THE FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1857

It was referred as Sepoys Mutiny by British.

POLITICAL CAUSES:
(1) POLICY OF EXPANSION- British gained control over India by 4 ways:
(a) By Outright Wars – Battle of Buxar (1764)
gave Bengal, Bihar and Odisha to British. By
Anglo Mysore wars British acquired Mysore.
Similarly by Anglo Sikh war Punjab was
annexed.

(b) By Subsidiary Alliance - It was introduced by Lord Wellesley. All

Indian states had to enter into alliance with the company.
(i) Rulers have to accept British as supreme
power.
(ii) They have to surrender foreign relation &
would not enter alliance.
(iii) They have to accept a British resident and
maintain British troops.

(c) By using the Doctrine of Lapse -

Introduced by Lord Dalhousie. Any ruler
without a heir, his kingdom would come
under company's rule. Ex: Jhansi, Satara,
Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, Udaipur, and
Nagpur.
(d) On the pretext of Alleged Misrule: Awadh was annexed on this
ground in 1856 by Lord Dalhousie.
Nawab’s army was disbanded.
British took away the estates of Zamaindars.
High land tax tax on food, houses and ferries was imposed.

2. Disrespect Shown to Bahadur Shah: The name of the Mughal King

was removed from the coins minted by the Company.

In 1849, Lord Dalhousie

announced that successors of
Bahadur Shah Zafar would not be
permitted to use the Red Fort as
their palace.

In 1856, Lord Canning announced that after the death of Bahadur

Shah, his successors would not be
allowed to use the imperial titles.
This decision of the British hurt the
feelings of the Muslims. So, Zeenat
Mahal, the wife of Bahadur Shah,
began plotting against them.

3. Treatment Given to Nana Saheb:

Nana Saheb was the adopted son of
Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa. The British refused to
grant Nana Saheb the pension they were paying to Baji
Rao II. Nana Saheb was forced to live at Kanpur, far
away from his family seat at Poona.

4. Absentee Sovereignty of the British: Absentee

Sovereignty means that India was being ruled by the British
government from England, at a distance of thousands of miles. This
was resented by the Indians. The earlier rulers settled in India and
spent revenues collected from the Indians in India only. But in the case
of Britain, the Indians felt that they were being ruled from England
and India's wealth was being drained to England and not utilised for
their welfare.

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CAUSES:
1. Interference with Social Customs: Some of the social reforms
introduced by the British in India were aimed at improving the
conditions of the people. The result was that the reforms like the
abolition of Sati (1829), the introduction of the Widow Remarriage Act
(1856) and the opening of Western education to girls were not
welcomed by the masses.

2. Apprehensions about Modern Innovations: People were suspicious

of introduction of modern innovations like railways and telegraphs.
There were rumours that telegraph poles were erected to hang those
who were against the British rule. Orthodox Indians that in the
railway compartments the higher castes and the lower castes were
made to sit side by side. They believed that the British had introduced
such practices to defy their causes and relations.

3. Policy of Racial Discrimination: The British officers were rude and

arrogant towards the Indians. They believed that they were superior
to Indians and followed a policy of contempt towards the Indians.
They dubbed the Muslims as cruel and unfaithful. Some European
officers ill-treated and insulted Indians.
4. Activities of Missionaries: In the 19th century, the British attitude
underwent a change. The British began to interfere with the local
religious and social customs.
After 1813, there was an
increase both in the numbers
and activities of the Christian
missionaries. The Indians
thought that the Government
was supporting missionaries
who would convert them to
Christianity.

5. Fears Regarding Western Education: They saw in it an attempt to

discourage traditional Islamic and Hindu studies. People started
suspecting that the aim of Western education was not to promote
literature and sciences but to encourage their children to become
Christians.

ECONOMIC CAUSES:
1. Exploitation of Economic Resources: Agricultural India was
made an economic colony to serve the interests of industrial
England. India was forced to export, at cheaper rates, raw
materials like raw cotton and raw silk that the British
industries needed urgently; plantation products (like indigo
and tea); and food grains which were in short supply in Britain.
India was made to accept
readymade British goods
either duty-free or at
nominal duty rates, while
Indian products were
subjected to high import
duties in England. The
Indian handmade goods
were unable to compete with the cheaper, machine-made
British products.
2. Drain of Wealth: After the conquest of Bengal, the British stopped
getting gold into India. They began to purchase raw material for their
industries in England from the surplus revenues of Bengal and profits
from duty-free inland trade. The transfer of wealth from India to
England for which India got no proportionate economic return, is
called the Drain of Wealth.

3. Decay of Cottage Industries and Handicrafts: Heavy duties on

Indian silk and cotton textiles in Britain destroyed Indian industries.
The misery of the artisans was also increased by the end of their
traditional patrons and buyers - the princes, chieftains and zamindars,
admirer extinct.

4. Economic Decline of Peasantry: The peasantry bore the heavy

burden of taxes to provide money for the trade of the Company, for
the cost of administration and the wars of British expansion in India.
Increase in the land revenue forced many peasants into indebtedness
or into selling their lands The traditional zamindars were replaced by
merchants and moneylenders. These new landowners had no concern
for the peasants. They pushed rents to exorbitant levels and evicted
their tenants in case of non-payment.

5. Growing Unemployment: When the native States were annexed to

the British dominion, thousands of
soldiers and officials in
administrative, military and judicial
posts became unemployed because
British policies excluded Indians from
high posts. All these people became
bitter enemies of the British rule in
India.
6. Inhuman Treatment of Indigo Cultivators:
Indigo trade was highly profitable to the
British but the conditions Under which the
peasants had to work were inhuman) The
peasants were forced to cultivate only
indigo in the fields chosen by the British
planters.

7. Decline of Landed Aristocracy: According to the provisions of the

Inam Commission (1852), 20,000 estates were confiscated when the
landlords failed to produce evidence like title-deeds by which they in
India held the land.

MILITARY CAUSES:
(1) Ill-treatment of Indian soldiers: The East India Company
established the British Empire in
India with the help of Indian
soldiers. Despite the fact that
Indian soldiers were as efficient as
their British counterparts, they
were poorly paid, ill-fed and badly
housed.

(2) General Service Enlistment Act 1856 -

Indian soldiers could be sent abroad on
duty. It was taboo for Brahmin to cross the
sea so they resented.

(3) Larger Proportions of Indians in the British Army – No. of british

soldiers was as low as 1 in 4000. Dalhousie advised for more british
soldiers. It made easier for soldiers to take arms.
(4) Little Prospects of Promotion -
Indian soldiers could not rise above
Subedar. All higher ranks were
reserved for the British.

5) Poor Performance of British Troops - The British army suffered

badly in the first Afgan war, in the Punjab Wars, in the Crimean War
and Santhal tribesmen of Bihar &
Bengal. It broke the myth that they
were invincible.

Immediate Cause:
When British introduced a new 'Enfield Rifle'. The loading of rifle with
cartridge involved biting if the top greased paper with the teeth. The
grease had fat of cow and pig.
For Hindus cow is a sacred and
for Muslims the pig is a taboo.
They refused to use these
cartridges & revolted.

Beginning of the Uprising:-

Mangal Pandey, an Indian sepoy attack his officer at Barrackpore He
was executed.
EVENTS AT MEERUT:- 85 soldiers
refused to use grease cartridge
were arrested. All sepoys revolted
and freed them.

EVENTS AT DELHI:- The soldiers from Meerut were. joined by infantry

they declared Bahadur Shah Jafar locals as "emperor of India'. Later he
was caught & deported to Yangon & died in 1862.

EVENTS AT LUCKNOW:- Begum Hazrat

Mahal led the revolt but British
recaptured Lucknow. She fled to Nepal.

EVENTS AT KANPUR:- Nana Saheb, adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao I,

led the revolt. He fled to Nepal too.

EVENTS AT CENTRAL INDIA:- Rani Laxmi Bai

was cheated by traitor but fought bravely.
She died fighting in 1858 at Gwalior. Tantia
Tope was caught and hanged.

OTHER CENTRES:- At Bareilly - Khan Bahadur, Bihar - Kunwar Singh, &

Faizabad - Ahmadullah led the revolt.
Consequences of the First War of Independence:
END OF COMPANY'S RULE - The company's rule came to end by the
Government of India Act 1858.
a) The power was transferred to
the British Crown from East
India Company .
b) The Secretary of State and 15-
member India Council will be
responsible to British
Parliament.
c) First Viceroy lord Canning was
appointed.
d) Appointments to civil services
were to be made open
competition.

2) QUEEN VICTORIA'S PROCLAMATION -

The government would follow policy of
non-intervention in social- religious
matters of Indian and treat all subjects
equally. Pardon to all who have take
part in war.

3. End of Mughals and Peshwas: With the death of Bahadur Shah II,
who was deported to Yangon, the Mughal dynasty came to an end.
Nana Saheb, the last Peshwa, had taken an active part in the uprising
and had fled to Nepal after the failure of the uprising. So the office of
the Peshwa also came to an end.

4. Relations with Princely States: The Policy of Annexation and the

Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned. Indian princes who had remained
loyal to the British and had helped them in suppressing the uprising,
were rewarded with the announcement that their right to adopt heirs
would be respected and the integrity of their territories guaranteed
against future take over.
In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of the "Empress of India."
The Indian princes willingly became junior partners or agents of the
British Crown because they were promised that they would continue
as rulers of their States.

5. Policy of Divide and Rule: After 1858, the British continued their
policy of 'divide and rule' by turning the princes against the people,
province against province, caste against caste, group against group
and above all, Hindus against Muslims.
The British also encouraged hatred and ill-feeling among the Hindus
and the Muslims so that they could never challenge the British Empire
in India.

6. Racial Antagonism: The British believed in their racial superiority

and they thought that a social distance was to be maintained to
preserve their authority over the Indians. Railway compartments,
parks, hotels, clubs, etc., reserved for 'Europeans only' were visible
signs of this racialism.

7. Foreign Policy: India's foreign policy was dictated by the interests of

the British Government. It fulfilled the two aims of the British :
(a) protection of its Indian Empire; and
(b) expansion of British economic and commercial interests in Asia
and Africa.

8. Increased Racial Bitterness: After the uprising of 1857, racial

bitterness increased. The British declared all Indians as unworthy of
trust and subjected them to insults and humiliation. In fact, the entire
structure of the Indian government was remodelled and based on the
idea of a superior race.

9. Religious Changes: The British rulers declared forcefully their policy

of non-interference in the religious affairs, customs and traditions of
the Indians.
10. Changes in the Army:
(i) The strength of European troops in India was increased. The ratio
of European to Indian troops was fixed at 1:2 (Bengal army) and 2:5
(Madras and Bombay armies).
(ii) European troops were kept in key geographical and military
positions.
(iii) Advanced weapons and ammunition were never placed under the
charge of Indians.
(iv) Discrimination on the basis of caste, region and religion was
practised in the recruitment to the army.
(v) In order to discourage nationalism, measures such as introduction
of caste and community in most regiments were taken.
(vi) Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented
from reaching the soldiers to keep the Indian army separated from the
life of the rest of the population.

11. Economic Exploitation: The uprising of 1857 ended the era of

territorial expansion and ushered in the era of economic exploitation
in the following manner:
(i) India was turned into a typical colonial economy, exporting raw
material and importing finished goods.
(ii) The salary and allowances of the Secretary of State and members
of the India Council, the civil servants and military officers were a
large drain on the country's resources.
(iii) Peasants were impoverished under the British rule. The indigo
peasants of Bihar revolted on a large scale in 1866-68.
(iv) Rural artisan industries such as handicrafts, spinning and weaving
collapsed.
(v) The Indians had to pay heavy interests and dividends on the British
capital invested in India. The British invested their surplus capital in
India in railways, plantations, coalmines, jute mills, shipping, etc.
12. Rise of Nationalism: The uprising of 1857 was the first struggle of
the Indian people for freedom from British imperialism. It paved the
way for the rise of the national movement. The sacrifices made by
revolutionaries like Rani Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb and Mangal Pandey
served as a source of inspiration for the future freedom fighters.

13. Widening of the Gulf Between Hindus and Muslims: During the
First War of Independence, both the Hindus and the Muslims showed
great enthusiasm and zeal to fight against the alien government. But
after the uprising, the gulf between the two communities widened.
This was the result of the British policy of “Divide and Rule' by which
they sowed the seeds of hatred between the two communities.

DRAWBACKS OF THE FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

The following were the drawbacks of the First War of Independence:
(i) The movement did not have common plans of military action or a
centralised leadership. The uprisings in different parts of the country
were completely uncoordinated.
(ii) The movement had no common goal before it except for the anti-
foreign sentiments
(iii) The East India Company had the services of men of exceptional
abilities like Lawrence Nicholson, Havelock, Campbell etc.
(iv) The British Empire had far superior resources in terms of men,
money and materials to the Indians.
(v) The movement did not have nationwide dimensions. It could not
spread much to South India and most of Eastern or Western India. Sind
and Rajasthan remained quiet. Nepal helped in the suppression of the
movement. Bombay and Madras armies remained loyal to the British.
(vi) Some of the rulers of the Indian States and the big zamindars
refused to join the movement.
(vii) Some sections of the Indian society were against to the uprising.
Moneylenders and the big merchants of Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai,
and zamindars of Bengal were loyal to the British.
(viii) The uprising was supposed to begin on May 31, 1857. But due to
the greased cartridges incident, it began much before the fixed date.
So the whole plan remained disorganised.

NATURE OF THE WAR

Whatever be the nature of the uprising of 1857, it is generally hailed
as the First War of Independence, because:

(i) It was the first mass uprising in which all the sections of Indian
society participated against a common enemy, i.e., the British.
(ii) It paved the way for the rise of modern national movement. The
sacrifices made by Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb and Mangal Pandey served
as a source of inspiration to the leaders and people to fight for the
independence of India from the British rule.