapt to the impacts of
climate change and for the formulations of targets to reduce exudation of greenhouse
gases. This is a big challenge for the scientific community to predict the climatic
outcomes of the rising GHGs concentrations in the atmosphere. The human activities
are changing the climate, particularly by emitting the greenhouse gases (GHGs) into
the atmosphere and playing a key role in elevating the global temperature. The
mitigation, i.e. reducing emissions and adaptation, i.e. preparing for unavoidable
consequences are necessary for addressing climate change. The prediction with
complex models is necessary for improving understanding of the real impact of
150 Saraswati
climate change due to increasing GHGs concentrations and for avoiding the bad
consequences. The different complex models can be used for predicting the intensi-
fication of global warming and associated climate perturbations over the next
century. The absence of direct evidence regarding an enhanced greenhouse effect
makes it entirely dependent on model predictions. But, the credibility of prediction
of simulation of present observed climate and its variability on seasonal, interannual,
decadal, and longer time scales depends on the ability of the models.
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Role of Biomass Burning in Greenhouse
Gases Emission 8
Anu Sharma and Prashant Rajput
Abstract
To meet electricity production and transportation, cooking, agricultural-field

clearance for crop-rotation, we are consuming fossil fuels through combustion
and burning the biomass. When these fuels are burnt, depending on fuel-type,
combustion efficiency, and moisture content in the fuel, it releases a lot of
aerosols (aka particulate matter), CO2, CH4, SO2, and other gaseous species.
With the rise in the global population, the cumulative effect of anthropogenic
activities is raising the level of pollutants in the atmosphere and also in the other
components of the environment in general. Natural green barriers (forests) intake
CO2 and a major source of O2 also do play a crucial role in adsorbing particulate
matter, thereby reducing ambient PM levels. Deforestation, owing to unprece-
dented urbanization, is the other major factor of increasing greenhouse gas levels.
Furthermore, industrial emissions from fertilizers, cement production, coal
mining activities, and oil extraction generate a huge amount of greenhouse
gases and toxic products. Also, landfills occupied with garbage is a potential
source of greenhouse gases, viz. CO2 and CH4. Ambient records on rising levels
of greenhouse gases and particulate matter in the last couple of decades is an
alarming situation and urge for initiatives towards effective interventions to
mitigate the air pollution for better planetary health and its sustainability. In this
chapter, we have discussed greenhouse gases emissions from biomass burning
(BB) focusing mainly on long-term global records in a concise manner. Some of
the “initiatives to tackle air pollution” and “recommendations” are also provided
for future interventions and mitigation policy makers.
A. Sharma · P. Rajput (*)

Centre for Environmental Health, Public Health Foundation of India, Gurugram, Haryana, India
e-mail: prashant.rajput@phfi.org
Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_8
158 A. Sharma and P. Rajput
Keywords
Greenhouse gases · Biomass burning · Ice core records · Remote sensing · Air
pollution
1 Introduction
Biomass burning (BB) emissions and fossil fuel combustion activities due to rapid
urbanization are causing high-levels of atmospheric aerosols and greenhouse gases
(Kumar et al. 2018; Mills et al. 2018; Rajput 2018; Singh et al. 2018; Sonwani et al.
2021a). These emissions are also responsible for human health effects upon exposure
(Agarwal et al. 2018; Izhar et al. 2018; Rajeev et al. 2018; Rajput and Gupta 2016;
Rajput et al. 2019; Sonwani et al. 2021b; Goel et al. 2021). Unequivocal pieces of
evidence are suggesting that greenhouse gases like CO2 (carbon dioxide), N2O
(nitrous oxide), CH4 (methane), etc. are rising in the atmosphere since the industrial
revolution. For example, the ambient abundance of CO2 has increased by ~40%
(w.r.t. pre-industrial era) and the current level is above 400 parts per million (ppm)
(Fig. 8.1). Rajput and Gupta (2021), based on novel application of causal modeling
in atmospheric chemistry domain revealed that for every 10-units increase in O3
concentration (ppb) the fraction of secondary organic carbon-in-total organic car-
bon increases in Indo-gangetic Plain (IGP) by 3.3% during daytime while
experiencing emissions from biomass burning. Another study, based on
Lenschow-type analysis has revealed that long-range transport of biomass burning
Fig 8.1 Figure showing records of global atmospheric CO2 rising over hundreds of millennium
year of time-scale (www.massaudubon.org/our-conservation-work/climate-change/why-we-care/
greenhouse-gases)
8 Role of Biomass Burning in Greenhouse Gases Emission 159
Table 8.1 Typical atmospheric lifetime and global warming potential (GWP) of major greenhouse
gases (IPCC 2007)
Chemical GWP, 100-year time Atmospheric lifetime
Greenhouse gas formula horizon (years)
Carbon dioxide CO2 1 100
Methane CH4 21 12
Nitrous oxide N2O 290 114
Chlorofluorocarbon-12 CCl2F2 7390–12,200 100
(CFC-12)
Hydrofluorocarbon-23 CHF3 124–14,800 270
(HFC-23)
Sulfur hexafluoride SF6 22,800 3200
Nitrogen trifluoride NF3 17,200 740
emissions in upwind IGP are associated with increased concentrations of O3 by 31%

over the urban background in central IGP (Rajput et al. 2021). Comparing the
current levels with previous records revealed that CO2 levels are ~100 ppm higher
than observed at any time in the last million years (www.massaudubon.org/our-
conservation-work/climate-change/why-we-care/greenhouse-gases).
The rapid changes in greenhouse gases (alongwith light-absorbing aerosols) are
abruptly influencing the Earth’s heat energy balance, which is widely referred to as
“Climate Change.” The rapid temperature changes and fast chemical kinetics in gas-
and particulate-phase reactions are affecting environmental health, natural
ecosystems, and built infrastructure and poses a challenge of their sustainability
and adaptation.
For a greenhouse gas, a GWP (Global Warming Potential GWP) estimate reflects
its average atmospheric residence, and long-wavelength potential light-absorption
characteristics (Table 8.1). Briefly, a greenhouse gas with a higher GWP absorbs
more energy, as compared to that with a relatively low GWP, and thus more
responsible for warming the globe (https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-
greenhouse-gases).
The Global Warming Potential (GWP) provides a simple measure of the radiative
effects of emissions of various greenhouse gases, integrated over a specified time
horizon, relative to an equal mass of CO2 emissions. The GWP with respect to CO2
is calculated using the formula given below (IPCC 2007):
R
TH
ai ci ðt Þdt
TR
GWPi ¼ TRH
aCO2 cCO2 ðt Þdt
TR
where ai is the instantaneous radiative forcing due to the release of a unit mass of
trace gas, i into the atmosphere, at time TR, Ci is the amount of that unit mass
Fig. 8.2 Global distribution of natural emission sources of CO2
Fig. 8.3 Global distribution of anthropogenic emission sources of CO2
remaining in the atmosphere at time t, after its release and TH is TR plus the time
horizon over which the calculation is performed (e.g. 100 years).
2 Sources of Major Greenhouse Gases
This section provides essential information on major greenhouse gases (the gases
that trap heat in the atmosphere).
Fig. 8.4 A cartoon depicting the sequestration of CO2 and the “Biological Carbon pump” in
marine bodies (source: oceans.taraexpeditions.org/en/m/science/news/co2-sequestration-in-the-
ocean-an-important-criterion-in-current-climate-models)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2): CO2 enters the atmosphere through the burning of fossil
fuels, solid waste, biomass, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g.,
while cement manufacturing), etc. There are both natural and anthropogenic
emission sources of CO2. The distribution pattern among major natural sources
of CO2 is given in Fig. 8.2 (IPCC 2007). The anthropogenic distribution of CO2
emission sources is given in Fig. 8.3 (Le Quéré et al. 2013). The fossil fuel
combustion component of the anthropogenic CO2 source is distributed as follows:
41% by heat and electricity generation, 20% by industrial sector, 22% by the
Fig. 8.5 Global distribution of anthropogenic emission sources of CH4
Fig. 8.6 Anthropogenic global distribution of emission sources N2O
transportation sector, 6% by the residential sector, and 11% by the remaining

sources (IEA 2012).
CO2 is removed from the atmosphere mainly during photosynthesis by the plants/
trees and sequestration in the ocean following Henry’s law (Fig. 8.4). The carbon
captured by the world’s ocean and coastal ecosystems is widely referred to as
the “Blue carbon” (oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bluecarbon.html).
• Methane (CH4): There are both natural and anthropogenic emission sources of
methane. Natural sources produce 36% of methane emissions, whereas 64% is
due to anthropogenic sources. The distribution pattern among major natural
sources includes 78% by wetlands, 10% by the oceans, and 12% by termites
(Bousquet et al. 2006). The distribution of CH4 anthropogenic emission sources is
given in Fig. 8.5 (Bousquet et al. 2006).
Fig. 8.7 Cartoon showing the photochemical formation of O3 in the lower atmosphere (www.esrl.
noaa.gov/csd/news/2016/178_0114.html)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): N2O is produced by both natural and anthropogenic emis-
sion sources. Natural sources produce 62% of methane emissions whereas 38% is
due to anthropogenic sources. The distribution pattern among major natural
sources include 60% by soils under natural vegetation, 5% by atmospheric
chemical reactions, and 35% by the oceans (IPCC 2007). The distribution of
N2O anthropogenic emission sources is given in Fig. 8.6 (IPCC 2007).
• Tropospheric ozone (O3): Tropospheric O3 is nearly 10% of the total columnar
ozone, however, it plays an important role in regulating the ambient atmospheric
chemistry (Seinfeld and Pandis 2006). As per the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change) latest report (IPCC 2013), tropospheric O3 average global
production is 4877 853 Tg/a (1 σ), stratosphere-to-troposphere exchange
(STE) is 477 96 Tg/a, destruction due to gas-phase chemical reactions is 4260
645 Tg/a, and loss due to surface deposition is 1094 264 Tg/a (Myhre et al.
2013). The tropospheric O3 cycle has a dynamic linkage with HOx (OH, HO2)
cycle, NOx (NO, NO2) cycle, and vapor-phase carbon compounds (CO, VOCs:
volatile organic compounds, NMHCs: non-methane hydrocarbons) oxidation
(Fig. 8.7) (Monks et al. 2015).
• Fluorinated gases: Fluorinated gases are widely used for refrigeration,
air-conditioning, inside foams, and aerosol cans. Leakage during the
manufacturing process of these products leads to emissions of fluorinated gases
and also they are emitted throughout the product's life. The fluorinated gases can
also be produced from semiconductors, and metals industries. Emissions of the
three main fluorinated gases [HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), PFCs
(perfluorocarbons), and SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride)] are mainly derived from indus-
trial processes, except for CF4 (PFC-14) (Montzka et al. 2011). The distribution
among various fluorinated gases is shown in Fig. 8.8. Anthropogenic activities
Fig. 8.8 Anthropogenic

global distribution among
various fluorinated gases
Fig. 8.9 CO2 emission budget (Tg/a) from BB in various Asian countries
have caused atmospheric levels of HFCs to increase from ~0 (in 1750) to 90 parts
per trillion (ppt) and 7 ppt for SF6 (in 2009). PFC concentrations have changed
drastically from ~35 ppt in pre-industrial times to >80 ppt in 2009. Fluorinated
gases are responsible for stratospheric O3 depletion. These gases in the atmo-
sphere are in trace levels, but because of their potential greenhouse gas effect,
they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases (“High
GWP gases”).
Fig. 8.10 CH4 emission budget (Gg/a) from BB in various Asian countries
3 The Scenario of BB Emissions
3.1 BB Emissions in Asia
As per a two-decade ago detailed emission budget study from various countries in
Asia documented for aerosol bound species, trace gases, and greenhouse gases (CO2
and CH4 only) (Streets et al. 2003). The emission of CO2 (in Tg; Fig. 8.9) is three
orders of magnitude higher than that of the CH4 (in Gg; Fig. 8.10).
It is worthwhile mentioning here that the data shown in Figs. 8.9 and 8.10 are not
very recent, and therefore, there may be huge changes in the emission budget for
these species from BB. The reason, for adopting herein that data set from their study
(Streets et al. 2003), is the collective emission estimations provided for greenhouse
gases from various counties in Asia.
3.2 BB Emissions Pattern Change Over the Last Millennium:

Inferences from Paleo Records in Polar Ice Cores
Paleo records are very important to look into the variability in important processes/
events over a large time-scale back from the present-day condition. The impact of
BB emission on budget of greenhouse gases, climate-forcing (including aerosols and
greenhouse gases), and global atmospheric chemistry has been widely realized
(Ferretti et al. 2005; Nicewonger et al. 2018). In a study (Nicewonger et al. 2018),
the authors conducted highly precise measurements of ice core (ethane) from
Fig. 8.11 Ice core based records of: (a, b) ethane from Greenland and Antarctica (Nicewonger
et al. 2018) and (c) δ13CH4 (Ferretti et al. 2005; Mischler et al. 2009; Sapart et al. 2012)
Antarctica and Greenland to infer about changes in BB emissions since 1000 CE

(Common Era). The ice core C2H6 data set showed that the BB emissions during the
Medieval Period (1000–1500 CE) were higher as compared to the present day and
declined sharply to a minimum during the cooler little ice age (1600–1800 CE)
(Fig. 8.11).
Assuming identical atmospheric reactivity and transport in a pre-industrial era as
in the modern atmosphere, the researchers (Nicewonger et al. 2018) estimated that
BB emissions were decreased by 30–45% from the medieval period to the little ice
age (Fig. 8.11). The pattern of decline in BB emissions was found consistent with
previously reported methane stable carbon isotope ratio (δ13CH4) in ice core samples
(Ferretti et al. 2005; Mischler et al. 2009; Sapart et al. 2012; Sahu et al. 2015).
3.3 Remote Sensing of BB Emission Activity
As aforementioned, the GHGs are emitted by both fossil fuel combustion and BB
emission activities. In this study, we have retrieved the global distribution (mixing
ratio, level-3 gridded product) of CO2 (2 2.5 deg. spatial resolution, monthly
averaged, January 2010 to February 2017) and CH4 (1 1 deg. spatial resolution,
Fig. 8.12 Global distribution of CO2 (in ppm, top) and thermohaline circulation (bottom, adopted
from Google)
monthly averaged March 2003 to March 2020) for about a decade from the
GIOVANNI portal based on NASA AIRS sensor data (Acker and Leptoukh 2007)
(Figs. 8.12 and 8.13). As it is obvious from Fig. 8.12 that CO2 is a well-mixed GHG
which is usually above 394 ppm. There are certain pockets over the globe where CO2
levels are showing slightly lower values ranging from 390 to 394 ppm mainly
covering the Antarctica cryosphere (and a portion of Atlantic Ocean) in the southern
hemisphere and also over the Himalayan glacier. One of the plausible explanations
for the lower level of CO2 in the Atlantic Ocean region could be explained by the
great ocean conveyor belt (GOCB). The thermohaline (thermos: heat and haline: salt
content) circulation is driven by global density gradients created by sea-surface heat
and freshwater fluxes. If we look carefully at the bottom plot (Fig. 8.12), then it can
be observed that cold and dense water sinks in the same region of the Atlantic Ocean
wherein we are observing lower CO2 mixing ratios. Thus, it appears that more
diffusion and dissolution are causing higher sequestration of CO2 following Henry’s
law over this region. Furthermore, there are several pockets in middle and higher
Fig. 8.13 Global distribution of CH4 (in ppb) during the daytime (top imagery) and nighttime
(bottom imagery)
latitudes (in the northern hemisphere: NH) over the globe wherein satellite remote
sensing shows the highest levels of atmospheric CO2 i.e. >397 ppm. It is worthwhile
mentioning that herein reported CO2 data is only up to February 2017.
Daytime and nighttime CH4 mixing ratios (March 2003 to March 2020, at
250 hPa, 1 deg. 1 deg.) over the globe are shown in Figs. 8.13. There are a couple
of things to notice here. Firstly, in the same region of Atlantic Ocean wherein we
have observed possibly CO2 sequestration effect, we are noticing the elevated levels
of CH4 (>1.8 ppm) with more areal coverage (having the same feature) at night than
daytime. One of the plausible mechanisms might be the emanation of CH4 from
warm shallow waters in the region. The major difference in day and nighttime
distribution of CH4 is seen at high latitudes in the Arctic region in the sense that in
Fig. 8.14 Map of the 14 segregated regions, adopted from previous literature (Giglio et al. 2006)
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/)
nighttime elevated levels of CH4 are observed therein. The other aspect relates to the
conspicuous latitudinal variation (both during the day and night) in CH4; southern
hemisphere < low-latitude (in NH) < high-latitude (in NH) < mid-latitude (in NH).
Maybe a more in-depth analysis could be beneficial to provide lots of insight into the
global distribution of GHGs.
Various types of biomass are burned across the globe. Nearly one and a half-
decade ago the entire globe and been classified into 14 groups based on BB activity
(Fig. 8.14) (Giglio et al. 2006). Various types of BB emissions were sub-classified
into the burning of open shrubland, closed shrubland, woody savanna, savanna,
grassland, peatland, boreal and temperate forest, and deforestation and forest degra-
dation (Giglio et al. 2006; Saxena et al. 2021).
6,000 SEAS
4,000
2,000
30,000 AUST
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
–
Open Shubland
Closed Shrubland
Woody Savanna
Savanna
Grassland
Peatland
Deforestation and
forest degradation
Boreal and temperate
forest
C6 C5.1 GFED4s
Fig. 8.15 Regional 2001–2016 mean annual area burned (in 103 ha year1) for C6, C5.1, and
GFED4s products, stratified by land cover class, adopted from previous literature (Prosperi et al.
2020) (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). For brevity, area burned data are shown above
only for two regions
Based on the bottom-up approach, Seiler and Crutzen (1980) first proposed the
below equation to estimate emissions from biomass and peat. This equation is also
represented in IPCC 2006 guidelines.
Lfire,x,v¼Av M B,v C f ,v Gef ,x,v

ð8:1Þ
where Lfire,x,v are GHG emissions of gas x, for a given vegetation type v at a given
time; Av is burned area with vegetation cover v; MB,v is the biomass fuel (including
biomass, dead wood, and ground litter) available for combustion of vegetation type
v; Cf,v is a combustion factor, indicating the efficiency of combustion of vegetation
type v; and Gef,x,v is the emission factor for gas x and the vegetation type v. MB,v and
Cf,v are collectively referred to as fuel biomass consumption values. They can be
derived from field data or estimated through models, whereas the emission factors
are derived from experimental data.
Regional, 2001–2016, mean annual area burned for C6 (MODIS Collection 6;
MCD64A1) product, stratified by land cover class has been documented recently
Table 8.2 Biomass consumption and emission factors from 2006 IPCC guideline
IPCC emission
IPCC biomass consumption (tons/ factors (g/kg)
Fuel emission source hectare) N2O CH4 CO2
Savanna (tropical) 7 0.21 2.3 1613
Savanna (non-tropical) 4.1 0.21 2.3 1613
Woody savanna (tropical) 6 0.21 2.3 1613
Woody savanna 3.3 0.21 2.3 1613
(non-tropical)
Grassland (tropical) 5.2 0.21 2.3 1613
Grassland (non-tropical) 4.1 0.21 2.3 1613
Open shrublands 14.3 0.21 2.3 1613
Closed shrublands 26.7 0.21 2.3 1613
Forest (boreal) 41 0.21 2.3 1613
Forest (temperate) 50.4 0.26 4.7 1569
Forest (tropical) 54.1 0.26 4.7 1569
Peatlands (tropical) 353 0.2 6.8 1580
Peatlands (boreal and 66 0.2 20.8 1703
temperate)
Table 8.3 Absolute emissions (std. error; Tg CO2 eq year1) for different land cover classes.
This data has been adopted from a recent publication (Prosperi et al. 2020)
Savanna, Deforestation Boreal and
grassland, and and forest temperate
Dataset Global Peatland shrubland degradation forests
C6 7600 359 1459 130 4455 322 899 106 787 87
GFED4s 7115 332 244 123 5011 185 1109 196 752 129
C5.1 6032 254 1086 100 3660 240 768 90 518 70
and also compared with earlier two versions, viz. C5.1 (MODIS Collection 5.1;
MCD64A1) and GFED4s (Global Fire Emission Database, v. 4) products (Prosperi
et al. 2020). For brevity, area burned data (in 103 ha year1) are shown here only for
two regions: SEAS (southeast Asia) and AUST (Australia and New Zealand)
(Fig. 8.15). For the full classification of all the 14 BB regions, reference is made
to Fig. 8.14.
As per Eq. (8.1), we would need biomass consumption and emission factors also
beside the burned area (discussed above) to estimate the emissions. In this context,
the biomass consumption and emission factors have been summarized in Table 8.2
(Prosperi et al. 2020).
Furthermore, they have merged these different types of BB emissions into five
categories: (1) Peatland; (2) savanna, grassland, and shrubland; (3) deforestation and
forest degradation; (4) boreal and temperate forests; and (5) global (which is the
summation of the previously mentioned four types of BB emission).
Of the various GHGs, there is a global level monitoring of CO2, CH4, and
N2O. Although CO2 has a higher abundance than CH4 and N2O, the GWP of CH4
and N2O are higher by 21 and 310 times, respectively, than that of the CO2 (Prosperi
et al. 2020). Thus, it is customary to report GHGs in terms of CO2 equivalent. This is
done by summing up the product value of each GHG atmospheric abundance with its
GWP value. For the three products, C6, GFED4s, and C5.1 the absolute emissions
are represented in Table 8.3 (Prosperi et al. 2020).
4 The Need for Initiatives to Tackle Air Pollution
Landscaping of current initiatives to tackle air pollution has been summarized

below:
The green cover area is very important from the viewpoint of air pollution control
and climate change. The green cover area is responsible for O2 production,
influences the rate of CO2 sequestration, and physically adsorbs ambient particulate
matter (aka aerosols) and thereby reduces air pollution. Continuous air quality
monitoring stations and mapping hotspots are very important to understand the
impact of anthropogenic vis-à-vis natural emission sources (e.g. wind-blown dust)
on a local to regional scale. The information coupled from monitoring air quality and
mapping the hotspots is essential to understand, plan, and manage health due to
inhalation impact in localities experiencing poor air quality on an urgent basis.
Vehicular emissions represent one of the major sources of ambient air pollution.
Soon after the emissions from tail-pipe, these particle’s chemical, physical, optical,
and morphological features change on a time-scale of few minutes and their accu-
mulation near the road surface makes a soup of pollutants particularly in traffic
congestions or during heavy in-flow of vehicles. These lead to tremendous exposure
of nano-particles and sub-micron aerosols to commuters and travelers. Thus,
planning and implementation of traffic diversion could lead to avoidance of undue
accumulation of air pollutants on the road surface and will be helpful from human
health perspectives. Furthermore, unequivocal shreds of evidence suggest that the
slow running/idle vehicles produce a high number of particles as compared to when
they are in high-speed running conditions. For toll collection at the toll plazas,
vehicular speed is often needed to reduce due to high traffic in-flow and to obtain
vehicle-pass. Newer electronic systems (fast tags) have been adopted to combat
these issues at toll plazas. SWM has important significance in maintaining hygienic
surroundings and aesthetics of a city. Furthermore, agricultural-waste burning
activities in the north-western part of Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) causes tremendous
air pollution and injects moieties of toxic organic and inorganic species in the air.
Industrial emissions also represent one of the major sources of air pollutants. It is
very important to keep a continuous track of industrial emissions for mitigation and
to avoid haze conditions. Power generation is considered vital for rapid develop-
ment. The sources of energy and grid-mix of energy production from
renewable vs. non-renewable resources is an important consideration in the dis-
course for air pollution control given the possible by-products from burning
non-clean energy sources like coal. For the uninterrupted power supply, diesel
gen-sets are utilized. The major concern arises due to the tremendous emission of
ultrafine particles while gen-sets are in operation. Improper management of gen-set
operation could impact the surroundings and in general increases the total concen-
tration of air pollutants both outdoor and indoors.
5 Conclusions
Considering the entire planet as our only home, it is the responsibility of one and all
to reduce carbon footprint. This could be achieved by a trade-off with the approach
of heating/cooling the rooms (adaptation) during winters/summers and by mitigation
e.g. opting for an appropriate mode of transportation for a local journey (bikes,
2W vs. 4W, public transport, etc.), among others. Plantation of trees and building
green area in neighborhood locality could be another forward step in mitigating
greenhouse gases. The other important bit is the involvement of everyone and for
this effort, the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders
should actively engage from the grassroots level to make voice heard and educate
others. Our efforts in reducing greenhouse gases would benefit us in avoiding/
reducing situations like floods in coastal areas, droughts, melting of glaciers, food
shortages, and devastating hurricanes, etc. Thus, let us join our hands for a sustain-
able environment (“Clean and Green”) keeping in mind that raising the level of air
pollutants and greenhouse gases is a high-risk factor for our survival on planet earth.
6 Recommendations for Clean Air to All
To improve air quality, we need to systematically reduce emissions and capture the
emission source variability affecting the region and also quantitatively estimate the
effect of long-range transport from upwind regions. To have a better understanding
on emission source variability that further integrates into emission inventories, we
need to improve on high-resolution (spatio-temporal) monitoring, data transparency,
quantify uncertainties, develop multiple-year inventories, common guidelines, and
reconcile the top-down (receptor-based modeling) and bottom-up methods (source-
based modeling methods like dispersion modeling).
6.1 Need for Spatio-Temporal Data Set on Air Pollutants
To understand the impact of air pollution on human health, climate, etc. we need to
have a clear understanding of the variability of pollutants at any given geographical
location and at any point of time. Besides primary emissions, the secondary air
pollutants (both particles and gases) increase the pollutant’s burden and pose a
challenge to capture their high variability record in the ambient atmosphere. Other
influencing factors like temperature, relative humidity, solar irradiance, cloud cover,
boundary layer height (mixing height), and winds are also highly variable over a
period from day-to-night and from one season to another season, etc. Thus, high-
resolution measurements of air pollutants are certainly required over the region, and
thus, there is a need to establish a large number of Continuous Ambient Air Quality
Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS). The other aspect is the need for transparent data to
look into various aspects of air pollution. This lack of transparency and information
in the sampling frame and sample details are common to almost all sectors. Cur-
rently, due to the lack of a common database, studies rely on primary data collection
efforts. Moreover, if the studies used a convenient sampling approach, it may
introduce a bias; and it may not be appropriate to generalize their findings.
6.2 Determination of Uncertainties
There are two sets of uncertainties. The first arises from activity data such as fuel
consumption, combustion efficiency, etc. The second set of uncertainties can be
attributed to emissions factors as most of these are determined based on controlled
experiments. Uncertainties for PM2.5 may be as high as ~100% or even more for the
power sector, for industry, for road transport, and the entire inventory. When
considered together, the uncertainties can compound while estimating overall uncer-
tainty. Thus, summing up, it can be inferred that with no clear understanding of
uncertainties, it is difficult to gauge the spread and confidence levels on the data of
each emission source inventory estimate.
6.3 Building Up of Multiple-Year Emission Inventories
Air pollution can be episodic. As policies to mitigate emissions from different

sources are put in place, the total pollution level changes, as does the relative
contribution of different sources and source strength. Developing multi-year
inventories will help the pollution control agencies to identify variability in the
pollution sources and design control responses accurately and in time. Furthermore,
continuous emission monitoring systems that measure pollutant’s load in the indus-
trial and power sectors could be more accurate than a bottom-up calculation based on
fuel consumption. Thus, summing up, an emission inventory needs to be continu-
ously updated. Therefore, it is recommended that ministries and academic/research
groups could collaborate to build an ongoing, long-term emissions inventory that is
updated every 2–3 years.
6.4 Reconcile Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches
There is a need to better reconcile dispersion modeling with receptor modeling in

conjunction with the emissions inventories which would bring about convergence
between the modeling and measurement approaches.
6.5 Clean and Green Air Action Plan
A city-level clean and green air action plan, based on appropriate source apportion-
ment and emission inventories and urban planning should be implemented and
reviewed and reassessed every 2–3 years, focusing on the sector-wise decrease in
pollutant load. This will help a lot in controlling air pollution status in the city.
Acknowledgments Analyses and visualizations used in this study were produced with the
Giovanni online data system, developed and maintained by the NASA GES DISC. Above showed
Fig. 8.15 has been extracted from Fig. 4 of Prosperi et al. 2020 in climatic change (cited in this
study) and we acknowledge all the authors for the same.
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Ozone Impacts and Climate Forcing:
Thailand as a Case Study 9
Pornpan Uttamang, Viney P. Aneja, and William Battye
Abstract
Ozone (O3) is a secondary pollutant that is not emitted directly from emission
sources, but it is formed in the atmosphere through photochemical reaction. O3 in
stratosphere is known as “good ozone” because this O3 layer prevents life from
ultraviolet (UV) radiation by filter and reducing the intensity of the radiation; on
the other hand, tropospheric O3 with high concentrations has adverse effects on
human health, plants, and environment. Moreover, tropospheric O3 is the third
most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4).
Tropospheric O3 has positive radiative forcing that leads to global warming;
therefore, the increases in tropospheric O3 concentrations enhance the average
global temperature. Besides the direct effects of tropospheric O3 on global
radiation budget, the changes in its concentration also perturb the mixing ratio
of other atmospheric chemical compositions which eventually affect global
energy budget.
Keywords
Tropospheric ozone · Ozone precursors · Radiative forcing by ozone · Ozone
management · Climate change
P. Uttamang (*)
Environmental Technology Program, Faculty of Science, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
e-mail: pornpan_um@mju.ac.th
V. P. Aneja · W. Battye
Department of Marine, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh,
NC, USA
Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_9
180 P. Uttamang et al.
1 Introduction
Ozone is a colorless and highly reactive gas that consists of three oxygen atoms (O3).
About 90% of O3 in the atmosphere is observed in stratosphere and about 10% is
observed in troposphere (NOAA 2019; NOAA 2010; Lelieveld and Dentener 2000).
While the stratospheric O3 layer (about 15 to 30 km above from the ground) is
known as “good ozone” layer that filters ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) and protects
life on earth, tropospheric O3 is known as “bad ozone.” Tropospheric O3 contributes
to adverse impacts on human health and our welfare if its concentrations reach an
unhealthy level (Archibald et al. 2020; Schultz et al. 2017).
Tropospheric O3 is not emitted directly from emission sources but it is formed in
the atmosphere through O3 precursors including oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and the presence of sunlight. Stratosphere-to-
troposphere transport or downward transport of stratospheric O3 also contributes to
the budget of tropospheric O3 (Akritidis et al. 2018; Kuang et al. 2012; Tarasick et al.
2019); however, stratospheric O3 intrusion through the ground level occurs sporadi-
cally (Tarasick et al. 2019, pp. 496–509; Langford et al. 2012, pp. 1–17) with high
variability.
Besides the direct effects of tropospheric O3 on human health and environment,
O3 is a direct greenhouse gas that plays an important role in governing global
temperature and climate change (Saxena et al. 2017). Tropospheric O3 from
human activity is estimated to contribute from 5 to 16% of the total human-induced
climate-forcing impact (Ainsworth et al. 2012, pp. 637–661).
In this chapter, we discuss about the changes of global tropospheric O3
concentrations since pre-industrial time, effects of elevated O3 on human health
and environment, and effects of ozone as a greenhouse gas on climate change. The
basic chemical reaction of O3 formation which is photolysis of nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) and chemical reaction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is explained to
provide general background knowledge of tropospheric O3 formation that finally
lead to tropospheric O3 management and strategies.
2 Global Tropospheric Ozone Precursors and Ozone Trends
Tropospheric O3 concentration has been increasing continuously due to rapid

increases in anthropogenic emissions since pre-industrial time. NOx is emitted
from both natural sources and human activities. NOx is generated from lightning
strike and has a relatively small but still significantly affect tropospheric O3
concentrations. The emissions of NOx are dominated by anthropogenic emission
sources including fossil fuel and biomass combustion, automobiles both on-road and
non-road vehicles, industrial sources, and power plants. Simulated global NOx
changes from different models show that global NOx burdens range from 33.6 to
286.6% and the multi-model mean (MMM) of global NOx change since
9 Ozone Impacts and Climate Forcing: Thailand as a Case Study 181
pre-industrial time to present-day1 is about 108.0 75.4% (Naik et al. 2013,

pp. 5277–5298). NOx has a relative short lifetime varies from 1 day to about
10 days. Due to its short lifetime, NOx has substantial spatial and temporal
variations. The concentrations of NOx range from a few ppt near over remote
ocean and may reach greater than 100 ppb in urban regions (IPCC 2001, Chap. 4).
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemical compounds which are
in vapor-phase under normal atmospheric temperature and pressure (US EPA 2017;
NOAA 2019; Seinfeld and Pandis 2016, p. 36). Major anthropogenic VOCs sources
are fuel combustion, biomass burning, industrial processes, on-road and non-road
vehicles. VOCs is also emitted naturally from soils, trees, and forest wildfire. US.
EPA (2018) estimated that, in the USA, VOCs emission from biogenic sources were
larger than those from anthropogenic sources. Vegetation and soil were estimated to
contribute about 70% to the total VOCs, while about 4% of VOCs was emitted from
forest wildfire. Major forms of emitted VOCs in the atmosphere are alkanes, alkenes,
aromatic hydrocarbons, and oxygenated compounds (Atkinson and Arey 2003,
pp. 4605–4638). It is estimated that anthropogenic non-methane VOC (NMVOC)
emissions have globally increased about 4% during 1995 to 2005 due to increases in
fuel and hydrocarbon products usage (European Commission 2017; IPCC 2001,
Chap. 4).
Increases in tropospheric O3 are driven by the increases in global NOx and VOC
emissions. Regarding simulated tropospheric column O3 (TCO) from the global
modeling initiative (GMI) chemical transport model merged with satellite measured
TCO data from Nimbus-7 and Earth Probe Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
(TOMS) and the aura ozone monitoring instrument/microwave limb sounder
(OMI/MLS) (Fig. 9.1) shows that, in the past 38 years, tropospheric O3 increases
from about +1.2 to about +1.4 DU decade1 during 1979 to 2005, and about +3 DU
decade1 or even greater during 2005 to 2016. The major increases in tropospheric
O3 were found over tropics and extratropic, especially over Asia (i.e. East and
Southeast Asia) and over the Pacific Ocean. Net increases in tropospheric O3, for
38-year long, over India, East and Southeast Asia were about +6 to +7 DU
(0.13 to 0.15 t km2) or about 15 to 20% of TCO background (Ziemke et al.
2019, pp. 3257–3269).
There are similarities between measured surface O3 records from rural site around
the word (1950 to 1979 until 2000 to 2010) and the GMI simulation. The surface
observations from 20 rural monitoring sites (six sites in Europe, four sites in East
Asia and western North America, and 10 sites in rest of the world) depict that
tropospheric O3 increased during the twentieth century with the increases in tropo-
spheric O3 were about +1 to +5 ppbv decade1 over the Northern Hemisphere and
about 2 ppbv decade1 over the Southern Hemisphere (Fig. 9.2) (Cooper et al. 2014,
pp. 1–28).
The changes in tropospheric O3 are seasonal and temporal. In general, annual
averages of TCO over the Northern Hemisphere are greater than those in the
1
Pre-industrial time (1850) to present-day (2000) (Naik et al. 2013, pp. 5277–5298).
Fig. 9.1 O3 trends during 2005 to 2016 (a) retrieved from OMI/MLS TCO (DU decade1) and (b)
retrieved from MERRA2 GMI TCO (Ziemke et al. 2019)
Southern Hemisphere which those values in the Northern Hemisphere are about
+4% over low latitudes (0 to 25 ), +12% over mid-latitudes (25 to 50 and +18%
over high latitudes (50 to 60 ) compared with the same regions in the Southern
Hemisphere (Cooper et al. 2014, pp. 1–28). For the seasonal variations of tropo-
spheric O3, over the Northern Hemisphere, the highest tropospheric O3
concentrations mostly occur during summer at mid-latitudes; while over the South-
ern Hemisphere, the peaks of tropospheric O3 are observed during astral spring over
the areas locate between South America and Africa (Cooper et al. 2014, pp. 1–28).
3 Tropospheric Ozone Chemistry: Major Sources and Sinks
Understanding of tropospheric O3 chemistry, sources and sinks are required in order

to develop control strategies and mitigation plans. O3 is a secondary pollutant which
is formed in the atmosphere through photochemistry (Uprety and Saxena 2021).
Another natural source of tropospheric O3 is stratosphere-to-troposphere O3; how-
ever, the amount of transported O3 from stratosphere is small and generally less than
the amount of O3 loss through photolysis in troposphere (Seinfeld and Pandis 2016,
Chap. 6).
Fig. 9.2 O3 trends during 1950–2010 at rural sites around the world (Cooper et al. 2014)
Basic chemical reaction of tropospheric O3 formation is photolysis of nitrogen

dioxide (NO2) by sunlight (hϑ)2 in wavelengths (λ) less than about 420 nm. Once O3
is formed, it may react with nitric oxide (NO) to regenerate NO2 (Eqs. (9.1)–(9.3)).
NO2 þ hϑ ! NO þ O λ < 420 nm ð9:1Þ
O þ O2 þ M ! O3 þ M ð9:2Þ
NO þ O3 ! NO2 þ O2 ð9:3Þ
Besides oxide of nitrogen (NOx; NOx ¼ NO + NO2), VOCs, as well as methane

(CH4) and carbon monoxide (CO), are important O3 precursors in the atmosphere.
Atmospheric chemical reaction of VOCs (i.e. hydrocarbon (RH)) with hydroxyl
radical (OH) generates a peroxy radicle (RO2). The RO2 reacts with NO to generate
NO2 (Eqs. (9.4) and (9.5)) which is photolyzed by sunlight and produce O3
O2
RH þ OH ! RO2 þ H2 O ð9:4Þ
2
hϑ js photon energy in this situation is sunlight with wavelength (λ) less than 420 nm.
RO2 þ NO ! RO þ NO2 ð9:5Þ
An important sink of tropospheric O3 is photolysis of O3 (Eqs. (9.6) to (9.8))

which accounts about 75% of tropospheric O3 destruction. Through the photolysis of
O3, an excited singlet oxygen atom (O(1D)) is generated which eventually may react
with water vapor to generate two hydroxyl radicals. Since the efficiency of this
removal process depends on the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere; therefore,
the process is the most effective in low altitudes and low altitudes (Seinfeld and
Pandis 2016, Chap. 6).
O3 þ hJ ! O þ O2 ð9:6Þ
OþM!OþM ð9:7Þ
O þ H2 O ! 2OH ð9:8Þ
An alternative pathway to reduce O3 production is HOx-NOx termination

reactions to generate nitric acid (HNO3) (Eq. (9.9)).
M
OH þ NO2 ! HNO3 ð9:9Þ
Besides the chemical processes, O3 can be removed from the atmosphere through
dry depositions. In general, dry velocities of O3 range from 0.5 to 1.0 cm s1 during
daytime and about 0.05 to 0.2 cm s1 during nighttime depend on turbulent and
landcover (Padro 1996, pp. 2363–2369).
The reaction between NO2 and OH (Eq. (9.9)) is also the dominant sink of NOx in
the atmosphere which eventually HNO3 is dissolved in precipitation and removed
from the atmosphere by rainfall. In addition, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN; CH3C
(O)OONO2) is a nitrogen reservoir species. This species is formed from
peroxyacetyl radical (CH3C(O)OO) with NO2 (Eq. (9.10)).
M
CH3 CðOÞOO þ NO2 ! CH3 CðOÞOONO2 ð9:10Þ
PAN is sensitive to temperature which under cold temperature at high altitude of

troposphere, PAN may be transported over long distances. However, under high
temperature, PAN is decomposed through thermal decomposition process and
releases NOx away from its sources (Jacob 1999, Chap. 11–12; Fischer et al.
2014, pp. 2679–2698). Other NOx and HNO3 removal process are dry deposition,
nitrate particle formation, and canopy scavenging (IPCC 2001, Chap. 4).
4 Effects of Tropospheric Ozone
Unlike stratospheric O3 that is beneficial to humans by absorbing shortwave radia-

tion (i.e. Sun’s UV radiation), tropospheric O3 with high concentration, are harmful
to human health and the environment. The increases in ground-level O3 concentra-
tion may lead to several adverse health impacts including coughing, sore or scratchy
throat, inflamed airways, lung diseases, and chronic pulmonary diseases. World
Health Organization (WHO) Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) suggests threshold
limit of ground-level O3 at 100 μg/m3 for 8 h, daily maximum of O3 concentration
in order to protect human health (WHO 2006, pp. 14–15). Exposure to high O3
concentrations (100 to 160 μg/m3) associate with physiological and inflammatory
lung effects and increase in daily mortality about 3 to 5%; while exposure to very
high O3 concentrations (greater than 240 μg/m3) will lead to significant health effects
and proportion of vulnerable populations affected are substantial (WHO 2006,
pp. 13–17). When O3 is inhaled, it is not removed by the upper respiratory tract
due to low water solubility and therefore it can reach the lower respiratory and
irritate lung tissue. Short-term exposure to O3 leads to a decrease in lung function,
lung inflammation, immune system activation, aggrivate cardiovascular diceases
(for example, increase in hart rate and diastolic pressure) and may lead to permanent
respiratory system damage (Nuvolone et al. 2018, pp. 8074–8088). A long-term
exposure to O3 causes asthma and leads to respiratory structural changes (Nuvolone
et al. 2018, pp. 8074–8088).
Exposure to elevated ground-level O3 concentration affects plants, crops, and
trees. High concentrations of O3 decrease photolysis, growth rate, and crop yield and
biomass (Felzer et al. 2007, pp. 784–798). Several affected plants show signals of O3
stress including light-tan spots or darkly pigmented areas, bronzing, browning, and
reddening (Fig. 9.3) and they are more susceptible to pests, disease, and drought
(NASA 2002). The concentrations of tropospheric O3 range from 40 to 80 ppb may
reduce soybean crop about 10%, about 6–8% of winter wheat and about 5% corn
crop (NASA 2002). Negative effects on vegetations lead to economic losses and
market value of crops sold (WHO 2000, Chap. 12). The effects of high level O3 on
individual plant and vegetation may expand to the ecosystems through effects on
carbon, energy and nutrient cycles, soil and hydrology systems and loss of species
diversity (Felzer et al. 2007, pp. 784–798; WHO 2000, Chap. 12).
5 Ozone as a Greenhouse Gas
Radiative forcing refers to the imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiative
flux at the tropopause due to atmospheric perturbations. This indicator provides a
simplified index based on factors that are believed to influence the climate system
and it is widely used to estimate effects of greenhouse gaseous and aerosols on
climate change (NOAA 2019; Gauss et al. 2006, pp. 575–599; IPCC 2001,
Chap. 5–6). The change of atmospheric compositions, land use albedo, and incom-
ing solar radiation will lead to an energy imbalance, but not all of them will lead to
a b
Photosynthetic Activity
lower higher
Fig. 9.3 Effects of tropospheric O3 on plants (a) affected soybean leaves with moderate O3
concentrations (two leaves on the right-hand side) have less photosynthesis compared with those
in control chambers (two leaves on the left-hand side), (b) affected potato leaves on high
concentrations of O3 show signal of O3 stress (browning) (NASA 2002)
the change of global energy budget. An energy imbalance that does not immediately
affect the radiative fluxes is called “non-radiative forcing.” On the other hand, any
change that directly involve with the global radiation budget is called “direct
radiative forcing” and those that first lead to the change of climate system and finally
lead to the change of radiative fluxes is called “indirect radiative forcing” (NRC
2005, Chap. 1). Positive radiative forcing leads to an increase in the global energy
budget, results in an increase in global temperature, while negative radiative forcing
leads to a decrease in the global energy budget, results in a decrease in global
temperature (SEI 2011).
NOx and VOC are indirect greenhouse gases that influence on O3 formation and
lifetimes of other greenhouse gases. NOx has an indirect radiative forcing through
production of tropospheric O3 that providing a positive radiative forcing and leads to
global warming. On the other hand, NOx reduces the concentrations of methane
(CH4) by perturbing the concentrations of hydroxyl radical (OH), providing a
negative radiative forcing that leads to partly cancel out the O3 radiative forcing.
Estimated O3 radiative forcing per change in NOx emission (unit: 102 Wm2 per
TgN year1) is 0.35 for the USA, 0.29 for Scandinavia and 2.4 for Southeast Asia
(Fuglestvedt et al. 1999, pp. 961–977; IPCC 2001, Chap. 6). Estimated CH4 radia-
tive forcing per change in NOx emission over the USA, Scandinavia and Southeast
Asia are 0.5, 0.37, and 2.3 (102 Wm2 per TgN year1) Asia (Fuglestvedt
et al. 1999, pp. 961–977; IPCC 2001, Chap. 6). VOC has a small direct radiative
forcing. Their indirect radiative forcing effects mostly come from their production of
tropospheric O3 and organic aerosols.
Tropospheric O3 is the third most important greenhouse gas after CO2 and CH4
(IPCC 2001, Chap. 4). O3 directly affects the atmospheric radiative budget by
absorbing visible, ultraviolet, and infrared (heat) spectrum region (Mickley et al.
1999, pp. 30153–30172; NASA, December 5, 2019, comment on NASA 2011;
Fig. 9.4 Estimated global and annual mean radiative forcing (W m2) from pre-industrial times to
present (1750 to about 2000). Vertical lines with “x” refer to estimated uncertainty range and the
lines with “o” refer to no central estimate due to large uncertainties. H, M, L, and VL refer to high,
medium, low, and very low levels of scientific understanding, respectively (IPCC 2001, p. 392)
Gauss et al. 2006, pp. 575–599). Therefore, any changes of O3 concentration in the
atmosphere will contribute to the changes of radiative forcing (Stevenson et al. 2013,
pp. 3819–3822).
Tropospheric O3 contributes to positive radiative radiation forcing both short-
wave and long wave radiation (SEI 2011). Figure 9.4 illustrates estimated radiative
forcing (W m2) since pre-industrial times (1750 to about 2000) for different
atmospheric species. Well-mixed greenhouse gases species including CO2, CH4,
N2O, and halocarbons; tropospheric O3 (Trop. O3) and black carbon from fossil fuel
burning (FF (bc)) show positive radiative forcing as well as solar radiation, aviation
contrails and cirrus clouds, results in increases in global energy budget and global
warming. On the other hand, stratospheric O3 (Strat. O3), sulfate, organic carbon
from fossil fuel burning (FF (oc)), biomass burning aerosol (BB), and land-use
albedo decrease global temperature due to their negative radiative forcing effects.
The changes of global radiative due to the changes of tropospheric O3 concentra-
tion from several studies are summarized in Table 9.1. In general, since
pre-industrial time, the changes in global tropospheric O3 range from about +5 to
+25 Dobson Unit (DU; 1 DU ¼ 2.7 1016 molecules O3 cm2) depending on region
(Mickley et al. 1999, pp. 30153–30172). While over rural regions, the increases in
tropospheric O3 may less than 5 DU, those values may reach 20 to 25 DU over
polluted areas influenced by biomass burning (Mickley et al. 1999,
Table 9.1 Change of tropospheric O3 concentrations (ΔO3) in Dobson Unit (DU) since
pre-industrial time and effects on global shortwave (SW), longwave (LW), and net radiative forcing
in (W m2) (modified from IPCC 2001, p. 363)
Clear sky conditions Total sky conditions
References ΔO3 LW SW Net LW SW Net Model
Berntsen 7.600 0.260 0.050 0.310 0.210 0.070 0.280 Reading
et al. (1997)a 7.600 0.330 0.060 0.390 0.230 0.080 0.310 Oslo
Brasseur – – – – – – 0.370
et al. (1998)a
Haywood 7.900 0.330 0.050 0.380 0.230 0.080 0.310
et al. (1998)a
Hauglustaine 8.940 0.448 0.063 0.511 0.338 0.088 0.426
and Brasseur
(2001)a
Stevenson 8.700 0.326 0.065 0.391 0.201 0.088 0.289
et al. (1998)a
Kiehl et al. 8.400 0.316 0.063 0.379 0.251 0.069 0.320
(1999)a
Mickley et al. <5–25 – – – 0.350 0.090 0.440 GISS
(1999) GCM 2
Berntsen 9.600 0.357 0.071 0.428 0.246 0.096 0.342
et al. (1997)a
Lelieveld and – – – – – – 0.420
Dentener
(2000)a
Hauglustaine – – – – – – 0.430 MOZART
and Brasseur
(2001)
Shindell et al. – – – – – – 0.300 GISS
(2003) GCM
Gauss et al. 7.9–13.8 – – – – – 0.320 CCMs and
(2006) CTMs
Cionni et al. – 0.236 0.081 0.317 0.146 0.084 0.229 CAM3.5
(2011) and GISS-
PUCCINI
(Shindell – – – – – – 0.470 GISS TES
et al. 2013) and
NCAR-
CAM 3.5
model
Rap et al. – – – – – – 0.320 TES O3
(2015) satellite
data with
TOMCAT
model
Checa-Garcia – 0.433 0.056 0.489 0.242 0.070 0.312 CMIP6
et al. (2018)
a
IPCC (2001, p. 363)
pp. 30153–30172). Due to the increases in tropospheric O3 since pre-industrial time

results in increases in net radiative forcing by about 0.23 to 0.44 W m2 (about
0.05 to 0.1 W m2 from shortwave radiation and about 0.20 to 0.45 W m2 from
longwave radiation).
The change of radiative forcing is inhomogeneous due to a non-uniform tropo-
spheric O3 distribution which depends on season and location (Shindell et al. 2003,
pp. 1675–1702). Shindell et al. (2013) estimated the effects of the change of
tropospheric O3 on global radiative forcing through the changes in anthropogenic
tropospheric O3 precursors (i.e. nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, methane, and
non-methane hydrocarbons) and O3-depleting substances (ODS; ODS ¼
halocarbons, i.e. chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and
halons) emissions. The results showed that the changes in the precursors substantial
affected tropospheric O3 concentrations, elevating radiative forcing about 0.2 W
m2 even over the remote Southern Ocean. The maxima values of those were found
in the Northern Hemisphere, especially over subtropics and mid-latitudes, with
values of 0.4 to 0.6 W m2 (Fig. 9.5a). The average of those values for whole-
atmosphere was about 0.47 0.14 W m2 (0.41 W m2 from troposphere and
0.06 W m2 from stratosphere). On the other hand, the changes in ODS resulted in
the decreases in radiative forcing, particularly over high latitudes in the Southern
Hemisphere (Fig. 9.5b) with the average value for whole-atmosphere was 0.23
0.07 W m2 (0.06 W m2 from troposphere and 0.17 W m2 from stratosphere).
Integrating results from O3 precursors and ODS leaded to a complexity and very
inhomogeneous pattern of the net radiative forcing (Fig. 9.5c).
O3 radiative forcing at a location strongly depends on season (Cooper et al. 2014;
Kiehl et al. 1999) due to seasonal variation of tropospheric O3 concentrations which
we have already discussed in Sect. 2.
Besides the direct effects of the change of tropospheric O3 on global radiative
forcing, an important indirect effect is the change in other atmospheric compositions
associated with the change of tropospheric O3. Typically, increases in O3 concentra-
tion enhance the concentration of OH, which influences the CH4 lifetime and its
concentration; eventually, impacts on tropospheric O3 concentrations (Iglesias-
Suarez et al. 2018, pp. 6121–6139; NRC 2005, Chap. 4).
An alternative technique to estimate global warming impact of gaseous species is
global warming potential (GWP). By comparing the amount of absorbed energy by a
ton of a species with the absorbed energy by a ton of CO2 emission for 100-year
period, GWP of the gas can be estimated. Derwent et al. (2001) estimated GWP of
O3 based on the emissions of tropospheric O3 precursors which O3 precursor
obviously contribute to global warming with the GWP of O3 (weighted with
emissions) range from 40 to 900 (Table 9.2).
Fig. 9.5 Annual average O3 radiative forcing (W m2) for whole-atmosphere derived from the
Goddard Institute for Space Studies radiative transfer model (GISS-RTM) due to (a)) tropospheric
O3 precursors, (b) halocarbons (DOS), and (c) all-cause (tropospheric O3 precursors and DOS)
(Shindell et al. 2013, pp. 567–570)
Table 9.2 Global emissions of anthropogenic tropospheric O3 precursors and GWP of O3

weighted by their emission over a 100-year time horizon (modified from Derwent et al. 2001,
p. 474)
Tropospheric O3 Fossil fuel related emissions GWP O3 (weighted emission,
precursors (Tg year1) Tg year1)
Methane (CH4) 100 330
Surface oxide of nitrogen 69 900
(NOx)
Aircraft NOx 1.8 600
Carbon monoxide (CO) 425 220
Hydrogen (H2) 20 40
6 Relationship Between Ozone and Its Precursors
As explained in Sect. 3, the major O3 precursors in troposphere are NO2 and VOCs.
While the formation of O3 through the photolysis of NO2 is considered as the basic
mechanism, the O3 formation through the chemical reactions of VOCs are compli-
cated because of the presence of various VOCs species.
In this section, we examine the relationship between O3 and NOx during the
photostationary state (PSS) which is the balance between the O3 formation from
Eqs. (9.1) and (9.2) and the O3 destruction from Eq. (9.3). We select Bangkok
Metropolitan Region (BMR), Thailand, as our case study due to the information
accessibility. Furthermore, atmospheric chemistry studies in Southeast Asian
countries are rare; therefore, we believe that our case study will make this chapter
more interesting and noticeable.
The BMR consists with Bangkok, the capital city of Thailand, and five provinces
surrounding Bangkok. A majority of the country’s economy and development occur
within this area (Uttamang et al. 2018, pp. 12581–12593). Since 1995, the BMR has
experienced air quality degradation and O3 exceedances due to the increases in
emissions from automobiles and industrial activities. Furthermore, the weather over
this region with high temperature, strong solar radiation, and high humidity also
accelerate O3 formation in this area. Besides local contribution of pollutants, the
BMR is influenced by regional contribution or long-range transport of pollutant
(Uttamang et al. 2018, pp. 12581–12593).
Figure 9.6 illustrates observed hourly tropospheric O3, NO, and NO2 during
2010 to 2014 from three monitoring station types including Bangkok site, Roadside
site, and Suburb site, located in the BMR. While Bangkok monitoring sites (nine
monitoring stations) are located in residential and commercial areas of Bangkok and
away from the roads about 50 to 100 m., Roadside sites (two monitoring stations)
refer to the monitoring stations that are located in Bangkok within 2 to 5 m from the
roads (Zhang and Oanh 2002, pp. 4211–4222; Uttamang et al. 2018,
pp. 12581–12593). Six monitoring stations that are located in the Bangkok’s
vicinities are classified as Suburb sites. The figure shows that when the concentration
of NOx is lower than 60 ppb, the concentrations of tropospheric O3 increase with
a 450 d 30000
400
~60 ppb 5000
Data frequency
[NO] [NO2] [O3] ppb
350
300 0000
250
5000
200
150 0000
100
5000
50
0 0
1 10 100 1000
00
0
90 0
0
10
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
10
–1
[NO2] ppb
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
d
t
Concentration bins of [NO] [NO2] [O3] ppb
b 450 e 3500
400
3000
~60 ppb
Data frequency
[NO] [NO2] [O3] ppb
350
300 2500
250 2000
200 1500
150
1000
100
50 500
0 0
00
1 10 100 1000
90 0
0
10
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
10
–1
[NO2] ppb
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
d
t
c 450 f 25000 Concentration bins of [NO] [NO2] [O3] ppb
400
~60 ppb
[NO] [NO2] [O3] ppb
Data frequency
350 20000
300
15000
250
200
10000
150
100 5000
50
0 0
00
1 10 100 1000
0
90 0
0
10
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
10
–1
[NO2] ppb
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
d
t
Concentration bins of [NO] [NO2] [O3] ppb
[O3] [NO] [NO2] [O3] [NO] [NO2]
[O3] trendline [NO] trendline [NO2] trendline
Cross-over point
Fig. 9.6 The relationships between O3, NO, and NO2 over (a) Bangkok monitoring stations, (b)
Bangkok roadside monitoring stations, and (c) Bangkok vicinities monitoring stations. Bar charts
(d–f) reveal the concentration distributions of O3, NO, and NO2 (Uttamang et al. 2018,
pp. 12581–12593)
NOx. When the concentration of NOx is about 60 ppb, the crossover point among the
three species occurs. After this point (the concentration of NOx is greater than
60 ppb), tropospheric O3 rapidly decrease (Uttamang et al. 2018,
pp. 12581–12593). Furthermore, high concentrations of tropospheric O3 were com-
monly observed over Suburb sites than Bangkok and Roadside sites.
The figure depicts that tropospheric O3 has a non-linear relationship to the
concentrations of its precursors; thus the increases in the concentrations of O3
precursors do not necessarily increase the concentration of O3 (IPCC 2001,
Chap. 4; US EPA 2018). In urban areas with very high concentrations of NO, O3
is titrated by NO (Eq. (9.11)) resulting in decreases in O3 concentration.
O3 þ NO ! NO2 þ O2 ð9:11Þ
A key factor to control O3 formation in the atmosphere is the ratio of VOCs to

NOx (VOCs/NOx ratio). Importance of the VOCs/NOx ratio on tropospheric O3
formation can be explained by the competition OH-VOCs reaction and OH-NOx
reaction. In general, the reaction of OH-NOx is about 5.5 times faster than the
OH-VOC reaction. In a system with the initial NOx concentration equal to the initial
VOCs concentration, the decreases in NOx is faster than the decrease in VOCs
concentrations. Without new NOx emission, the VOCs/NOx ratio increase with time
and the reaction between OH-VOCs becomes more important. Under this condition,
new radicals are generated and O3 formation is accelerated (Seinfeld and Pandis
2016).
Regarding the above concept, under high NO2 concentration (low VOCs/NOx
ratios), OH preferentially reacts with NO2. Under these conditions, OH radicals are
removed from the system and retards the formation of O3. An increase in VOCs/NOx
ratio increases the VOCs-OH reaction. Under these conditions, new radicals are
produced in the system, results in accelerating O3 formation. Without an additional
NOx emission, NOx concentrations in the system becomes insufficient. Under these
conditions, radical–radical reactions (Eqs. (9.12) and (9.13)) become dominant
which decrease O3 formation in the system.
HO2 þ HO2 ! H2 O2 þ O2 ð9:12Þ
RO2 þ HO2 ! ROOH þ O2 ð9:13Þ
7 Ozone Management
On purpose of tropospheric O3 management, it is complicate to suggest an effective

control strategy for tropospheric O3 since the relationship between tropospheric O3
and VOCs is complicate and even more under the complexity of VOCs present in the
atmosphere (i.e. alkanes, alkenes, and aromatic hydrocarbons) and their chemistries
(NRC 1991, Chap. 6);
The role of VOCs/NOx ratio on tropospheric O3 formation can be described by
empirical kinetic modeling approach diagram (EKMA diagram) (Fig. 9.7). This
diagram is generated for a specific city or state and there is no a universal EKMA
diagram that can be applied for all situations. Each city or state may derive EKMA
diagram by performing a smog chamber experiment with varies initial NOx and
VOCs concentration or performing an air quality model and test against smog
chamber data.
Regarding the diagram, maximum concentrations of tropospheric O3 (in ppm) are
plotted as a function of the concentration of VOCs (x-axis, in ppmC) and NOx
(y-axis, in ppm), while other parameters are set as constant. Two regimes are
identified with regards to the diagram including NOx-limited regime and VOCs-
4
0.28
1
O3 (ppm) = 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.34 0.40
VOC 8
0.24 =
NOx 1
0.20 0.30
0.12 0.20 0.28 0.32 0.36
NOx (ppm)
0.16 VOC
LIMITED 15
1
0.12
0.08
NOx
0.04 LIMITED
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
VOC (ppmC)
Fig. 9.7 O3 isopleth diagram with VOC-limited and NOx-limited regimes (NRC 1991, p. 165)
limited regime. Under NOx-limited regime, the rate of O3 formation increases with
the concentration of NOx. While under VOCs-limited regime, the rate of O3 forma-
tion decreases with an increase in NOx.
EKMA diagram is a concise technique to predict produced maximum O3
concentrations due to different VOCs/NOx ratios, however, there are several
limitations for applying O3 isopleths for O3 control strategies. These isopleths are
very sensitive to initial conditions which the ratio of VOCs/NOx may vary with time
and space. Since these diagrams are applied for 1-day O3 situation at a location,
determining O3 concentrations for multiple days is not applicable. O3 isopleths
derived from air quality models may contain high uncertainties due to weather
simulation, over or underestimated emissions, chemical mechanism, and initial
VOCs composition. In general, air quality models tend to underestimate the ratios
of VOCs/NOx compared with measurement (NRC 1991, Chap. 6).
VOC-limited and NOx-limited regimes can be indicated through several
indicators for O3 formation, for example, the ratio of H2O2/HNO3, O3/NOx, O3/
NOy (NOy ¼ NOx + HNO3 + N2O5 + NO3 + PAN + HONO + HNO4), O3/NOz (NOz
¼ HNO3 + N2O5 + NO3 + PAN + HONO + HNO4), HCHO/NO2, and HCHO/NOy
(Sillman 1995, pp. 14175–14188; Hammer et al. 2002, pp. 1–18; Lam et al. 2005,
pp. 1967–1977; Zhang et al. 2009, pp. 512–518; Campbell et al. 2015, pp. 569–586).
The transition values to indicate the regimes for these indicators are shown in
Table 9.3. When calculated ratios are lower than their transition values,
VOC-limited regimes are more favored; otherwise, NOx-limited regimes are
Table 9.3 NOx-VOC indicators of O3 formation and transition values

Indicators Transition values Note
H2O2/HNO3 0.2 Hammer et al. (2002), Lam et al. (2005), Liu et al. (2010),
Sillman (1995), Zhang et al. (2009)
0.3 to 0.6a Millard and Toupance (2002)
0.8 to 1.2b Lam et al. (2005)
O3/NOx 7 Zhang et al. (2009)
O3/NOy 20 Zhang et al. (2009)
O3/NOz 1 Zhang et al. (2009)
HCHO/NO2 0.28 Zhang et al. (2009)
a
Study was performed in France
b
Study was conducted in China
indicated. For example, under low NOx concentrations (high VOC/NOx ratio), the
major radical sink for this system is H2O2. On the other hand, HNO3 is the major
radical sink under high NOx concentration (low VOC/NOx ratio) (Jacob, 1999; Lam
et al., 2005). When the values of H2O2/HNO3 are lower than 0.2, VOC-limited is
more likely to be presented. Other indicators also can be applied to identify VOC-
and NOx-limited including the ratio of O3/NOx, O3/NOy, O3/NOz, HCHO/NO2, and
HCHO/NOy (Sillman 1995, pp. 14175–14188; Hammer et al. 2002, pp. 1–18; Lam
et al. 2005, pp. 1967–1977; Zhang et al. 2009, pp. 512–518; Campbell et al. 2015,
pp. 569–586).
To analyze potential emission control strategies in order to improve air quality in
the BMR, Uttamang et al. (2018) performed a grid-based modeling study by using
the weather research and forecasting model coupled with chemistry (WRF-Chem
model). To predict O3 formation regimes (i.e. VOC- and NOx-limited regimes) in the
BMR during January to March 2010 or high O3 season, H2O2/HNO3 was selected as
an O3 formation indicator. The results in this study showed that the indicator with
transition value of 0.2 (Sillman 1995, pp. 14175–14188), 0.8, 1.2 (Lam et al. 2005,
pp. 1967–1977) and 2.4 suggested that most areas in the BMR were VOC-limited
(Fig. 9.8). Therefore, in the BMR, decreases in VOC emission would show more
benefit to control tropospheric O3 concentrations than developing NOx-only emis-
sion control strategies.
Besides VOC emission from anthropogenic sources (vehicles and industrial
facilities), the BMR is also influenced by VOC emitted from biogenic sources.
Under VOC-limited, the present of biogenic VOC emission in and around the
BMR favor the formation of O3 in this area (Uttamang et al. 2018, p. 117433).
196
a b c
16°N 16°N 16°N
15°30'N 15°30'N 15°30'N
15°N 15°N 15°N
14°30'N 14°30'N 14°30'N

BMR
14°N 14°N 14°N
13°30'N 13°30'N 13°30'N
13°N 13°N 13°N
99°30'E 100°E 100°30'E 101°E 101°30'E 102°E 99°30'E 100°E 100°30'E 101°E 101°30'E 102°E 99°30'E 100°E 100°30'E 101°E 101°30'E 102°E
H2O2/HNO3
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 2 4 8 10
Fig. 9.8 Spatial distribution of H2O2/HNO3 with the transition value of 0.2 during (a) January, (b) February, and (c) March 2010. Yellow colors and blue colors
refer to VOC-limited and NOx-limited, respectively (Uttamang et al. 2018, p. 117433)
P. Uttamang et al.
8 Summary
Since pre-industrial times, tropospheric O3 concentration has been increasing con-

tinuously due to rapid increases in the emission of O3 precursors. High
concentrations of tropospheric O3 are harmful to human health and environment.
As a greenhouse gas species, tropospheric O3 also plays an important role in
controlling global energy budget and enhancing global temperature.
However, developing a control strategy for O3 management is complicated due to
a non-linear relationship between O3 and its precursors. Besides anthropogenic
emissions of NOx and VOC, biogenic emissions of O3 precursors also play an
important role in O3 formation. The rate of O3 precursors emitted from biogenic
emission sources are mostly controlled by temperature, light and type of plants
which increasing difficulty of developing a control strategy for O3 management.
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Role of Nanotechnology in Combating CO2
in Atmosphere 10
Deepti Goyal, Alpa Yadav, and Tanvi Vats
Abstract
Greenhouse gases are a menace in today’s world. Human activities have led to
massive emission of greenhouse gases and CO2 emission has emerged as neces-
sary evil as several industries are dependent on CO2 as a raw material. CO2
sequestration is an important way to create a balance between the development
activities leading to its emission and the harm it potentially causes to the environ-
ment. In this chapter we specifically discuss the role played by the nanomaterials
in this aspect. Several classes of nanomaterials including metal oxides, carbon-
based nanomaterials, silica-based nanomaterials, nano biocatalysts have been
reviewed, the CO2 absorption and desorption mechanism and their limitations
have been discussed in detail. The chapter also highlights the role of
functionalization and doping in determining the efficacy of these systems.
Keywords
Greenhouse gas · Nanotechnology · Nanomaterial · Carbon dioxide
sequestration · Biocatalyst
1 Introduction
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases which let the direct sunlight reach the
Earth’s surface unhindered. The short wavelength and high energy portion of the
spectra (the visible and ultraviolet radiations) heat the surface of the earth while
longer wave length infrared part is radiated back to the atmosphere.
D. Goyal · A. Yadav · T. Vats (*)

Department of Applied Chemistry, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
e-mail: tanvi.vats@gmail.com
Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_10
202 D. Goyal et al.
Fig. 10.1 Anthropological

activities and CO2 emission % Carbon dioxide
emission
Burning of coal
Burning of
natural gas
Oil refinery
The COVID-19 scare and the quest of sitting at home trying to survive it, is
definitely making us suffer from tumultuous times and nothing seems to go right for
us. And amidst that it is very easy to lose our sanity and peace of mind. But if we
look closely, all this has given mother earth a respite from endless exploitation. From
animals enjoying freedom of a silent world, the environment is recuperating itself
from the claws of pollution, the air is much fresher and water bodies are getting
cleaner. The nature is healing itself and all of this has certainly made the whole
mankind to reflect upon the fact that we belong to the Earth, the Earth does not
belong to us.
One of the first things that turn up in our mind on such reflections is “Greenhouse
gases” (GHG). Now the work of greenhouse comes into picture, they absorb this
radiation and hence less heat escapes to the space and in turn is trapped in the lower
atmosphere. Several greenhouse gases are naturally occurring like carbon dioxide,
methane, water vapor, and nitrous oxide (human activities have added to it), while
others are synthetic like the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs), as well as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). The
increasing GHG concentration in the atmosphere has led to the problem of global
warming, which in turn is creating havoc. The mean rise in the global temperatures
has resulted in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
recommending a 50–80% reduction in GHG emission in order to avoid intense
repercussion of global warming (Songolzadeh et al. 2014, pp. 1–34; Sonwani et al.
2016).
Carbon dioxide is a primary greenhouse gas and accounts for 77% of total
greenhouse effect. Figure 10.1 charts a rough idea about the various anthropological
activities that lead to CO2 emission (Banerjeea and Mukhopadhayay 2020, p. 598).
At the same time, we cannot deny the fact that CO2 is a necessary material for life
and industry. It is a prime concern of academic and industrial researchers to develop
a sustainable CO2 cycle which involves the three Rs of reduce, reuse and recycle.
These steps include better efficient electricity production, greater energy utilization
efficiency, a shift of fuel from coal to gas, carbon capture and storage (Zheng et al.
2017, pp. 1427–1463). As CO2 is used in several industries including advanced oil
recovery, food, beverage, production of urea, fertilizers and dry ice, foam blowing,
10 Role of Nanotechnology in Combating CO2 in Atmosphere 203
dry-cleaning, extraction, mechanical industries, fire extinguishers, air-conditioning,

water treatment, supercritical solvents, etc., carbon capture and storage has gain an
edge over other measures (Banerjeea and Mukhopadhayay 2020, p. 598).
There have been several reports which suggest that nanoporous solids are ideal
adsorbents for selective adsorption and separation of CO2 and are an ideal candidate
for CO2 sequestration. This is attributed to their high surface area, easily adjustable
porosity, and large pore volume (Kim et al. 2005, pp. 1560–1571; Zhou 2008,
pp. 37–46; Huang et al. 2006, pp. 254–260). There are several materials which are
being used for the aforementioned purpose, in this chapter we will be discussing
metal oxides (alkali metal oxides, alkaline metal oxides, transition metal oxides, and
perovskites), carbon-based nanomaterials (carbon nanotubes, graphene, metal
organic framework including framework functionalized with zeolite, imidazoles,
Zirconia) silica nanoparticles, functionalized nanozeolites, and naobioctyalysts in
detail and their role in CO2 management.
2 Metal Oxides
Metal oxides demonstrate a huge potential for CO2 removal. It is imperative to

understand that capture of greenhouse gases is just a partial solution to the problem
of emission. In order to solve it in a more comprehensive manner we should device
ways where they are not only captured but sequestrated as well. This will definitely
lead to an overall energy as well as cost efficient process.
The general chemistry behind the application of metal oxides in this process is the
fact that they combine with CO2 to form thermodynamically stable carbonates.
These in turn on heating liberate pure CO2 while the metal oxide stands regenerated.
The former (carbonation) process is exothermic, while the latter (regeneration) is
endothermic. Thus, making this cyclic process an energy efficient process (Duan
et al. 2012, pp. 1–11; Kumar and Saxena 2014, pp. 3–30).
It is a general assumption that in order to act as a CO2 absorber a metal oxide
should meet the following criteria:
• Abundant in earth’s crust.

• React with CO2 at low temperature.
• Low regeneration energy.
• Suitable reaction kinetics.
• Essentially form a stable carbonate.
The most promising candidature for these applications is offered by alkali metals
and alkaline earth metals. This is attributed to their long durability, natural availabil-
ity, and good mechanical strength and also to their high absorption capacity at
moderate working temperatures (Rochelle 2009, pp. 1652–1654; Powell and Qiao
2006, pp. 1–49; Benson and Cole 2008, pp. 325–331). Also, it is crucial to note that
higher absorption is obtained when the metal oxides are in nanodimensions due to
their higher surface to volume ratio.
204 D. Goyal et al.
3 Alkali Metal Oxides
The two key features of alkali metal oxides which project them as a promising CO2
absorber are:
a. they have a high CO2 absorption capacity at higher temperatures;

b. small volume change during the CO2 sorption/desorption cycles.
The commonly used alkali metal oxides include Li2ZrO3 (Benson and Cole 2008,
pp. 325–331; Ida et al. 2004, pp. 41–51), Li4SiO4 (Wang et al. 2011a, b,
pp. 301–307; Quinn et al. 2012, pp. 9320–9327), Na2ZrO3 (Jimenez et al. 2013,
pp. 2557–2564; Santillan-Reyes and Pfeiffer 2011, pp. 1624–1629), and Na2SiO3
(Rodriguez and Pfeiffer 2008, pp. 92–95; Rodrıguez-Mosqueda and Pfeiffer 2013,
pp. 13452–13461). The reaction involves broadly two steps; the first step is absorp-
tion of CO2 to form carbonates and second is the regeneration of the metal oxide. It is
observed that sodium-based oxides exhibit better sorption qualities and faster sorp-
tion kinetics while lithium-based oxides score better in the regeneration of oxide.
Also, addition of dopants and reduction of particle size to nanoscale improve the
sorption qualities. Figure 10.2 tabulates relevant details about the alkali metal oxides
used in this field.
Lithium orthosilicate (Li4SiO4) Lithiun Zirconate (Li2ZrO3)

Lithium Orthosilicate offers a wide range Li ions in Li2ZrO3 are mobile and on CO2 exposure
of sorption capacities from 450-700 ° C diffuse out of the core to form lithium carbonate.
Li4SiO4(s) + CO2(g) Li2SiO3(s) + Li2CO3(s)
Dopants such as Al, Fe, Na,K and Cs increase the

Li2ZrO3 Li
CO2 uptake Li2CO3
+
Modified synthesis methods imparts felxibility in CO2
ZrO2
application Some methods are solid-state reactions,
sol–gel method , impregnated suspension ,
precipitation method , amorphous silica , Addition of dopants like K2CO3 and Y2O3 to Li2ZrO3
Quartz , fly ashes , rice husk ashes are believed to accelerates CO2 sorption kinetics.
and diatomite
Alkali metal oxides
Sodium metasilicate (Na2SiO3) Sodium zirconate (Na2ZrO3)

Not yet extensively examined. Favorable]thermodynamics and high theoretical CO2
sorption capacity
Sorption process two step mechanism: Lamellar structure.Na ions diffuses from Zirconate
(1)superficial chemical sorption
layers to form carbonates on the periphery
(2) sodium diffusion process (Rate limiting)
CO2 Na2ZrO3(s) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(s) + ZrO2(s)
Na2SiO3 H2O Na2SiO3 Na2CO3+ SiO2
The addition of steam enhances the capture
(superficially activated)
kinetics and also favors the regeneration
CO2+H2O
Sodiumantimoniate (Na3SbO4) and sodium titanate
NaHCO3+ SiO2 (Na2TiO3) are also used as CO2 absorbers
Sorption capacity increases manyfold in the
presence of water vapour and also by reducing the size
Fig. 10.2 Alkali metal oxides for CO2 sequestration

4 Alkaline Earth Metal Oxides
Generalized mechanism of CO2 sorption by alkali metal oxide have been mentioned
in Fig. 10.3. Alkali metal oxides are very promising candidates for CO2 sorption by
the virtue of the fact that both of them react to form very stable carbonates. The most
documented oxides in this group are Magnesium oxide (MgO), Calcium oxide
(CaO) and Calcium silicate (CaSiO3). The general mechanism that is observed is
the formation of carbonate shell over the oxide particle. The reaction is accelerated in
the presence of water (Feng et al. 2007, pp. 426–434; Fagerlund et al. 2012,
pp. 10380–10393; Lu et al. 2009, pp. 1936–1943; Lu et al. 2006, pp. 3944–3949).
Low regenerating temperatures make MgO an ideal CO2 absorber in both pre-
and post-combustion capture technologies (Fagerlund et al. 2012,
pp. 10380–10393). The reaction leads to the formation of carbonate shell over the
MgO particles and is catalyzed in the presence of water. It is significant to note that
the presence of water is not the only factor which increases the reaction rate. At times
it is observed that over a period of time when shell becomes thick and impermeable
the CO2 sorption efficiency drastically decreases. The carbonation reaction being a
surface phenomenon in this case, surface morphology and particle size also play an
important role.
Another well studied oxide is CaO, which not only is economical, abundant and
forms carbonate reversibly but also works well at a wide range of temperature. The
mechanism is similar to MgO and so is the major limitation. Formation of imperme-
able carbonate layer decreases the efficiency drastically. It has been observed that
using different precursors leads to improved efficiency (Lu et al. 2009,
pp. 1936–1943; Lu et al. 2006, pp. 3944–3949). Another limitation is the energy
intensive regeneration which cuts down the adsorption activity after a few cycles.
The factors that lead to improvised efficiency are addition of dopants like NaCl,
Na2CO3, KCl, KMnO4, MgCl2, CaCl2, Mg (NO3)2, reduction of particle size and
CaO source (CaO obtained from calcium acetate exhibits better conversion property
and greater durability than the CaO derived from natural limestone) (Manovic et al.
2008, pp. 3258–3264).
Fig. 10.3 Generalized

mechanism of CO2 sorption
by alkali metal oxide (MO)
H2O
MO
(catalyst)
MCO3
(carbonate layer)
206 D. Goyal et al.
Lower cost and lower sorption temperature compared to CaO gave calcium
silicate a lot of limelight as a CO2 absorber (Wang and Lee 2009, pp. 636–638). It
has been observed that the reaction follows the similar pattern wherein presence of
water improves the overall efficacy of the process.
5 Transition Metal Oxides
Transition metal oxides work on the looping process developed by Fan et al. (2012,
pp. 7254–7280) where transition metal oxides (MxOy) are reduced by the carbona-
ceous fuel to generate CO2 and/or H2O in the fuel reactor. The reduced metal (MxOy-
1) is then oxidized back to MxOy by oxygen in the air reactor, which is an exothermic
reaction.
Cn H2m þ ð2n þ mÞMx Oy ! nCO2 þ mH2 O þ ð2n þ mÞMx Oy
2Mx Oy1 þ O2 ! 2Mx Oy
CO2 capture and power generation can be simultaneously obtained by the looping
process described above. A great deal of study has been performed on Nickel-,
Copper-, and Iron-based metal oxides and their composited particles. Although Ni-
or Cu-based materials show good reactivity their development is restricted because
of their relatively high cost, which in turn gives an edge to economical Fe-based
materials.
Iron oxide-based materials can be used for CO2 capture purpose in both the power
and non-power sectors. The key advantages of these materials are:
• Convenience of use
• Thermodynamic favorability
• Longer life and slow degradation of sorption capacity.
The mechanism of CO2 sorption is a mix of physisorption and carbonate forma-

tion [magnetite]. Iron based sorption materials find a suitable fit in iron and steel
plants where they can be processed further in the blast furnace when their efficiency
as an absorber start decreasing (Lin et al. 2012, pp. 26322–26334).
Other transition metal oxides used in the similar application include MnO, CdO,
TiO2, ZnO, and NiO. They, however, have limitations like less natural availability,
toxicity (in case of CdO), etc.
6 Perovskites
The stable structural framework of perovskites despite of ionic movement gives

them an edge over other metal oxides as they have a lower degradation even after
several cycles and small volume change when oxide is converted to carbonates.
Galven and co-workers investigated the CO2 adsorption behavior of Li2SrTa2O7,

a layered perovskite (Galven et al. 2010, pp. 4191–4197). Under humid CO2
environment, Li2SrTa2O7 is transformed into LiHSrTa2O7 releasing LiOH, which
then locks CO2 in the form of Li2CO3.
Li2 SrTa2 O7 þ 1=2H2 O þ 1=2CO2 ! Li2 SrTa2 O7 þ 1=2Li2 CO3
Another perovskite material is Ba4Sb2O9, which is synthesized using a solid-state

reaction in air from BaCO3 and Sb2O3 (Dunstan et al. 2013, pp. 1–7; Dunstan et al.
2013, pp. 4881–4891). The CO2 capture mechanism is given in the following
equation:
6H‐Ba4 Sb2 O9 þ 3CO2 Ð BaSbO6 þ 3BaCO3
Though the above reaction has a similar equilibrium constant as that of

CaO-based sorbents, yet perovskite showed a greater stability and no reduction in
sorption capacity was observed even after 100 cycles.
7 Carbon-Based Nano-Sorbents
Wide availability, high chemical and thermal stability, moisture resistance, and low
cost make carbon-based nano-sorbents promising candidates for CO2 sequestration.
Carbon nanotubes, both single walled and multi-walled CNTs, nanoporous carbon
materials, and graphene-based nanomaterials are the commonly studied materials for
this application (Alonso et al. 2017, pp. 51–62).
8 Nanoporous Carbon-Based Materials
Nanoporous carbon-based materials can be thought as a gradual progress from

mesoporous materials which showed good results for CO2 capture. Since promising
adsorption results for CO2 capture by mesoporous oxides were observed, decrease in
particle size obviously lead to positive results.
9 Carbon Nanotubes (CNT)
CNT are hollow tubular structures with diameter in the range of 0.8–2 nm and length
greater 100 nm to several cm. It is observed that CNT have a greater preference for
CO2 in comparison to methane and hydrogen sulfide (Esteves et al. 2008, pp. pp.
281–296). CNT can also be employed as composite fillers and improve the kinetics
of gas storage materials. Yoo and co-workers synthesized various MOF-CNT
composites by varying MOF concentration (Yoo et al. 2014, pp. 49614–49619).
Kang et al. used multi-walled CNT as an effective additive to improve the kinetics of
208 D. Goyal et al.
gas storage materials which proved very effective in CO2 absorption (Kang et al.
2015, pp. 79–83). We can definitely say that CNTs are ideal templates for nanopar-
ticle immobilization which leads to construction of designed nano architectures
capable of multiple applications and supports for heterogenous catalysts is one of
them. Lu and coworkers modified CNTs with 3-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane
(H2NCH2CH2CH2-Si(OCH2CH3)3, and demonstrated that the modified CNT
absorbed 40% more CO2 than non-modified CNT (Lu et al. 2008, pp. 3050–3056).
10 Graphene
Graphene can crowned as the most “in demand” material today. This
two-dimensional, single atom layered material is involved in a multitude of areas
and CO2 sequestration is no exception (Gadipelli and Guo 2015, pp. 1–60).
Graphene-based materials have marvelous adsorption capacity, outstanding catalytic
performances, they are light in weight and cheaper to produce as compared to other
solid-state gas adsorbers (D’Alessandro et al. 2010, pp. 6058–6082). In general the
surface adsorption of gases on graphene-based materials depends on the electrostatic
attraction, dispersion interactions, van der Waals interactions or charge transfer
(D’Alessandro et al. 2010, pp. 6058–6082; Wang et al. 2013, pp. 19–40).
Modification of graphene with different compounds lead to enhanced adsorption.
Graphene has been modified with different compounds to enhance the adsorption
properties. Nano mesh graphene with porous MgO layers offered a great storage
capacity for several greenhouse gases including CO2 (Ning et al. 2012,
pp. 6815–6817) Mg-Al layered double layered oxides exhibited 2.5 times better
adsorption properties when they were composited with negatively charged graphene
oxide (Garcia-Gallastegui et al. 2012, pp. 4531–4539). On the recycling front also
these composites exhibited stable recycled product with increased surface area
(Kemp et al. 2013, pp. 3149–3171).
Using advanced synthetic tools like such as in situ reduction, electro-deposition,
or thermal evaporation graphene-based materials can also incorporate metal nano
particles like Au, Ag, Pt, Ni, Ru via non-covalent interactions (Wang et al. 2016,
pp. 9194–9199). Though they do not have a wide application yet but they hold a
promise to have good sorption properties as suggested by the theoretical studies.
11 Metalorganic Frameworks
Metalorganic frameworks (MoFs) are emerging class of porous solids, comprise of

single ions or composites bridged by organic linking groups to form composites of
one-, two-, or three-dimensional matrix. High-performance MoFs have elastomeric
pore sizes, adequate surface areas, easy pore functionalization, active metal area,
specific heteroatoms, other building unit interactions, hydrophobicity, defects, and
porosity and emerged metal catalysts. The unique structural and chemical properties
of MOFs, boost their potential toward metal organic frameworks for CO2 capture
and conversion (Christopher et al. 2017, p. 17045).
MoF could be loaded at the nanoscale to be deposited for atmospheric CO2
trapping and conversion to recover the environment being (Farha and Hupp 2010,
pp. 1166–1175; Fu et al. 2012, pp. 3364–3367; Huang et al. 2017, pp. 107–116;
Schlichte et al. 2004, pp. 81–88). The establishment of MOFs with the high
standards to the adverse conditions like heat, acid, alkaline, and moisture, would
be undefeated in challenge pollution of atmospheric CO2 once and for all (Liang
et al. 2016, pp. 1516–1526).
12 Reduction of CO2 by Different Methods with MoFs
Currently for efficient capture and storage, the development of innovative

technologies are very important for reducing CO2 emissions (Pires et al. 2011,
pp. 1446–1460). A bundle of research have established nanoporous solids, as
selective adsorbents for separation of CO2 from a mixture of gases as post-
combustion carbon capture having adequate surface area and elastomeric pore
volume (Kamimura et al. 2014, pp. 52–62). Many techniques have been proposed
for reduction of CO2 with MoF such as:
• CO2 Adsorption on MoF

• Photocatalytic reduction
• Biocatalytic reduction
• Electrochemical reduction
• CO2 conversion in Fine chemicals
• Hydrogenation of CO2.
Microporous MoFs are materials of metal composites with organic ligands

compiled in relevant solvents and chemically modified for use in gas separation,
gas storage, and catalysis (Furukawa et al. 2013, pp. 1–14; Qiu and Zhu 2009,
pp. 2891–2911). MOFs have also been interpreted for CO2 reduction and reputable
energy storage. Novel materials with adequate surface areas which increased gas
packing potential have been developed (Anbia and Hoseini 2012, pp. 326–330;
Sumida et al. 2012, pp. 724–781; Xiang et al. 2011, pp. 724–781). Kang studied
adsorption enthalpy of MOF strengthened by matrix created with carboxyl-altered
multi-wall carbon nanotubes. Outcome of this study manifested that composite stuff
absorbed immense quantities of CO2 with increased adsorption enthalpies (Kang
et al. 2015, pp. 79–83).
Different strategies for strengthen the role of CO2 adsorption on MOFs have also
been reported like interactions, partitioning of pore space, ion exchange, ligand
exchange and charge polarization, confining of single molecules, envelop of ionic
liquids, enhancement of local electric field, controlled morphology, interpenetration
of restricted framework, controlled co-adsorption of water etc. (Yu et al. 2017,
pp. 9674–9754).
210 D. Goyal et al.
Sun et al. (2019) have been studied the synthesis of carbonaceous biomass-
grounded sorbent from the receptacle and stem of sunflowers via pyrolysis method.
Thus obtained adsorbent was found to have small sized, penetrable surface area, and
interesting acceptable structure for pore wall CO2 synergy required for adequate
adsorption process.
MoF + Metal Linkers Metal – MoF Framework (Composites)
CO2 Capture
MOF matrix Reduction of CO 2
Material MOF-177 (a framework consisting of a Zn4O6 cluster and 1,3,5-

benzenetribenzoate ligand) developed by Llewellyn and saha with the excessive
adsorption capacity for CO2 and CH4 (Llewellyn et al. 2008, pp. 7245–7250).
Sorbent, Zeolite 13X, and Activated carbon (MAXSORB) also show good CO2
adsorption capacity (Cavenati et al. 2004, pp. 1095–1101; Cheng-Hsiu et al. 2012,
pp. 745–769). Millward and Yaghi (2005) also studied the volumetric dimensions of
MOF-177 with Zeolite 13X and activated carbon (MAXSORB) appeared that MOFs
set out a new attention for reducing CO2 and CH4 in depleted gases (Millward and
Yaghi 2005, pp. 17998–17999). Adsorption capacities of most MOF materials show
good CO2 and CH4 uptakes, may be increased by using altered MOFs nanomaterial,
for example, through the inclusiveness of carbon nanotubes (Khdary and Ghanem
2012, pp. 12032–12038; Xiang et al. 2011, pp. 491–494).
Due to suitable internal surface areas of metalorganic skeleton endued a conve-
nience for enormous CO2 adsorption magnitude to be achieved, virtue of the well-
organized packing and direct approach of the coming molecules on the opening
surface. For example, MOF-177, showed the higher CO2 adsorption (1452 mg/g)
as compared to the Zn4O(BDC)3 (porous framework of Zn4O6 and 1,4-
benzenedicarboxylate) that was 479.8 mg/g. Other porous materials examples are
crystal structures of the isostructural M2(C8H2O6). MoFs have excessive thickness
of open metal areas providing a very high adsorption capacity (Millward and Yaghi
2005, pp. 17998–17999).
The magnitude of adsorption of gases depends on elsatomeric size of particle
opening, flexibility, variety in shapes and functionalities (Huang et al. 2003a, b,
pp. 105–114). MoF have inferior adsorption capacities at moderate CO2 partial
pressures (Bloch et al. 2013, pp. 10441–10448). To increase performance of MoFs
several moderations have been executed on MoFs to increase their adsorption
magnitude. Some designs are based on functionalizing the opening surface with
amines, creating approachable metal areas (Xiang et al. 2011, pp. 491–494).
Zeolite imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) synthesized from zeolites, MoFs, and
1,6,7-zeoliticimidazolate have come out as a novel type of crystalline penetrable
matter explored as a possible gas depository medium of GHGS. It was observed that
this combination adsorbed 14 times more CO2 than CH4 at 0.1 MPa and room
temperature (Venna and Carreon 2010, pp. 76–78). Another example of, modified
Zr-MoFs with amino (Amino-Zr-MoFs) showed excessive CO2 and CH4 absorption
potential. The CO2 adsorption potential on amino modified Zr-MOF was found
396 mg/g at 0.988 MPa and at 273 K (Abid et al. 2013, pp. 72–82).
Recently, modified of MOFs has been investigated to enhance CO2 reduction for
instance modification of MOFs matrix through immense π-conjugated ligand inser-
tion onto Zr-based MOF (Zr6(μ3-O)4(μ3-OH)4(OH)6(H2O)6(HCHC), where HCHC
¼ hexakis (4-carboxyphenyl) hexabenzocoronene), named as PCN-136. Modified
PCN-136 have sp2-bonded carbon atoms within ligand HCHC fragments is account-
able for the expended CO2 adsorption potential. Moreover, CO2 uptake potential of
PCN-136 at 273 K found to be 61.01 cm3 g1. Qin et al. showed photocatalytic CO2
reduction potential of PCN-136 have particular CO2 reduction to HCOO, produced
10.52 μmol formate (Qin et al. 2019, pp. 2054–2060).
CO2 can be reduced by modified [Zr6O4 (OH)4 (BPDC)6] (where BPYDC ¼
2,20 -bipyridine-5,50 -dicarboxylate) by replacing the BPDC linker named as UiO-67
with 4.2 wt% BPYDC linker that had–Re(CO)3Cl bound to the nitrogen atoms gives
photoactive MOF (Zhang and Lin 2014, pp. 5982–5993).
For CO2 reduction to formate the most common method utilized modified
Zr-based MOFs. Specifically UiO-66 and -67 platforms. The utilization of modified
UiO-67 with a Ru(II) as photosensitizer and modified linker of Mn(I) catalyst was
shown the ability of substance with excessive selectivity for CO2 (Tylianakis et al.
2009, pp. 1–10).
Further modification of these Zr-based MOFs was attained by incorporating the
amino-based linkers with the post-synthetic merger of Ti(IV) instead of Zr
(IV) (116,117). Ti(IV) matrix has the adequate redox potential energy to receive
electrons from the terephthalate linker. Photoreduction of CO2 to formate accom-
plished by modified band structure of the framework. In modified structure, Ti
(IV) act like a mediator for photoreduction (Christopher et al. 2017, pp. 1–16).
The complete reduction of CO2 to CH4 attained light-catalyzed reaction
succeeding the pyrolysis and deposited gold nanoparticles onto amino modified
surface composed of Ti/O clusters bridged by 1,4-benzenedicarboxylate
(Khaletskaya et al. 2015, pp. 7248–7257).
TiO2 nanoparticles as the shell and MOF, with the regular diffusion of copper
nodes and carbon-based organic ligand named as HKUST-1([Cu3 (btc)2 (H2O)3]) as
the core combines and construct core shell material make excessive potential for
HKUST-1 for CO2 capture, boost CO2 transformation and lowering the production
of H2, with successful charge partition between the nanoparticles and the MOF
(Deria et al. 2017, pp. 5973–5983).
Electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 reported first with a modified MOF with
unsaturated metal sites with a Cu(II) rubeanate framework (Justi 1987,
pp. 2157–2174).
MOFs are results of constantly designed organic or inorganic fusion compounds
in three dimensions to give coordinated spongy polymers with organic linkers and
metal ions located near node as a cluster (Batten et al. 2013, pp. 1715–1724; Janiak
and Vieth 2010, pp. 2366–2388). Organic material created by organic linkers used
212 D. Goyal et al.
for increased CO2 adsorption and easy photogenerated exciton relocate to the
reduction metal area and CO2 adsorbed on reduction sites of metal clusters, compat-
ible with excited electron and hole interaction (Rosi et al. 2003, pp. 1127–1129;
Stock and Biswas 2011, pp. 933–969; Zhou et al. 2012, pp. 673–674; Marx et al.
2010, pp. 3795–3798).
MOFs turned out to be derived in a many of light-catalyzed reactions, including
CO2 reduction (Wang et al. 2014). Particularly, MOFs have prominent potential for
photocatalytic CO2 reduction, and studied as adsorbents for CO2, heterogeneous
catalysts for CO2 chemical transformation showed the existence of a large number of
catalytic areas (Maina et al. 2017, pp. 345–361).
Many other examples were found with prominent potential for photocatalytic
CO2 reduction such as Ru, Re, Ir metal-based homogeneous metal complexes and
porphyrin-based complexes (Cokoja et al. 2011, pp. 8510–8537).
MOFs provided precise and acute areas for the improved catalytic activity.
(Cohen 2012, pp. 970–1000).
A study on CO2 reduction with hetero-generalized molecular complexes by
incorporating ReI(CO)3 (dcbpy)Cl (dcbpy ¼ (2,20 -bipyridine)-5,50 -dicarboxylic
acid) into a porous skeleton of UiO-67, form a Re-MOF complex show
photocatalytic activity under visible light. In the absence of light there is no
formation of CO over Re-doped UiO-67, which confirms that the reduction of
CO2 to CO occured in the presence light only (Wang et al. 2011a, b,
pp. 13445–13454).
In 2017 Ryu et al. studied the synthesis of MOF incorporated Re and -NH2 based
BPDC-(NH2)2 (2,20 -diaminobiphenyl-4,40 -dicarboxylic acid) complex with
upgraded photocatalytic process for CO2 depletion to CO.
Another complex Zn2GeO4 incorporated with MOFs for photocatalytic CO2
depletion. Complex of Zn(MeIM)2 named ZIF-8 nanoparticles on Zn2GeO4
nanorods was found for photocatalytic CO2 reduction (Tachikawa et al. 2008,
pp. 14090–14101).
A complex of the NH2–Zr modified MoF ([Zr6O4(OH)4(BDC)6] named as UiO-
66 and TiO2 nanocomposites, which exhibits upgraded photocatalytic reaction for
CO2 depletion to form CO. NH2-UiO-66 was also found to combine with
Cd0.2Zn0.8S hard infusion to boost photocatalytic CO2 depletion to produce
CH3OH (Crake et al. 2017, pp. 131–140).
A hybrid systems considered for reactions in the presence of light for CO2
depletion, for example, Cu3 (BTC)2/TiO2core/shell structure (Cu3 (BTC)2, (BTC
¼ benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate) by covering a nanocrystalline TiO2 shell onto Cu3
(BTC)2 core (Li et al. 2014, pp. 4783–4788).
Mostly photocatalytic CO2 reductions carry out in organic solvents like
triethanolamine and triethylamine which are inexpensive and biodegradable. It
could be promising if the CO2 altering accomplish in aqua or combined with the
organics oxidation activity, which can convert CO2 to thin delicate chemicals (Chen
et al. 2008, pp. 1–13).
13 Mesoporous Silica Nano Particles
Several studies show the use of ordered mesoporous silica for separation of CO2
because of its tunable pore size and ability to attach various functional groups on its
surface. This resulted in improved adsorptive properties of mesoporous silica
(Sakamoto et al. 2007, pp. 303–311; Kumar et al. 2008, pp. 201–208). The detail
of silica nanoparticle structures are shown in Scheme 10.1. The most common
ordered mesoporous silica is SBA-15 and MCM-41 with hexagonal phases made-
up of closed-packed hexagonal array of surfactant micelles (Kim et al. 2005,
pp. 1560–1571; Zhou 2008, pp. 37–46; Huang et al. 2006, pp. 254–260).
High surface area, improved chemical/thermal stability, tunable pore structure,
effective surface-functionalization, and uniform pore size distribution (2–10 nm) of
mesoporous silica nanoparticles make it a favorable material maximum adsorption
of CO2 (Ahmed et al. 2016, pp. 230–238). The presence of the mesopores increases
the external surface area thus enhancing the interaction between silica nanoparticles
and the reactant.
A study revealed that SBA-15, MCM-41 and MCM-48 was proficiently captured
CO2 as compared to other gases like methane and nitrogen (Macario et al. 2005,
pp. 139–147; Liu et al. 2005, pp. 198–201; Wang et al. 2015, pp. 286–292). The
adsorption of CO2, CH4, and N2 gas over SBA-15 is well documented in literature
and results show that the adsorption of CO2 was much more than other gases (Liu
et al. 2005, p. 198). The similar results were obtained in another study showing
maximum adsorption (7 mmol/g) of CO2 over SBA-15 (Wang et al. 2015,
pp. 286–292). A comparative study of adsorption capacity of MCM-41 and
MCM-48 has been performed and the results indicated that MCM-41 captured
higher amount of CO2 as compared to MCM-48. This may be due to different
pore structures of both the adsorbents (Liu et al. 2005, pp. 198–201).
A group of researchers have synthesized ordered mesoporous silicas with the pore
size ranging from 5.6 nm to 7.6 nm and the results indicated that the silica with larger
Ordered Mesoporous Silica
Lemellar
(MCM-50)
Hexagonal
(SBA-15, MCM-41) Face centerd cubic
(FDU-12)
Biconteneuous cubic Body centered cubic
gyroid (SBA-16)
(MCM-48, KIT-6)
Scheme 10.1 Structure of ordered mesoporous silica

214 D. Goyal et al.
pore size was capable of capturing higher amount (3.45 mmol/g) of CO2 (Wang et al.
2015, pp. 286–292). But unluckily, pure silica surfaces are not capable to arrange
strong adsorption sites for adsorption of CO2 due to the presence of surface hydroxyl
groups on its surface which create hindrance in interaction between CO2 and silica
surface. Nevertheless the functionalization of mesoporous silica is an interesting
alternate to enhance the adsorption capacity as well as to increase gas-adsorbent
interations (Knofel et al. 2007, pp. 79–85). In addition, amine-functionalized silica
be responsible for effective CO2 adsorption than mesoporous silica due to its
improved physical and chemical properties such as improved surface polarities,
enhanced regeneration, inexpensive preparation, enhanced CO2 selectivity, and
improved cyclic stability. In contrast some studies revealed that after loading of
amine the pore volume decreases considerably, which inhibit the diffusion of CO2
through the surface thus reducing the efficiency of adsorption. For this purpose, a
study has been conducted to evaluate the behavior of amine-functionalized
mesoporous silica of different pore sizes ranges from 2.8 nm to 6.5 nm and it was
found that the silica with higher pore size was much more efficient in CO2 adsorption
(Son et al. 2008, pp. 31–40). Another study demonstrated an unusual increase in the
pore diameters (from 2.60 nm to 4.50 nm and to 5.20 nm) after loading of different
amines which may be due to blockage of pores by amino groups (Yokoi et al. 2004,
pp. 951–957). Furthermore, the effect of pore network in mesoporous silica was also
assessed and the studies show that the material having connected pore network was
performed well towards CO2 adsorption. Thus researchers are showing their keen
interest in mesoporous materials having expanded pore volume and high surface area
(Ma et al. 2013, pp. 5433–5439). Some researches proved that the adsorption
efficiency of amino functionalized mesoporous silica depends on number of amines
in amino organoalkoxysilanes and their method of synthesis (Zhao et al. 2007,
pp. 801–806).
A large number of studies show that functionalized ordered mesoporous silica
have been successfully used in adsorption of CO2 even at high temperature (75 C)
(Yue et al. 2006, pp. 1717–1722) and low pressure (0.005 MPa). This proves that
amine-functionalized ordered mesoporous silica is less subtle to temperature and
partial pressure of CO2 than other adsorptive materials like active carbon (Wang
et al. 2007, pp. 805–810). Furthermore, studies also show that amine-functionalized
mesoporous silica is equally efficient as other molecular sieves like zeolites and
hydrotalcite (Zelenak et al. 2008, pp. 358–364). The reason behind improved
adsorption of CO2 over amine-functionalized mesoporous silica is the chemical
bonding between acidic CO2 and basic amine group, lead to the formation of
carbamate as shown in Scheme 10.2 (Huang et al. 2003a, b, pp. 2427–2433; Harlick
and Sayari 2005, pp. 987–994):
13.1 Nano Zeolites
Nanozeolites, found in sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks, are three-dimensional,

highly ordered porous crystalline aluminosilicates having dense network of AlO4
and SiO4, which generates cavities inside it (Holmberg et al. 2003, pp. 13–28;
Holmberg et al. 2004, pp. 189–198). These cavities are occupied by water and
other ions. Zeolites are highly porous minerals with high surface areas and molecular
sieving properties responsible for its high absorption and ion-exchange capacity
(Rakoczy and Traa 2003, pp. 69–78). Due to these properties of zeolites, they are
also called molecular sieves (Kragten et al. 2003, pp. 10006–10016; Harikrishnan
et al. 2004, pp. 4558–4561; Knight and Kinrade 2002, pp. 3329–3332) and are used
as efficient adsorptive material to remove toxic pollutants like heavy metals,
pesticides, etc. from the environment (Subotic and Graovac 1985, pp. 199–206).
Nanozeolites, having pores in nanoscale, permitted to pass through molecules
smaller than the porediameter like mercury, while the large molecules (calcium
and potassium) cannot be separated (Coronas and Santamaria 2004, pp. 29–44).
Different natural and synthetic nanozeolites as shown in Table 10.1, have differ-
ent physical and chemical properties such as pore size, crystallite size, chemical
composition, ion-exchange capacity, and absorptivity. Among these properties,
cation exchange property is one of the important properties of nanozeolite. These
absorbed cations in zeolite framework can easily be removed by washing of
saturated zeolite with another concentrated cation solution (Dong et al. 2002,
pp. 926–929). Due to their unique physiochemical properties they have been used
as efficient adsorptive materials and catalysts in various industries like petroleum
refining and agricultural applications (Song et al. 2004, pp. 8301–8306; Aguado
et al. 2004, pp. 41–49). In general nanozeolites have 2–3 times more absorption
capacity as compared to other minerals present in soil. This is due to presence of fine
pores (in nanometer scale) present in nanozeolite, which can absorb substances like
gases and water vapors, etc. at faster rate even at low pressure (Kianfar et al. 2018,
pp. 1–7).
Nanozeolites having molecular pore size distribution, polarity, and regeneration
capability enable the selective adsorption of large quantities of CO2. Furthermore,
the reduction in pore size of zeolites from micro-level to nano-level increases active
sites on zeolite surface thus enhancing the CO2 adsorption. In addition, the energy
required for CO2 capture can be minimized by altering the interaction between CO2
and pore size of zeolites. Studies show that conventional zeolites have high adsorp-
tion capacity towards water and CO2 molecules (Flanigen 1991, pp. 13–34) but it
decreases at high temperatures and humidity. Moreover when CO2 chemisorbed on
zeolite surface, the formation of carbonates and carboxylate occurs, which create
hindrance in desorption process (D’Alessandro et al. 2010, pp. 6058–6082; Lee et al.
2008, pp. 8048–8062).
Nanozeolites like T-type zeolite, having pore size of 0.36 0.51 nm is reported
to have 30% higher adsorption capacity than conventional micro-level T-type zeolite
at given temperature and pressure conditions (Lee et al. 2008, pp. 8048–8062).
Another study has revealed that nanozeolite with a pore size of 100 nm has a high
CO2 uptake capacity (220 mg/g at 293 K at 0.1 MPa) (Shakarova et al. 2014,
pp. 5507–5519).
A schematic representation of CO2 capture in nanozeolite is shown in Scheme
10.3.
216 D. Goyal et al.
Scheme 10.2 Mechanism of CO2 adsorption over functionalized mesoporous silica
A recent research says that the adsorption capacity of nanozeolite towards CO2 is
4.81 mmol/g at 20 C temperature and 0.1–1.5 atm pressure. Also it was found that
the selectivity of CO2/N2 onto nanozeolite was 18.65 at 20 C and 1 atm. The
Table 10.1 Different natural and synthetic zeolites

Name FTC Block shape Structure
Linde type A LTA Cubic
Faujasite-type FAU Cubic
Gismondine-type GIS Tetragonal
Sodalite SOD Cubic
Clinoptilolite HUE Tetragonal
Chabazite CHA Trigonal
nanozeolite was regenerated successfully with 88% removal of CO2 (Pham et al.
2016, pp. 1–7).
Fengsheng Su and co-workers investigated the use of amine-functionalized
Y-type zeolite in adsorption/desorption process of CO2. The study revealed that
after surface modification of zeolite, the adsorption efficiency increased at low
temperature while at high temperature it get decreased. It was also found that the
CO2 adsorption capacity of modified zeolite was well-maintained even after
20 cycles of adsorption and regeneration, showing its stability as well as the cost
218 D. Goyal et al.
Scheme 10.3 CO2 capture in nanozeolite framework
effectiveness of the process (Su et al. 2010, pp. 1441–1448). A similar study
demonstrated the use of amine grafted porous NaY zeolite in evaluation of adsorp-
tion and regeneration behavior on CO2 separation. The effectiveness of the process
was examined by doing comparative study of amine modified NaY and commercial
NaY zeolite (Alias et al. 2013, pp. 160–167). Dilshod Shakarova and co-workers
synthesized Nanocrystalline NaA zeolite via template-free hydrothermal method and
used in CO2 adsorption process. The characterization results indicated that as
synthesized zeolite was highly crystalline with a well-defined facetted morphology.
The adsorption studies revealed that nanocrystals (100 nm) exhibited a high CO2
uptake capacity and a relatively rapid uptake rate compared to commercially avail-
able, micron-sized particles (Shakarova et al. 2014, pp. 5507–5519).
13.2 Nanobiocatalyst
Nanobiocatalysts such as enzymes and microorganisms have been widely utilized

because of their easy availability and significant high selectivity and activity toward
the desired product even at mild reaction conditions (Schlager et al. 2017,
pp. 812–821). Because of these properties they can be a good alternative of conven-
tional chemical catalysts. Enzymes are extensively used in various industrial
applications such as in food, medicinal, agrochemical industry and in environment
remediation. But the main problem with the use of enzyme as catalyst is its short life
time and no reusability. To overcome these problems, various researches have been
done to improve the lifetime and the reusability of enzyme catalysts. For this purpose
different approaches like enzyme immobilization, genetic modification and enzyme
stabilization have been done (Kim et al. 2006, pp. 1017–1026; Kim et al. 2008,
pp. 639–646). Among these approaches immobilization is the most widely used
technique enhance the stability and lifetime of the enzyme. The main advantages of
immobilization are as given below:
• It increases the stability of the enzyme

• It can reduce the cost of the process by the repeatedly use of enzymes.
• The rate of reaction can be increased by increasing the immobilization of
enzymes.
• It increases the robustness and resistivity of enzymes towards environmental
changes
• It can increase the thermostability of some enzymes
• The separation of enzyme can be easily done after immobilization, which makes
the process less time consuming and cost effective.
• Immobilized enzymes can be used in non-aqueous system as well, which may be
desirable in some cases.
Different methods have been used for enzyme immobilization such as cross-
linking, covalent binding, encapsulation and adsorption, presented as below
(Scheme 10.4):
The main objective of enzyme immobilization is to increase the reusability and
stability of enzyme in various enzyme catalytic applications. Various support
materials like inorganic polymers, bioceramics, mesoporous silica, and metal
nanoparticles have been used for immobilization of enzymes via different methods,
viz. adsorption, ionic bonding, covalent bonding and cross-linking, etc. Recent
studies are showing their interest in the use of nanoparticles for enzyme immobili-
zation (Jia et al. 2003, pp. 406–414; Liao and Chen 2001, pp. 1723–1727; Herricks
et al. 2005, pp. 3241–3245) due to their large surface area. This increases the percent
loading of enzyme on nanoparticles surface (Chen and Su 2001, pp. 369–375). As a
whole, nanoparticles as a support material are best suitable for enzyme immobiliza-
tion due to (1) large surface area per unit mass, (2) increased wt.% loading of
enzyme, (3) and least diffusional limitation. In this regard the use of different metals
such as silver (Sadjadi et al. 2009, pp. 1365–1368), gold (Mukhopadhyay et al.
2003, pp. 3858–3863), zirconium (Chen et al. 2008, pp. 8877–8884), and magnetic
nanoparticles (Xin et al. 2010, pp. 1389–1394) for enzyme immobilization has been
well reported in the literature.
An industrially developed enzymatic CO2 capture technique is schematically
illustrated in Fig. 10.4, in which enzyme is immobilized on a solid support and
220 D. Goyal et al.
Scheme 10.4 Different

methods of enzyme E E
immobilization E E
*E = Enzyme E
E
Cross-linking
E E E
E
Covalent binding
Enzyme
Immobilization
Methods
E E E E
E E E E
E E E E
Entrapment/encapsulation
E E E E
Adsorption
fitted in a reactor. Feed gas, containing CO2 to be captured and other gases, get
entered through the lower end of the reactor. Capture of CO2 occurred on the
immobilized enzyme and the remaining gases get out of the upper end of the reactor.
The main member of enzyme family for CO2 capture is carbonic anhydrase
(CAs), which is found in most of the microalgae and cyanobacteria. It is used for
enhancing the rate of hydration of CO2 and dehydration of bicarbonate (Hu et al.
2016, pp. 28–40; Donaldson and Quinn 1975, pp. 103–115; Vinoba et al. 2013,
pp. 5683–5690). Some recent researches established the fact that a single enzyme
could catalyze 106 molecules of CO2 per second. In addition the catalytic activity of
carbonic anhydrase enzyme was found 4000 times higher and energy consumption
was almost 7 times lower than conventional amines (Sahoo et al. 2017, pp. 77–81).
Furthermore, it can also be used to convert CO2 into solid carbonate form, such as
calcium carbonate, a stable and environmental safe product. This conversion shows
the suitable approach for enduring carbon sequestration and storage (Rayalu et al.
2012, pp. 1217–1230).
A group of researchers have demonstrated the use of carbonic anhydrase in
enhancing CO2 adsorption desorption rate and for succeeding fixation into stable
mineral carbonates. Further, to understand the efficiency of enzymes in CO2 capture
Fig. 10.4 CO2 capture on immobilized enzymes
numerous researches have been done showing its benefit towards less solvent
consumption and low heat regeneration (Sanna et al. 2014, pp. 8049–8080). In
order to achieve the successful implementation of utilization of CA in CO2 capture
process, immobilization of CA on a suitable support material was also used to
enhance the stability of the enzyme. In this regard, CA was successfully immobilized
on mesoporous molecular silica sieves (KIT-6, SBA-15 and MCM-41) with different
dimensions and pore sizes. The results indicated that the CA supported on SBA-15
was the most active catalyst for CO2 capture and also it was equally active even after
6 days at 40 C (Shao et al. 2020, pp. 2089–2096). Another study revealed the
immobilization of carbonic anhydrase on gold nanoparticles restrained to amine-
functionalized mesoporous SBA-15. From results, it was found that the gold
supported CA nanobiocatalyst was 85% active even after 20 cycles and 89% active
after 20 days as compared to its initial activity. In addition the efficiency of
nanobiocatalysts towards conversion of CO2 into CaCO3 was also examined in
this study and it was proved that CA immobilized on AuNps-3 and AuNps-8 was
efficient, ecofriendly, reusable and steady for CO2 capture process (Shamna et al.
2018, pp. 49–55).
Another work reports the use of a nanobiohybrid catalyst made up of immobilized
enzymes on dense and conductive graphene derivative for conversion of CO2 to
222 D. Goyal et al.
methanol with a Faradaic efficiency of 12% and high selectivity (Seelajaroen et al.
2020, pp. 250259). A group of researchers have been demonstrated the use of
Immobilized P. fragi cells to chitosan as a biocatalyst to convert CO2 into HCO3.
Another group of researchers have synthesized Fe3O4/SiO2 supported Bovine car-
bonic anhydrase nanobiocatalyst. From results they concluded that the prepared
magnetic nanobiocatalyst was having excellent catalytic activity towards CO2 cap-
ture and its sequestration (Vinoba et al. 2013, pp. 5683–5690). The process of CO2
capture on piolet scale using enzymes was also employed showing lessen operating
cost with enhanced plant efficiencies (Kunze et al. 2015, pp. 676–685).
14 Conclusion
Nanomaterials play an important role in CO2 sequestration and hence management

of greenhouse gases. It has been experimentally established that different classes of
nanomaterials can be effectively used as sorbents, membranes, molecular sieves or
as biocatalyst to entrap CO2 and convert it into useful pure form. Introduction of
dopant material or functionalization of nanomaterials leads to the development of
more efficient, novel nanomaterials with multifold efficiency.
However, there are some lacunae which need to addressed before the possible real
time application of the same. The researchers need to probe further into fundamental
mechanism of CO2 sorption through theoretical modeling and its experimental
testing. There should be clear pathways between CO2 conversion systems and
clean energy sources. This in turn will also help in covering up the cost of seques-
tration and will be a value addition to the product. Nanomaterials hold a great
promise in all these scenarios. The need of the hour is to develop a large scale
technological application of these materials which can address as well as arrest the
impairment caused by the anthropogenic activities.
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Mitigation Strategies of Greenhouse Gas
Control: Policy Measures 11
Manisha Gaur, Siksha Swaroopa Kar, and Anuradha Shukla
Abstract
Climate change is one of the most important threats facing by the world today. As per
recorded data, “Averaged as a whole, the global terrestrial and ocean surface
temperature for March 2020 was 1.16 C above the average of 12.7 C in the
twentieth century and the second highest in the period of 141 years”. Minor
temperature change may cause massive disasters in the form of rising sea levels,
desertification, violent and unpredictable weather patterns, water shortages, famine,
and other secondary effects including global war or conflict. Significant reduction in
global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is very much essential to prevent the worst
impact on climate change. Human beings produce greenhouse gases by burning coal,
oil, and natural gas to generate energy for electricity, food, industry, and transporta-
tion. Deforestation and agricultural activity also contributes towards emissions. Back
in 1992, the developed countries (Europe, the former Soviet Union, the USA and
Canada, Australia and New Zealand, and Japan) were contributed towards 84% of
total World’s GHG emission, whereas today’s scenario is more complicated showing
both developed and developing countries are contributing towards GHG emissions.
All developed and developing nations have come together to tackle the situation by
working through the implementation of sustainable policies to reduce GHG
emissions. This chapter provides an overview of implemented mitigation action,
policies, and strategies adopted to protect and safeguard the environment.
Keywords
GHGs · Mitigation · Policies · Climate change · Developed nations · Developing
nations
M. Gaur (*) · S. S. Kar · A. Shukla

CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India
e-mail: manisha.gaur@gmail.com
Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5_11
232 M. Gaur et al.
1 Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the existing mitigation actions or measures or

strategies along with national and international policies, that are likely to reduce the
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in developed and developing nations. Climate
change is a global problem and mutual efforts of many governments are required for
its successful mitigation (IPCC 2007; Hussein et al. 2013). Varieties of natural and
anthropogenic activities are the major reasons for the climate change and global
warming (IPCC 2007; Sreekanth 2016). However, the GHGs concentration in the
earth atmosphere caused by the human-induced activities is considered as the key
contributor to global warming and climate change.
In this context, investigating mitigation strategies adopted all across the world
becomes very much essential. The desire for combating climate change via
improvements in the energy efficiency and an increase in the share of renewables
had an impact on the policies in the developing countries (Pao and Tsai 2010). Study
shows that implementation of mitigation policies brings negative impacts on eco-
nomic situation and urban development of countries (Liu et al. 2020). Literatures
says, it is very much essential to identify the industries and system contributing
towards emissions before formulating GHG mitigation policies (Xu et al. 2018;
Guan et al. 2019). Input–output analysis (IOA) and life cycle analysis (LCA) are
widely used tool evaluate the environmental performances of different industries
(Wu et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2018). Emission intensities in terms of direct carbon
emission, indirect carbon emission and gross carbon emissions had been calculated
using input–output structural decomposition analysis method for different industries
in Beijing from 2000 to 2010 and as a result, the metal and non-metal mining
industries, the electric power, gas and water supply sector, and the construction
industry were found as the largest CO2 emitters (Wei et al. 2017). According to
Liobikiené and Butkus (2018), the policies used to promote energy efficiency and
renewable energy consumption have significant impact on the GHG emission
reduction in both Europium states and China.
Mitigation is an activity which is carried out either to reduce the releases of GHG
or to increase the removals of GHGs from the atmosphere (IPCC 2001). It involves
measures to reduce GHG emissions that cause climate change in the very first place,
viz. switching to renewable energy sources like solar or wind energy, or nuclear
energy instead of burning of fossil fuels in thermal power plants; use of electric
vehicle in transportation sectors and many more.
2 Global Scenario
International policies to prevent global warming and climate change started in the
late 1980s. In 1988, the United Nation Environment Program (UNEP) and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) established the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) (Iwata and Okada 2014). Globally, IPCC projects that
millions of people to be displaced by 2080 due to sea-level rise, also it predicts
11 Mitigation Strategies of Greenhouse Gas Control: Policy Measures 233
that heavily populated and low-lying countries will face the greatest danger from
storm surges and rising seas (Sreekanth 2016). In 1979, First World Climate
Conference took place in Geneva, for reducing the emissions and mitigation actions
related to climate change (UN 2016).
International policies concerning about GHGs mitigation are principally based on
the measures of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) which was established at the “Rio Earth Summit” in May 1992 in
New York (Fig. 11.1). The Kyoto Protocol was established at the third conference
of the parties (COP3) in 1997 of UNFCCC which took place in Kyoto, Japan for
addressing the problem of global warming and climate change. The policy of the
Kyoto protocol is based on the Montreal protocol for dealing with ozone depleting
substances (ODSs) and the 1990 US clean air act amendments for dealing with
sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions (UN 1992; Rogner et al. 2007). The industrialized
nations have approved the commitments to reduce the emissions of GHGs, under the
Kyoto protocol. These commitments are only applied to developed nations,
reflecting the international consensus that the developed countries should take the
lead in climate change mitigation (Baer et al. 2000; Sonwani and Maurya 2018).
2.1 UNFCCC
UNFCCC entered into the force in March 1994 and has achieved near universal
ratification with confirmation by 189 countries of the 194 United Nation
(UN) member states. The principle objective of UNFCCC is to maintain the
GHGs level in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent anthropogenic hindrance
with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time frame
sufficient to encourage the ecosystems, to respond naturally to climate change, to
ensure that food production is not threatened, and to allow for sustainable economic
development (Rogner et al. 2007).
2.2 KYOTO Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol entered into force in February 2005 specifying requirements for
the amount of GHG emissions that could be emitted into the atmosphere and the first
commitment period commenced in 2008 (Freedman and Jaggi 2011). This Protocol
covers six kinds of GHGs such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) (Iwata and Okada 2014). Except U.S. all other
industrialized nations ratified the Protocol. The European Union (EU), Canada,
and Japan have also agreed to specific limits on GHG emissions. While India and
China have ratified the Protocol, they did not agree to specific GHG emissions limits
(Freedman and Jaggi 2011). Annex A of the protocol lists five sectors including
energy, waste, agriculture, industrial processes, and solvents which are used to
calculate the CO2 equivalence of human-induced source emissions and removals
234
UNFCCC
Adopted: June 1992
Effective: 21st March
1994
197 Parties
KYOTO PROTOCOL COP 3 COPEHHAGEN SUMMIT, LIMA CLIMATE CHANGE PARIS AGREEMENT, COP 21 MARRAKECH
Adopted: December 1997 COP 15 CONFERENCE, COP 20 CONFERENCE, COP 22
Adopted: December 2015
Effective: 16th February 2009 2014 2016
Effective: 4th November 2016
2005
197 Parties
192 Parties
1st commitment period:

2008-2012
2nd commitment period

(DOHA Amendment):
2013-2020 (not yet
effective)
Fig. 11.1 Key international policies about climate change mitigation and adaptation
M. Gaur et al.
by sinks of GHGs for the developed countries during first commitment period
(2008–2012) (Liu et al. 2016). The Kyoto protocol under UNFCCC negotiations,
includes commitments or KYOTO targets by Annex B parties (includes most
developed countries) to achieve the reduction in the emission against base year
emission levels. These reductions were to be achieved by the end of the first Kyoto
commitment period (IPCC 2000, 2003; Liu et al. 2016). The Protocol allow these
countries to use the net changes in GHG emissions by sources and sink removals
resulting from direct land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) activities to
achieve GHG emission reduction (Liu et al. 2016)
2.3 Copenhagen Summit, 2009
Fifteenth session of the conference of the parties (COP15) to UNFCCC held in

Copenhagen, Denmark during 7–18 December 2009. COP15 was called the most
important international gathering since the second world war (Thompson 2010). The
expectations were high that the COP15 conference would produce a binding post-
2012 agreement, that is, the term following the first commitment period stipulated in
the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 (Daniel 2010). Copenhagen Accord is a non-binding
agreement, under this developed nation agree to set the target reduction of GHG
emissions by 2020. But due to discord between developed and developing countries,
a legally binding agreement could not arrive (Dahlström and Winstedt 2017).
2.4 LIMA Climate Change Conference, 2014
The twentieth climate change conference (COP20) concluded in Peru in December

2014 and named as LIMA conference. During this conference, pledge was made by
both developed and developing nations prior to and during the COP that took the
capitalization of the new Green Climate Fund (GCF). This conference made it clear
that the steps to cut, reduce, and mitigate emissions that threaten the environment
benefit the financial market (Isla and Rubio 2016).
2.5 Marrakech Climate Change Conference, 2016
The 2016 UNFCCC, COP 22 was an international meeting of political leaders and
activists to discuss about the environmental issues and climate change. It was held in
Marrakech, Morocco, on 7–18 November 2016. This COP is the first stop after Paris
Agreement and it needs to cover and take up the issues to make Paris Agreement
work and be enforced. The official outcomes of the COP 22 were a collection of
diverse documents, viz. finance, global schedule, facilitative dialogue, adaptation
fund, etc. (Carbon Brief 2016).
236 M. Gaur et al.
2.6 Paris Agreement COP 21, 2015
The Paris agreement, held in December 2015, adopted by 197 parties to the
UNFCCC at the 21st session and entered into force on November 4, 2016. The
Paris agreement aims to keep up the global average temperature below 2 C of
pre-industrial levels (Ravindranath et al. 2017) and pursuing efforts to limit the
temperature increase to 1.5 C. The signatory countries stipulate their intended
nationally determined contributions (INDCs), which are the main commitments
and contributions of that country for the fulfilment of this agreement (Torres et al.
2017). The three-mitigation component for operationalization of the Paris Agree-
ment has been shown in Fig. 11.2.
3 Mitigation Strategies: Regulatory Approaches
3.1 GHG Mitigation Options
Three categories of GHG mitigation options are presented in Fig. 11.3. Reduction
approach involves substituting the GHG producing activities with non-GHG pro-
ducing activities. The second approach is to capture the already produced GHGs.
The third mitigation option is carbon sequestration, process of capturing and storing
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) in sinks (forests, soil, ocean) other than atmo-
sphere (IPCC 2001). All the three mentioned mitigation options promote GHGs
reduction in the atmosphere with the goal of reducing global climate change.
CO2 capture and sequestration (CCS) plays a key role in reducing GHG
emissions and enabling the generation of low-carbon electricity from thermal plants.
CCS technologies reduce the CO2 emissions from power plants that burn fossil fuels
by 80–90% (Ansolobehere et al. 2012; Uprety and Saxena 2021). The three-step
process for CCS has been shown in Fig. 11.4.
Fig. 11.2 Operationalization of the Paris agreement (Ravindranath et al. 2017)

Energy efficiency improvement

Reduction
GHGs Mitigation Options
Afforestaion or prevention of
deforestation
Capture of exhaust waste from

insustries/industrial processes or
Capture & Use power plants
Capturing of GHGs and converting

it into useful products and energy
sources
Absorbing, storing out of the

Sequestration environment and converting CO2
into energy and oxygen
Fig. 11.3 Mitigation option and their mitigation classification (IPCC 2001; Fernandez et al. 2005;
Hussein et al. 2013)
CO2 Storage in
deep underground
roack formations
Transport of the
and prevent it from
captured and
migrating in
compressed CO2
Capture of CO2 upwards direction
from indutries &
power plants
Fig. 11.4 Three-step CCS process
3.2 Market Based Mitigation Policies (MBMPs)
Other alternative for controlling the GHGs emission is to apply a fee or tax on the
emission of GHGs or CO2, which is referred as carbon pricing. Carbon pricing can
be implemented using the two different instruments: carbon/coal tax and GHG
emissions trading system (ETS) (Parker 2009; Haites 2018; Stevens 2019). Tax on
GHG or CO2 emissions provides an incentive to implement the emission reduction
options whose mitigation costs are lower than its price (Haites 2018). Government
sets the tax rate and specifies the sources which are subjected to the tax. The
reduction depends upon the response of the sources which are affected to the
imposition of the taxes. In ETS, the government sets a limit on the emissions by
specified sources and distributes the allowances approximately equal to the limits
(Ander Andersen and Skou 2010; Anderson and Di Maria 2011; Haites 2018).
238 M. Gaur et al.
3.3 Geo-engineering
Geo-engineering technologies are designed to quickly lower the temperatures with-

out lowering GHG concentrations (Rogner et al. 2007). These technologies are the
international large-scale environment manipulator which have been suggested as an
effective means of climate change mitigation from anthropogenic GHG emissions
(Zhang et al. 2015). Many different forms of geo-engineering techniques (viz., land,
ocean, atmosphere based techniques) have been suggested, however, some of them
require gradual and virtually risk-free reduction of atmospheric CO2 concentration
(afforestation), the main thrust of geo-engineering lies in low-energy schemes and
short lead times for technical implementation (Royal Society 2009, 2011; Zhang
et al. 2015).
4 Developed Countries
Developed countries have a responsibility not only to take the lead on the emissions,
but also to substantially increase the funding to support mitigation actions and
adaptations in developing nations.
4.1 Japan
Japan is the world’s third biggest economy and seventh biggest producer of GHGs
(Nejat et al. 2015). The third formal meeting of the UNFCCC was hosted by Japan at
Kyoto in 1997, where the Kyoto Protocol has been first established. However,
Japan’s own climate efforts have been scrutinized as insufficient. After Fukushima
nuclear disaster in 2011, expansion of use of fossil fuels increases the emissions and
hence the planed action for decarburization has been taken in Japan. Japan
announced a revised 2020 GHG emissions reduction target, i.e. 3.8% from 2005
levels at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP19) held at Warsaw in
November 2013. This “Warsaw Target” replaced an earlier 25% reduction from
1990 levels pledged in 2009 at COP15 in Copenhagen. Japan has to depend on
acquisition of more Kyoto units due to unsuccessful attempt of Japan on reduction of
GHG emissions in the residential and commercial sectors. Unavailability of second-
ary acquisitions of Kyoto units up to 2020 by the government leads to propose joint
crediting mechanism (JCM), the bilateral offset and crediting mechanism as a new
mechanism for the post-2012 period (Kuramochi 2015).
In transport sector, Japan government has recently launched a “Tank to Wheel”
CO2 reduction policy in collaboration with all major car manufacturing companies in
2018. They set a long-term target of reducing CO2 emissions by 90% below the level
of 2010–2050 through introducing 100% share of electric vehicles (METI 2018b;
Kuramochi et al. 2019). In energy sector, Energy Conservation Act was amended
and enforced in 2018 which includes a new certification system allowing an inter-
business initiative to enhance systemic energy savings and also improves energy
savings at operator level (METI 2018a). Environmental impact assessment act has
also been implemented to solar PV (photovoltaic) projects with capacities greater
than 40 MW from April 2020 under the scope of renewable energy the feed-in tariff
(FIT) scheme (METI 2019). After receiving poor response of GHG mitigation in
financial year 2018, the Ministry of the Environment (MoE) of Japan announced
three actions to improve the GHG mitigation action in power sector, viz. strictness in
implementing the EIA; set up of co-ordination team with the Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry (METI) for expansion of distributed renewable energy and to
accelerate the carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) (MOEJ 2019). Also
reports show that F-gas Act has been adopted by the Cabinet in March 2019 and also
amended several penalty and obligatory measures to double the F-gas recovery rates
by 2030 from 38% in 2017 (MOEJ 2019; Yoshimoto 2019). Research says that
Japan has already impacted by climate change and is most vulnerable towards
climate change, including coastal erosion, sea-level rise, more intense typhoons,
and also summer droughts (Poortinga et al. 2013). In today’s date, Japan is the
largest doner of Green Climate Fund (GCF), established within the framework of the
UNFCCC (Al-Saidi 2020). Due to the introduction of the “Feed-in Tariff (FIT)
scheme” in the year 2012, whereby renewable-generated electricity was to be
purchased at a fixed rate for a certain period of time, the installed renewable energy
capacity grew rapidly to 3.2 times as much as before the introduction of the FIT in
Japan. However, the percentage of electricity produced by renewables in Japan was
16% (or 8.1% if excluding hydropower), which was still small compared to other
major countries in the year 2017 (Agency for Natural Resources and Energy 2019).
Japan has gone through a couple of crucial turning points in terms of energy, like the
transition from “coal to oil”, and the movement “away from a heavy dependence on
oil” through two oil crises. Japan is actively enhancing its energy efficiency and also
moving towards renewable energy solution such as by shifting towards nuclear
power generation and now towards hydrogen as source of energy (Yamamoto
et al. 2018).
4.2 Sweden
In January 1991, Sweden was one of the first countries in the world to introduce a tax
on CO2 emissions (Pachauri and Meyer 2014). Since then, the carbon tax has been a
central instrument of Swedish climate policy (Swedish Environmental Protection
Agency 2017). Another important tax, which supplements and reinforces the contri-
bution of the carbon tax is the energy tax for reducing CO2 emissions in several
areas, which is based on the “polluter pays” principle (Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency 2017). A general price for CO2 also limits the so-called rebound
effects. Such effects arise when efficiency improvements reduce emissions in one
area, providing economic headroom for increased demand and thus increased
emissions in another area. Though other factors have also been important, there is
a strong evidence that, together with the energy tax, the carbon tax has been a key
factor in reducing emissions throughout the economy over the last three decades, not
240 M. Gaur et al.
least by driving the phase-out of fossil fuels for heating (Sterner 1994; Oates 1995;
Ministry of the Environment and Energy 2005; Swedish Environmental Protection
Agency 2017; Löfgren and Muller 2010). In addition to the carbon tax, many other
climate policy decisions have been taken and executed by the Parliament and the
Government since the early 1990s. For example, the Swedish state has invested in
emission reduction actions at the local and regional levels through various state-
funded measures, such as the local investment programmes (LIP) (1998–2002), the
KLIMP Climate Investment Programmes (2003–2008), the Swedish Transport
Administration’s Urban Environment Agreement (2015–2030), and Swedish Energy
Agency assistance to municipal climate and energy advisors (Swedish Environmen-
tal Protection Agency 2017). Domestic transport accounts for about one third of
Sweden’s total greenhouse gas emissions. Road transport represents more than 90%
of the transport sector’s emissions. From 2010 to 2017, emissions decreased by
nearly 20% by adoption of fossil-free transport policy in Sweden. But the rate of
reduction is too slow to meet the targets, i.e. emissions from domestic transport must
decrease by at least 70% by 2030 compared with 2010 levels (Swedish Environ-
mental Protection Agency 2017).
In June 2009, the Swedish Parliament decide credits national climate and energy
targets through 2020 (Climate Bill 2008/09: 162 2009):
• To reduce GHG emission by 40% by 2020, compared to a 1990 baseline

(excluded emission generated from land use, land-use change, and forestry
(LULUCF)).
• To lessen the emission by 20 million CO2e tons from the non-ETS sectors
compared to 1990 levels.
• To use 50% renewable energy by 2020
• To enhance transport sector by addition of 10% renewable energy by 2020.
Sweden has seen a long-term trend of emission reductions, but since 2015, the
rate of reduction has been slowed. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency,
in collaboration with other agencies, has begun a process for envisioning how to
achieve the vision of a CO2 neutral Sweden by 2050. The roadmap was published in
February 2013 and presented in Fig. 11.5 in details (Naturvårdsverket 2013). In
2017, a new climate policy framework for Sweden was adopted with a target to have
net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2045, consists of three pillars, i.e. a Climate
Act, climate goals and a climate policy council (Fig. 11.6). Sweden has long been
regarded as an environmental pioneer and has some of the lowest CO2 emission
levels in Europe. With increase in use of renewable energy sources and also with the
implementation of stringent carbon tax rule, Sweden is achieving its climate change
targets.
Fig. 11.5 Road map of Swedish Environmental Protection Agency to be achieved by 2050
Fig. 11.6 Details of climate policy framework of Sweden

242 M. Gaur et al.
4.3 United Kingdom
The United Kingdom (UK) is a party to the UNFCCC and having an internal pledge
as part of the EU to reduce pollution. UK has successfully managed to achieve the
first (2008–2012) and second carbon budget (2013–2017) and also is on track to
meet the third carbon budget (2018–2022). According to EU report, it will be
difficult to meet the fourth carbon budget, which covers the period of 2023–2027
and the fifth carbon budget (2028–2032) (Arnold et al. 2016). As per reports, there
has been a dearth of new significant climate policies announced in recent years
which, if left unaddressed, UK is going to miss its medium- and long-term emission
targets (Griffin and Hammond 2019). In UK, about 3% of emissions are primarily
from the landfill and wastewater handling sites. Since 1990, emissions have been
reduced to 64% largely as a result of reduced CH4 emissions from landfill sites
through introducing a landfill tax and landfilling directives policies by the UK
government (Martin and Scott 2003). In November 2000, the UK government
established the country’s climate change programme, with the aims of achieving
the UK’s Kyoto Protocol commitment as well as a stringent unilateral UK target of
reducing GHGs emissions 20% by 2010, compared to 1990 levels (Rogelj et al.
2016). The three main instruments of the programme are as follows:
• The climate change levy (CCL), which acted as an environmental tax on fossil
fuels;
• Sectoral climate change agreements (CCAs), which could discount the CCL
• The UK emissions trading scheme (ETS).
In power sector, green deal and energy company obligation flagship was initiated
for energy efficiency and carbon reduction through financing investments in energy
efficiency without upfront costs to householder (Rosenow and Eyre 2016). Different
policies have been adopted by UK government at different sectors to achieve the
target on GHG emission reductions. The sector wise adopted policies have been
presented in Fig. 11.7. In 2017, clean growth strategy (CGS) was established setting
out ambitious policies and proposals, targeting in reduction of emissions across the
economy and promotion of clean growth (Barton et al. 2018). Also, in the same year,
modern industrial strategy, including clean growth grand challenge was also set up
to give task to industry for low-carbon emissions. Five dimensions of Energy Union
adopted by UK are energy security, energy efficiency, decarbonization, internal
energy market and research, innovation and competitiveness to achieve required
energy and climate legislation.
UK’s independent climate change committee (CCC) has got the task to examine
the consequences of the UK being “netzero” essentially achieving a 100% reduction
in GHG emissions (rather than the existing 80% target). As a result, the three
transition pathways were finalized, i.e. Market Rules (MR), Central Co-ordination
(CC) to achieve the current net-zero target of UK government and Thousand Flowers
(TF) are presented in Fig. 11.8 (Barton et al. 2018). According to Somerville (2020),
UK claims to have significantly reduced its GHG emissions but their figures do not
Power Sector
• EU Renewable Energy Direcve • Nuclear naonal planning statement
• Renewable obligaon cerficates (ROCs) • Electricity market reform
• Carbon capture and storage compeon • Green Deal and Energy Company
Obligaon
Cross-cung Economic Incenves Industry

• EU Emissions Trading System; • Climate change agreements
• Climate change levy (energy tax) • Inclusion in CCS compeon
Building
• Energy performance cerficates • Renewable heat incenve
• Display energy cerficates • Warmfront
• Carbon reducon commitment • Community Energy Saving Programme
Transportaon
• EU new car and van emission targets • Plug-in car grant
• Renewable transport fuel obligaon • Plugged-in Places program
Waste
• EU Landfill Direcve
• Landfill tax
Fig. 11.7 Different policies adopted by UK government (Gault 2012)
Market Rules
•Based on a governance system similar to the present one in the UK, with a
liberalized and privazed electricity and gas sector.
•Thus, the dominant logic is that of the market, although government objecves
are achieved via high-level policy targets whilst large actors – in this case
primarily large energy companies – deliver them.
Central Co-ordinaon (CC)

•Represents a world in which the government comes to the conclusion that
meeng security of supply, affordability and emissions objecves requires direct
intervenon with diffrent low-carbon technology
•In addion, public/private partnerships develop the technologies, which lead to
significant supply-side advances in marine renewables, CCS and electric vehicles.
•On the demand side, incenves are provided for household energy efficiency,
although electrificaon of heang and transport drives up electricity demand.
Thousand Flowers (TF) pathway

•Envisages a low-carbon transion led by civil society through a boom -up
approach which focuses on decentralized soluons to energy problems .
• Energy service companies (ESCOs) also emerge, which have incenves more
aligned with energy efficiency improvements that aid the transion to a low -
carbon economy.
Fig. 11.8 Details of transition pathways adopted in UK (Barton et al. 2018)

244 M. Gaur et al.
include emissions from foreign aviation and shipping or pollution produced in

industrial products. In UK, about 3% of emissions primarily relate to landfill and
wastewater handling. Emissions have dropped by 64% since 1990, mainly due to the
increase in methane emissions from landfill by implementing the government
regulations on landfill tax and landfilling directives. Under landfill directive by
reducing biodegradable waste to landfill and capturing landfill gas, the UK has
met its 2010 target under the directive to reduce biodegradable municipal waste to
landfill to 75% of that produced in 1995 (Gault 2012). In today’s time, the UK uses
more of fossil fuel energy than it produces, so a reduction in oil or gas production
would lead to rise in net imports. As the UK approaches net-zero emissions, the
government will have to align its emission policies for oil and gas production with its
overall climate policies. Finally, as carbon intensive sectors of the economy decline,
in future industrial strategy will need to promote industries which can take their
place.
5 Developing Countries
Developing countries are facing dual burden of climate change and globalization
(CTCN 2010). The exponential increase in populations, income levels, and energy
use are leading to rapid increase in GHG emissions. The lack of commitment by
developing nations to reduce their GHG emissions under the Kyoto Protocol has
been cited as a justification for some developed countries not to ratify the Protocol,
although all of these countries acknowledge the need to reduce GHG emissions
(Nielson 2009). Overview of the key climate change policies adopted by India,
China, and Brazil are presented in Table 11.1.
5.1 India
India is the world’s fourth largest economy and third largest GHG emitter in the
world (Bansal et al. 2019), accounting for about 5% of global emissions. Between
1990 and 2005, India's emissions increased by 65 percent, and by 2020, they are
expected to increase by another 70 percent. On per capita basis, India’s emissions are
70% below the world average and 93% below those of the United States. As in many
other countries, India has a number of policies that, while not driven by climate
concerns, contribute to climate mitigation by reducing or avoiding GHG emissions
(C2ES 2008; Saxena and Naik 2018). In Paris Agreement 2015, Indian government
committed to reduce the GHG emissions intensity by 33–35% of 2005 levels by
2030. The major contributor to GHG emissions is energy sector. Many policy
initiatives have been directed towards promoting renewable energy and specifically
solar energy (Bansal et al. 2019). Number of policies and regulatory instrument have
been undertaken by Indian Government to reduce the GHG emission within the
climate change mitigation policy framework. Various policy instruments such as
carbon taxes, domestic trading mechanisms, financial incentives are implemented
Table 11.1 Key climate change mitigation policies in Brazil, India, and China
Sectors Brazil India China
Economy Clean energy cess (coal National action plan on
tax) (2010) climate change (2014)
13th five-year plan
(2016–2020)
Energy National plan on climate National solar and wind Energy development
supply change (2008) missions (2010) strategy action plan
10-year national energy National electricity plan (2014–2020)
expansion plan (PDE) (2018) Action plan for
(2011) updated as PDE Scheme “Kisan Urja upgrading of coal power
2029 Suraksha evam Utthaan energy conservation and
Mahabhiyan (KUSUM)” emission reduction
(2019) released (2014)
Transport National biodiesel Second phase of faster Vehicle fuel economy
Programme (2005) adoption and standards (2004)
Inovar-Auto (2012) manufacturing of (hybrid Made in China 2025”
RenovaBIO (2017) and electric vehicles) standards for auto
(FAME-II) initiative industry (2013)
(2019) Expansion of Ethanol
Support for biofuels Production and
(2007), national policy Promotion for
on biofuels (2018) Transportation Fuel
(2017)
Forestry Plan for prevention and Green India mission Mid and long-term plan
and control of deforestation (2011) for national forest
agriculture in the Amazon (2004) National mission on management (2011)
National plan on climate sustainable agriculture Natural forest resources
change (2008), National (2012) conservation programme
plan on climate change (2011)
(2008), action plan for National afforestation
the prevention and and greening plan
control of deforestation 2011–2020
and forest fires in the Programme for
Cerrado Biome (2010), conversion of slope
The Brazilian forest code farmlands into forests
(2012) (2014)
Industry Energy efficiency in “Made in China 2025”
industry (PAT scheme) CO2 intensity target
(2011) (2013)
Green industry
development plan
(2016–2020)
which differs in magnitude from state to state (TERI 2015; Saxena and Sonwani
2019). India’s strategy for tackling climate change while pursuing development is
set out in its National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), released in 2008.
NAPCC launched by Indian Government on June 30, 2008 includes eight
national missions to deal with the challenge of climate change on a sector-by-sector
basis. The focus is on promoting understanding of climate change, adaptation, and
246 M. Gaur et al.
Table 11.2 NAPCC mission and goals

S. No. NAPCC missions Objectives/aims
1 National solar mission To establish India as a global leader in solar
energy
2 National mission for enhanced To promote innovative policy and regulatory
energy efficiency (NMEEE) regimes, financing mechanism, business models
which create and sustain market for energy
efficiency
3 National mission on sustainable To promote sustainability of habitats through
habitat improvement in energy efficiency in buildings,
urban planning, solid and liquid waste
management, modal shift toward public
transport
4 National water mission To conserve water, minimize wastage, and
ensure equal distribution within and out of state
5 National mission for sustaining the To safeguard the Himalayas and develop
Himalayan ecosystem (NMSHE) sustainable national capacity to assess the
health of the Himalayan Ecosystem
continuously
6 National mission for green India To grow and maintain sustainably managed the
forests or tree cover and ecosystem services
7 National mission for sustainable To enhance agricultural productivity through
agriculture (NMSA) the use of biotechnology to develop improved
variety of crops and livestock; ensuring food
security
8 National mission on strategic To form knowledge networks among the
knowledge for climate change research and development institutes related to
(NMSKCC) climate science; creating institutional capacity
for climate research infrastructure
mitigation, energy efficiency and natural resource conservation (Bansal et al. 2019).
The eight-core national mission which forms the core of NAPCC are shown in
Table 11.2. NAPCC provided a starting point for the various stakeholders and states
to engage with the respective missions to build on, develop, expand, enable, and
implement the required programmes and strategies on climate change (TERI 2015).
Renewal Energy (RE) targets, the Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme on
industrial energy efficiency, and the Clean Energy Cess (carbon/coal tax) are
three main policy instruments adopted in India. The 2018 National Electricity Plan
(Central Electricity Plan 2018) projects a stabilization of the coal capacity at 250 GW
in the next decade and it expects renewable energy technologies to expand substan-
tially, to 275 GW by 2026/2027, reflecting a 57% share in total capacity. In the
transport sector, the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan was set up in 2015. The
key support scheme under this plan is the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of
Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) subsidy scheme, which is now in its second
phase, to deploy 6–7 million hybrid and electric vehicles annually by 2020. Other
sector-level policies include Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA),
aimed at deeper penetration of LEDs to replace conventional and inefficient lighting
systems (Kuramochi et al. 2019). GHG emissions during 1990–2016 in India rose by
154.11%. Due to the successfully implementation of the PAT scheme, the energy
intensity in India has substantially decreased by 12.8% during 2012–2017. The PAT
scheme aimed at enhancing energy efficiency which has made a major contribution
in achieving the climate goals of the country (Zheng et al. 2019).
5.2 Brazil
Brazil presents largest economy in South America and have the world’s sixth largest
GHG emissions. Brazil has pledged to reduce its emission by 37% by 2025 com-
pared to 2005 levels (Carbon Brief Profile: Brazil 2018). It has also pledged an
“indicative” 2030 target to achieve a 43% reduction in emissions compared to 2005.
Brazil has made a number of attempts to reduce its emissions, by curbing deforesta-
tion in the Amazon and also by investing in major clean energy schemes. The
Brazilian government has launched a “low-carbon agriculture plan” to encourage
sustainable practices in the agriculture sector by reducing GHG emissions while
retaining the profitability (Torres et al. 2017). This initiative focused on actions that
help to reduce GHG emissions, such as regeneration of degraded pastures, the
integration of crop-livestock-forest, zero tillage techniques, cattle raising activities,
biological N2 fixation and forestry and agroforestry systems; carbon sequestration by
tree planting helps (Oelbermann et al., 2004; Zomer et al., 2016; Reed et al., 2017).
The key policies related to emission mitigation actions include the 10-year National
Energy Expansion Plan (PDE), biofuel blending mandates in the transport sector,
and different policies in the land-use sector, including the Brazilian Forest Code and
the Low-Carbon Agriculture Plan (Kuramochi et al. 2019). The updated PDE
document is in line with NDC targets by 2025 or even lead to an overachievement.
The Brazilian government has also initiated the programme name “RenovaBio” to
raise the amount of biofuel in the national fuel mix, contributing to security of
supply, and reducing the carbon footprint. In 2016 and 2017, this led to an increased
production of 31.9 million m3 of bioethanol and biodiesel (Kuramochi et al. 2019;
Ministry of Science and Technology of Brazil 2019). The national biofuel policy or
RenovaBio scheme aims to create a framework for selling decarbonization credits
linked to the carbon intensity of certain biofuels. A case study for sugarcane mills
and integrated sugarcane-microalgae biorefineries assesses the prospects for large-
scale, integrated sugarcane-microalgae biorefineries in terms of their techno-
economic and environmental feasibility, as well as the potential benefits brought
by the RenovaBio programme in Brazil. Results of this case study showed that the
output of microalgae with sugarcane mills contributes to verticalized biorefineries
currently behind in economic performance relative to traditional sugarcane mills due
to a rise in both fixed and operating expenses. When replacing gasoline with
anhydrous ethanol, a reasonably sized integrated biorefinery might mitigate up to
500 thousand t CO2eq/year, depending on the scenario. Finally, the analysis
indicates that integrated sugarcane-microalgae biorefineries under the RenovaBio
248 M. Gaur et al.
programme become economically feasible at carbon prices as low as US$ 10/t

CO2eq (Klein et al. 2019).
5.3 China
GHG emissions in China are growing rapidly and, are expected to rise until at least
2030, even with the policies adopted by China government (Leggett et al. 2008;
Leggett 2011). China’s government has strengthened its policies, programmes, and
initiatives to minimize GHG emissions, resulting in a commitment under the 2009
Copenhagen Accord to reach a 40–45% reduction in its carbon intensity by 2020
(Leggett 2011). Over several years, China had policies to improve energy efficiency
and even to tax the polluting emissions, but those policies implementation and
efficacy were less than expected. In 2007, when China was under intense interna-
tional pressure to discuss GHG reduction targets for the period beyond 2012 under
UNFCCC, China government released its National Climate Change Program
(NCCP), a climate change response plan (Leggett 2011). Over the globe, many of
the GHG emissions came from China, which had the highest carbon footprint in the
world since 2004 and accounted for 28.5% of global CO2 emissions in 2018.
According to Song (2019), some of the key mitigation’s actions taken by China
government includes:
• Promoting animal breeding, probiotics addition, tea saponins,

• Promoting the use of nitrification inhibitor, biochar and slow-release fertilizer,
• Installing methane recovery systems for all the new and major existing anaerobic
wastewater treatment plants in domestic and industrial sectors,
• Recycling programme of SF6
• Refurbishment of equipment refurbishment, and
• Reducing electricity demand.
The major climate change mitigation efforts since the Paris agreement includes:
13th Renewable Energy and Power Sector Development Five Year Plan
(2016–2020) which was adopted by National Energy Administration on December
10, 2016 establishing for renewable energy deployment until 2020. This calls for the
establishment of national trading system for “Renewable Energy Green Certificates”
and capacity installations of renewable and nuclear sources (Carbon Brief Profile:
Brazil 2018; Kuramochi et al. 2019). In the industry sector, China has launched the
“Industrial Green Development Program” to reduce the energy intensity of
industries. China has also started implementing Stage 2 of their HCFC Phase-out
Management Plan in 2018, to reduce HCFC consumption in industry subsectors. In
the transport sector, China has revised its subsidies and provided tax exemptions for
new energy vehicles in order to have one million new energy vehicles sold by 2020.
They have also implemented emissions standards for light-duty and heavy-duty
vehicles. They continuously enforce compulsory energy efficiency codes and pro-
vide financial incentives for retrofitting buildings in an effort to update all qualifying
buildings in the northern heating zone by 2020. The “2018–2020 Blue Sky War”
aims to minimize the air pollution in Chinese cities by setting limit for pollutants and
contribute indirectly to lowering the GHG emissions (Kuramochi et al. 2019). China
has emerged as the world’s largest manufacturer of solar cells and is continually
working towards adding more renewable energy capacity (International Energy
Agency 2014; Dahlström and Winstedt 2017; Hughes and Meckling 2017). A
study by Wang et al., 2004, found that the economy and population were the key
drivers of GHG emissions in Suzhou City, contributing 162.20% and 109.04% to the
rise in GHG emissions, respectively. A decrease in carbon intensity caused by
decreasing energy consumption and a change to the mixture of power and industrial
structures was the main determinant and marked a drop in GHG emissions of
171.24%.
6 Conclusion
Back in 1992, at the time of establishment of UNFCCC, the developed countries

(Europe, the former Soviet Union, the USA and Canada, Australia and New Zealand,
and Japan) were contributed towards 84% of total World’s GHG emission (CAIT
data base, 2011). Also, for a period of 1850–2011, developed countries are produced
79% of the total emissions. Hence, under the Kyoto Protocol only developed
countries were required to cut emissions. However, the picture has become more
challenging in recent years. Although developed countries continue to generate
significant quantities of carbon emissions, developing countries are also increasingly
doing so (Centre for Global Development 2015). As per data base, 63% of annual
emissions are contributed by developing countries. According to talks in
Copenhagen in 2009, developing countries like China, India, and Brazil has to
take front seat in international climate negotiations, recognizing that they have
become the major emitter. Hence, now every part of world, irrespective of develop-
ing and developed nations, are taking part in decarburization through adopting
national and international environmental protection and mitigation policies.
Acknowledgement The authors would like to acknowledge all of the researchers who published
the valuable literatures used in this study and also acknowledge CSIR-Central Road Research
Institute, New Delhi, India for its support. Authors thank the editors Dr. Pallavi Saxena and
Dr. Saurabh Sonwani for providing a wonderful opportunity to contribute this chapter.
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Glossary of Terms
Adaptation Adaptation to climate change refers to adjustment in natural and

human system in response to actual or expected climate stimuli or their effects,
which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.
Afforestation Planting new forests on land that historically have not contained
forests
Agro-ecosystem Total complex of crop/animal composition in an area together
with overall environment and as modified by management practices.
Ambient temperature The temperature of surrounding atmospheric air.
Anthropogenic emissions Emissions of greenhouse gases, greenhouse gas
precursors and aerosols associated with human activity. These include burning
of fossil fuel for energy, deforestation and land use changes.
Arid region A land region of low rainfall (less than 250 mm/year)
Atmosphere A gaseous envelope surrounding the earth. Atmosphere also contains
clouds and aerosol.
Biodiversity Number and relative abundances of different genes (genetic diver-
sity), species and ecosystems (communities) in a particular area.
Boreal Forests The boreal forest (or “taiga”) is the world’s largest land biome. The
boreal ecozone principally spans eight countries: Canada, China, Finland, Japan,
Norway, Russia, Sweden and the USA. It is typically comprised of coniferous
tree species such as pine, spruce and fir with some broadleaf species such as
poplar and birch.
Biomass Total mass of living organisms in a given area or volume; recently dead
plant material often included as dead biomass.
Biosphere The part of earth system comprising all ecosystems and living organisms
in the atmosphere.
Carbon cycle The term used to describe the flow of carbon through the atmosphere,
ocean, terrestrial biosphere and lithosphere.
Carbon sequestration The process of storing carbon dioxide. This can happen
naturally, as growing trees and plants turn CO2 in to biomass (wood, leaves and
so on). It can also refer to the capture and storage of CO2 produced by industry.
Ltd. 2022
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4482-5
256 Glossary of Terms
Carbon dioxide (CO2) A naturally occurring gas, also a by-product of burning

fossil fuels from carbon deposits such as oil, gas and coal of burning biomass and
of land use changes and other industrial processes.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) CFCs are a family of inert, nontoxic, nonflammable
and easily produced liquefied chemicals that have principally been used in refrig-
eration, air conditioning, packaging and insulation or as solvents
and aerosol propellants.
Climate Change Climate change is the global phenomenon of climate transforma-
tion characterized by the changes in the usual climate of the planet (regarding
temperature, precipitation and wind) that are especially caused by human
activities. As a result of unbalancing the weather of Earth, the sustainability of
the planet’s ecosystems is under threat, as well as the future of humankind and the
stability of the global economy.
Fluorinated Gases Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sul-
phur Hexafluoride (SF6) are collectively known as fluorinated greenhouse gases
and are further controlled by specific EU legislation.
Global warming potential (GWP) An index describing the radiative
characteristics of greenhouse gases and their relative effectiveness in absorbing
outgoing infrared radiations.
Greenhouse gases These are the gaseous constituents of the atmosphere that
absorb and emit radiation at specific wave lengths within the spectrum of thermal
infrared radiation; water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide
(N2O), methane(CH4), ozone (O3) and chlorofluoro carbon (CFC) are included
in this category.
Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change by committing industrialized countries and
economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in
accordance with agreed individual targets.
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) A powerful greenhouse gas with a global warming potential
of 296 times that of carbon dioxide. Its major sources include soil cultivation
practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel
consumption, nitric oxide production and biomass burning.
Methane (CH4) A hydrocarbon, i.e. a greenhouse gas with a global warming
potential 23 times that of carbon dioxide. Methane is produced through anaerobic
(without oxygen) decomposition of waste in landfills, animal digestion,
methanogenesis in the paddy field and incomplete combustion of fossil fuel.
Mitigation An anthropogenic intervention for lessening, reducing and diminishing
the climatic stress and harm caused by adverse effects of climate change. It
includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and enhanc-
ing the greenhouse gas sinks.
Paris Agreement The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on
climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December
2015 and entered into force on 4 November 2016. Its goal is to limit global
warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 C, compared to pre-industrial levels.
Glossary of Terms 257
Ozone (O3) It is a triatomic form of oxygen. It is created naturally and from human
activities (photochemical smog). Tropospheric ozone acts as a greenhouse gas
and its higher concentration can harm living organisms and crop plants. Strato-
spheric ozone plays a decisive role in protecting living beings from the harmful
UV radiations.
Sink Any process, activity or mechanism which involves a greenhouse gas or
aerosol from the atmosphere.
Source Any process, activity or mechanism which releases a greenhouse gas, an
aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or aerosol in to the atmosphere.
Stratosphere The highly stratified region of the atmosphere above the troposphere
extending from about 10 km (ranging from 9 km in high latitudes to 16 km in the
tropics) to above 50 km.

Greenhouse Gases

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Greenhouse Gases

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Saurabh Sonwani

Pallavi Saxena Editors

ISBN 978-981-16-4481-8 ISBN 978-981-16-4482-5 (eBook)

for environmental consultants, researchers, and other professionals in climate change

Centre for Excellence on Climate Resilience, Anil K. Gupta

1 Introduction to Greenhouse Gases: Sources, Sinks and

11 Mitigation Strategies of Greenhouse Gas Control: Policy

Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Saurabh Sonwani is currently working as Assistant Professor at the Department of

Pallavi Saxena is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Environmental

AIM Asian-Paciﬁc integrated model

MBMPs Market-based mitigation policies

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) is considered as one of the biggest reasons behind

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 1

Anthropogenic emission · Source · Sink · Global warming · Mitigation

S. Maji (*) · S. Ahmed

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 9

Source identiﬁcation · Emission · Variations · Global warming · Climate change

2 Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate Change

The consequences of global warming have emerged as one of the foremost

Table 2.1 Previously reported source apportionment studies of GHGs

3 Major GHGs in the Atmosphere

to trap heat energy in themselves. GWP is deﬁned as a weighting factor of heat-

Indirect Greenhouse Gases Carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx),

Table 2.2 Global warming potential of greenhouse gases

dioxide (SO2), hydroﬂuorocarbons (HFCs), perﬂuorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur

3.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

3.2 Methane (CH4)

Next to CO2, anthropogenic sources of CH4 is the second-largest contributor of

3.3 Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

3.4 Fluorinated Gases (HFCS, PFCS, SF6)

The fluorinated gases (hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and

Fig. 2.4 Increasing trend of ﬂuorinated gases (Data Source: USEPA)

4 Important Factors of Green House Gas Emission

All aspects of development—social, economic, and agricultural productivity all are

is a large contributor of GHG emission. Transportation is another important sector of

4.1 Increasing Energy Demand

Economic growth as well as the overall development of society is closely related to

4.2 GDP vs Emissions

The availability of enough energy supply is fundamental for economic growth. An

The accelerated rate of urbanization trend is a precursor of GHG emissions. As per

4.4 Growing Vehicle Use

Emission from industries is another factor of increasing GHG emissions. Emissions

5 Greenhouse Gases Budget of Different Countries and Their

It is a mutually shared responsibility of all the global communities to take appropri-

6 Source Apportionment of GHGs in the Atmosphere

Approaches of source apportionment Study of GHGs have been mentioned in

Emission ¼ Σ½F a  EFa 

Tier 2 Approach Tier 2 approach practices fuel-speciﬁc emission factors with

Fig. 2.7 Approaches of source apportionment study of GHGs

Emission ¼ Σ ½F a,b,c  EFa,b,c 

Tier 3 Approach In Tier 3 approach of emissions estimation mobile source activity

Emission ¼ Σ½Da,b,c,d  EFa,b,c,d  þ ΣCa,b,c,d

The basis approaches of source apportionment study involve the preparation of

• To identify possible sources and sinks in a region.

6.1 Source Identification

1. Energy: Combustion of fossil fuels by industries, transportation sector, and other

d. Electronics industry (integrated circuit or semiconductor, TFT ﬂat panel

Anaerobic biodegradation of organic matter in solid waste disposal sites by

Solid Waste Liquid Waste

Municipal Domestic Industrial

Fig. 2.8 Various sources of GHGs from waste sector

6.2 Identification of Key Source Categories for Inventory Work

Emission ¼ Σ½F a EFa

Emission ¼ Σ ½F a,b,c EFa,b,c

Emission ¼ Σ½Da,b,c,d EFa,b,c,d þ ΣCa,b,c,d

Emission ¼ ðEmission factorÞ ðActivity dataÞ