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    Secondary Coolants in Refrigeration Systems

    Uploaded by

    Dennis Mok

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    CHAPTER 13 SECONDARY COOLANTS IN REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS Coolant Selection Design Considerations “Applications. ECONDARY coolants are liquids used as heat transfer Muids that change temperature as they ein or lose heat energy without changing into another phase. For lower refrigeration temperatures, this requires a coolant witha freezing point below that of water These are generally called brines by the industry. This chapter dis- cesses design considerations for components, system performance Fequirements, and applications for secondary coolants. Related in- formation can be found in Chapters 3,4, 22,30, and 31 ofthe 2021, ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 1, COOLANT SELECTION ‘A secondary coolant must be compatible with other materials in the system atthe pressures and temperatures encountered for maxi ‘mum component reliability and operating life. The eoolant should tlso be compatible with the envionment and the applicable safety regulations, and should be economical to use and replace. “The coolant should have a minimum freezing point of 3 K below and preferably & K below the lowest temperature to which it will be exposed. When subjected to the lowest temperature in the system, ‘coolant viscosity should be low enough to allow satisfactory heat transfer and reasonable pressure drop. Coolant vapor pressure should not execed that allowed atthe ‘maximum temperature encountered. To avoid a vacuum ina low Vapor-pressute secondary coolant system, the coolant can be pressurized with pressure-regulated dry nitrogen in the expansion tank, However, some special secondary coolants suchas those used, {or computer circuit cooling have a high solubility for nitrogen and, must therefore be isolated from the nitrogen with a suitable dia- phragm, Load Versus Flow Rate The secondary coolant pump is usually in the return line up- stream of the chiller. Therefore, the pumping rate is based on the density at the return temperature. The mass Mov rate for a given heat load is based on the desired temperature range and required coefficient of heat transfer atthe average bulk temperature "To determine heat transfer and pressure drop, the density, specific heat, viscosity, and thermal conductivity are based on the average bulk temperature of coolant inthe heat exchanger, noting that film ratte corections are based on the average film temperature. solutions ofthe secondary coolant-side coefficient eompared 10 Tri the overall coefficient and total log mean temperature difference (LMTD) determine the average film temperature. Where the second ary coolant is cooled, the more viscous film reduces the heat transfer ‘ate and raises the pressure drop compared fo what can be expected atthe bulk temperature. Where the secondary coolant is heated, the less viscous film approaches the heat transfer rate and pressure drop, ‘expected atthe bulk temperature, The preparation of this chap is assigned tC 10.1, Custom Engineered Refrigeration Systems 1B BL 82 BS ‘The more turbulence and mixing ofthe bulk and film, the beter the heat transfer and higher the pressure drop. Where secondary in the tubes ofa heat transfer device results in am- inar flow, heat transfer can be improved by inserting spiral tapes or spring turbulators that promote mixing the bulk and film. This usu ally increases pressure drop. The inside surface can also be spirally ‘grooved or augmented by other dovices. Because the sate ofthe art, ‘of heat transfer is constantly improving, use the most costeffetive ‘heat exchanger to provide optimum heat transfer and pressure drop. Recently, plate-and-frame evaporators and shelland-tube heat ex- changers have been used to handle highly viscous brines. Energy ‘costs for pumping secondary coolant must be considered when se- Tecting the fluid to be used and the hea exchangers tobe installed, Pumping Cost ‘Pumping cost ae a function ofthe secondary coolant selected, load and temperature range where energy is transferred, pm pres sue required by ihe system pressure drop (including that of the chiller), mechanical efficiencies ofthe pump and driver, and elects sal efficiency and power factor (where the driver is an electric ‘motor). Small centrifugal pumps, operating in the range of approx imately 3 Ls at 240 kPato9 L's at 210 kPa, for 60 Hz applications, typically have 45 to 65% efficioney, respectively. Larger pumps, ‘operating inthe range of 30 Ls at 240 kPa to 95 Lis at 210 KPa, for 60 Hz applications, typically have 75 to 85% efficiency, respec tively. ‘A pump should operate near its peak operating efficiency for the flowrate and pressure that usually exist. Secondary coolant tempera ture increases slightly from energy expended atthe pump shat. Ifa semihermetic electric mator is used asthe driver, motor inefficiency isaddedas heat to the secondary coolant, andthe toty kilowatt input to the motor must be considered in establishing lof and tempera- tures. Performance Comparisons ‘Assuming that the total refiigeation load at the evaporator includes the pump motor inpet and brine lin insulation heat gains, as ‘well as the delivered beneficial cooling, tabulatin typical secondary ‘coolant performance values helps in coolant selection. A.27 mm ID ‘smooth steel tube evaluated for pressure drop and internal heat trans- fer coefficient at the average bulk temperature of -6.7°C and atem= perature range of 5.6 K for 2.1 mis tube-side velocity provides ‘comparative data (Table 1) for some typical coolants, Table ranks the same coolants comparatively, using data from Table 1 For a given evaporator configuration, load, and temperature range, select a secondary coolant that gives satisfactory velocities, heat transfer, and pressure drop. At the ~6.7°C level, hydrocarbon, and halocarbon secondary coolants must be pumped ata rate of 2.3, 130 times the rate of water-based secondary coolants forthe same temperature range Higher pumping rates require larger coolant lines to keep the ppump's pressure and power requirement within reasonable limits. “Table 3 lists approximate ratios of pump power for secondary cool ants Heat transfered by a given secondary coolant affets the cost, 13.2 ‘Table 1 Secondary Coolant Performance Comparisons Heat Concen Transfer tration Breeze Pressure Coefficient (oy Mas, Point, Drop hy Secondary Coolant 9% °C LiGekW)* KPa Wika Propylene alot O0499 20064 116 Eylene glycol bows Tear 2405 Methanol Doses 14134 3086 Sodium chloride 6 ows 1SKs8 68 actu eborde 1 oso tenes 314 ‘Agua ammonia 7 ows iekss 307 ‘Tchorctiyene 1 1am Tasik 2453 Limonene 7 tutied 10308 ie2s Matiene chloride a7 :INe 2o4 392 Rar foo ttt aise 143412430 “sao a ony soln emperahie a pun of °C Sted on oe length 42m abe ne 364 ID de of Many Cha 194) Toran avenge cy of 215 tpt sees ul 2 for 213 mt ‘sly Evens arm ball tert of-67°C al temperate ang oF thse on ave i esion fr Ken's (1950) aati of Sede apd Tat (1936) Tea toms ution asng 43 for 1D" and in temperate 028° Tower an weap a tomperatie wih? 134 ele ‘Table? Comparative Ranking of Heat Transfer Factors at2 ms" Heat Transfer Factor 000 66 ros 28s ‘Trichlooetylene 2107 Methanal 2300 ‘Aqua ammonia 2a Sodium chloe 2m Calcium chlonde 2761 Methyene chloride ast “eorg fo oi long snd reigann apd i ach sondey col, tub mr nd sce upmenton ‘Biogen Table valor sng mm D ake 49 mang. Asal Table 3 Relative Pumping Energy Required* Secondary Coolant nerag Factor ‘Aqua ammonia ono Methane! Lows Propylene glo! 1 Ethylene glycol 1380 Sodium chloride es Clctom chloride tan ‘Limonene 2406 Metiyene chive iss Trihloratiylene oer kil S22 ‘Ticalon sane pang psu gain oa °C wees epee 6K “anos andfeeng pe (or watered sone soln) It 13 bel lew ‘Stecconday colt pert ‘and perhaps the configuration and pressure drop of a eller and other heat exchangers in the system: therefore, Tables 2 and 3 are ‘only guides ofthe relative merits ofeach coolant. Other Considerations Corrosion must be considered when selecting coolant, inhibitor, ‘and system components. The effect of secondary coolant and inhib- itor toxicity on the health and safety of plant personnel or consumers ‘of food and beverages must be considered. The flash point and explosive limits of secondary coolant vapors must also be evaluated. Examine the secondary coolant stability for anticipated mois- ture, air, and contaminants at the temperature Timits of materials 2022 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration (SI) ‘used inthe systom. Skin temperatures ofthe hottest elements deter ‘mine secondary coolant stability If defoaming additives ate nocessry, their effect on thermal sta- bility and coolant toxicity must be considered for the application. 2, DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Secondary coolant vapor pressure atthe lowest operating fem- perature determines whether a vacuum could exist in the secondary ‘coolant system. To keep ai and moisture ou ofthe system, pressure> onirolled dry nitrogen can be applied tothe top level of secondary coolant (ein the expansion tank ora storage tank). Gas pressure ‘over the coofant plus the pressure created atthe lowest point in the system by the maximum verical height of coolant determine the rinimum intemal pressure for design purposes. The coincident highest pressure and lowest secondary coolant temperature dictate the design working pressure (DWP) and material specifications for the components, ‘To select proper relief valve(s) with settings based onthe system DWP, consider the highest temperatures 1o which the secondary coolant could be subjected This temperature occurs in ease of heat radiation froma fire inthe area, or normal warming ofthe valved ‘off sections, Normally, a Valved-off section is relieved to an uncon- ‘tained portion ofthe system and the secondary coolant can expand freely without loss to the environment. ‘Safety considerations for the system are found in ASHRAE Standard 15. Design standards for pressure piping ean be found in [ASME Standard B31.5,and design standard for pressure vessels in Section VIII ofthe ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Piping and Control Valves Piping should be sized for reasonable pressure drop using the calculation methods in Chapters 3 and 22 of the 2021 ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals, Balancing valves or orifices in each of ‘the multiple feed Lines help distribute the secondary coolant, A reverse-otum piping arrangement balances flow. Control valves that vary flow are sized for 20 to 80% ofthe toa ition pressure drop, through the system for proper response and stable operation. Valves ‘ized for pressure drops smaller than 20% may respond to slowly to 4 contol signal fora flow change. Valves size for pressure drops ‘over 0% canbe too sensitive, causing control cyelingand instability. Storage Tanks ‘Storage tanks can shave peak loads for brief perio limit the size of reffgeration equipment, and reduce energy costs. Ip off-peak hours, aeatively smal eigration plant cools a secondiry coolant stored for later use. A separate circulating pump sized forthe maxi ‘mum flow needed by the peak load i started to satisfy peak load, Energy cost savings are enhanced ifthe refrigeration equipment is used to cool secondary coolant at night, when the cooling medium or heat rejection is generally atthe lowest temperature “The load profile over 24h and the temperature range ofthe se “ondary coolant determine the minimum net capacity required forthe refrigeration plant, pump sizes, and minimum amount of secondary ‘coolant to be stored. For maximum use ofthe storage tank volume atthe expected temperatures, choose inlet velocities and locate con- nections and tank for maximum stratification. Note, however, that ‘maximum use wll probably never exceed 90% and, in some cases, Example 1. Figure | depicts the lod profile and Figure 2 shows the Tamangcment of cefigeration plat with storage of a 23% (by mas) Sodium chloride secondary coolant a a nominal ~6.7°C. During the peak load of 76K, a range of 48 Ki oauted. At an average te perature of 44°C, with a range of 44K, the coolants specific eat Epis 3.318 KIKKE-K}. At 22°C, the density of coolant pat the Phun = 1183 kgs at 67°C, py 1183 kgm Secondary Coolants in Refrigeration Systems Fit Lond ron orRetigrtin Pat Where Sonar ; Cat Storage am save ery __$§_ Bae Fig. 2 Arrangement of System with Secondary ‘Coolant Storage Determine the minimam se storage tank for 90% use, minimum capacity equ forthe chiller, and ies oF he two pups. Te chile tnd chiller pump run continously, The secondary coolant storage mp rns ony ring the peak load. A conto valve to he loa source fiver all colant tothe storage tank during a zerotead condition, so thatthe inal emperatre of -,7°C i rstred inthe tank Dung iow Toad only the equi flow rae for range of 44 Kat he load source fs used the balance fetus tothe tank and restores te temperature to ore. Solution: 1 «isthe minimum capacity ofthe chiller, determine the ‘ergy balance in each sgrent by subtracting te load in each segment from x Then multiply the result by the time length ofthe respective segments spi ad as fllows (6-0) + Ax 196) 1448-317) = 0 Gr} de 104+ M4838 = 0 2a = 1468 x = 478 Caleuate the secondary cols low rte Wa peak lad W= 176831444) ~ 1207 kps For the chiller a 52.8 RW, the secondary coolant low rate is W=S28)3314 44) ~3.62 kis “Therefore, the coolant lw rate to the stocage task pump is 12.07 362 848 ky Chiller punp sic is determined by 1000 3.62/1183 = 3.06 Lis Colelate the storage tank pump sz as follows 1000 x 8481185 ~ 7.16 L's Using the concept of stratification nthe storage tank, the interface between warm rtm sid cold stored secondary conan fll atthe rte 13.3 pumped fom the tank. Because he ime segments fx the total amount pumped andthe stage tank pump operates only in segment 2 (see Figure I) the minima tink volume Pat 90% use is determined as follows Total mass = 8.48 k's 4h «(3600 2b)09 = 135700 and = 1387001185 = 114.5 m? A liypertank (e190 m®) provides xii for longer segments at peak lod and accommodates poeta mixing I may be desiabe to inca and mit et gis 2 KW fo the tana ines. Perey use for purping canbe limited by designing for 160 kPa, With he smaller pump operating at 51% efficiency andthe ager pump at $2:% ef ene) pup heat added tothe secondary coolant 970 and 2190 W, respectively For ciscs with various time segments and hee espective loads, the maximum ld oe segment Tor 3 th the salle pump operating car fot exceed the net capacity of the chiller mins rslaton and pump teat pun to the secondary coolant For various combinations ofS ‘ment time Tengths and cooling fads, the recovery or restoration rate of fhe storage tank tthe lowest temperate ruled for satisfactory ‘operation shouldbe considered IN loud source crits shutoff excss flow is bypassed back to the siorage tank (Figure 2), The temperature setting ofthe te-way valve isthe nonal return enperatre for fl flow through tho Toad sources. ‘When only the storage tank regutes cooling, ow i as shown by the dashed lines with he lal soure isolation valve closed. When tor ngs tank temperature sat he desired level, the lad isolation vale ean te opened tallow cooling of the piping lops o and from the load ‘soutes fr fll restoration of sraue cooing capaci Expansion Tanks Figure 3 shows atypical closed secondary coolant system with= ‘out a storage tank; it also shows different control stratezies, The reverse-etum piping assists flow balance. Figure 4 shows a sec- ‘ondary coolant strengthening unit for salt brines. Secondary coo! “ant expansion tank volume is determined by considering the total ‘coolant inventory and differences in coolant density atthe lowest temperature, of coolant pumped to the load location and the max- imum temperature. The expansion tank is sized to accommodate a residual volume with the system coolant at ¢, plus an expansion volume and vapor space above the coolant. A Vapor space equal to 20% of the expansion tank volume should be adequate. A level indicator, used to prevent overcharging, i calibrated atthe residual volume level versus lowest system secondary coolant temperature. Example 2. Assume a 190m charge of 238 Sodium ehigfde scondary ‘oolot ty of -6:7C in the system. If 378°C i the maximum te [etture,deermine the size ofthe expansion nk requied. Assume {hat the residual volume is 10% ofthe worl ank volume and ha the "or space a th highest temperature is 20% ofthe total tank volume, where TY ~ epson tk velune Moun cen cokt volue a empeaij pre enya > dentate FE el Volume f ak ow eve at, exes fae Y= fm oper ahs epee xp tre density ofthe secondary coolant is L185 kgm! a -6.°C and 183 kg ac 38°C teak oles spotciss/1138)—1) T=(o10 020 EIv= 708m! | | | 1B4 Pulldown Time Example | is based on a static situation of secondary coolant temperature at two different loads: normal and peak. The length of ‘ime for pulldown from 37.8°C tothe final -6.7°C may need to be calculated, For graphical solution, required heat extraction versus secondary coolant temperature is pltied. Then, by iteration, pull down time is solved by finding the net refrigeration capacity for each increment of coolant temperature change. A mathematical method may also be used ‘The $2.8 KW system in the examples has a 105.7 kW capacity at ‘a maximum of 10°C saturated suction temperature (STP). For pull- ‘down, a compressor suction pressure regulator (holdback valve) i sometimes used. The maximum secondary coolant temperature ‘must be determined when the holdback valve is wide open and the STP is at 10°C. For Example 1 this is at 21°C coolant temperature ‘As coolant temperature is further reduced with # constant 3.0 Lis, reffigeration system capacity gradually reduces until a 52.8 kW ‘capacity is reached with -3.3°C coolant inthe tank, Further cooling to-6.7°C is at redueed capacity Temperatures of the secondary coolant mass, storage tanks, pip ‘ng, cooler, pump, and insulation musta be reduced. In Example f, asthe coolant drops from 37.8 to ~6.7°C, the total heat removed from these items is as follows: Brine Temperature °¢ Total Hat Removed, GI ie 3327 267 ran aut 2076 186 1639 44 829 67 ° a a eal x pee Ge Galle x Fig.3. Typical Closed Salt Brine System 2022 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration (SI) From secondary coolant temperature of 378 t021.1°C, the refi tion system capacity is fixed at 105.7 kW, and the time for pul down is essentially linear (system net KW for pulldown isles than the compressor capacity because of heat gin through insulation and added pump heat. In Example 1, pump heat was not considered, ‘Whea recognizing the variable heat gain fora 35°Cambient, and the pump heat a the secondary coolant temperature i reduced, the fol Towing net capacity is availabe for pulldown at various secondary coolant temperatures ‘Brine Temperature "© Net Capaciy, AW m8 si 267 10841 211 36 156 $90 44 27 33 $96 3 447 ‘A curve fit shows capacity is a straight line between the values for37.8and 211°C. Therefore, the pulldown time fortis interval is 76)108 13.6)3600 =333h From 21.1 to -6.7°C, the capacity curve fits a second-degree polynomial equation as follows: = 54.868 + 1.713¢+ 0.028802 where 1 = secondary coolant temperature, °C 4 = capacity fr pulldown, kW Using the arithmetic average pulldown net capacity from 21.1 to 6.7°C te time interval would be 2076x108 Tae TNR Fig.4 Brine Strengthening Unit for Salt Brines Used as Secondary Coolants secondary Coolants in Refrigeration Systems If the logarithmic (base e) mean average net capacity for this temperature interval is used, the time is 20.76% 10° 70,08 «3600 8238 This isa difference of 4.5 h, and neither solution is correct, A sore exact calculation uses a graphical analysis or calelus, One motfeimatical approach determines the heat removed per degree of ariefary coolant temperature change pet Kilowatt of capacity Ficomuse the evolant’s heat capacity and heat leakage change as the aprature drops, the amount of heat removed is best determined by fst iting a curve tothe data for total heat remaved versus See- yy coolant temperature, Then a series of iterations for second- Sr coolant temperatare+1K is made asthe temperatre i reduce i. polynomial equations may be solved by computer or calculator ceptable program or spreadsheet. The time for pulldown is ravi supplemental refrigeration is availabe for pulldown or ifess secondary coolant is stored The correct answer is 88.2, which is 7% greater than the lopa- rithmic mean average capacity and 13% greater than the arithmetic [verage capacity over the temperature range. Therefore, total time for temperature pulldown from 37.8 to “6rCis 0=333+882= 12154 system Costs ‘Various alternatives may be evaluated to justify anew projector system modification. Means (updated annually) lists the sstaled 2efoF various projects. NBS (1978) and Park and Jackson (1984) Paks engineering and life-cycle cost analysis. Using various ime suc of money formulas, payback for storage tank banding of Peak toads compared to large refrigeration equipment and higher rary conte can be evaluated. Tradeoffs in these cost nti sree ance, insurance increased secondary coolant oss of Space, find energy escalation) all must be considered. Corrosion Prevention Corrosion prevention requies choosing proper materials and inhibitor, routine testing for pH, and eliminating contaminants [Because potentially corrosive caleium chloride and sodium chloride peeing secondary coolant systems are widely used, test and adjust the brine solution monthly. To replenish salt brines ina system. 2 er remtated solution may be better than arystalline form, besause itiseasier to handle and mi. “A brine should not be allowed to change from alkaline to acidic. Acids rapsly corrode te metal ordinarily used in refrigeration and ‘Renaking systems. Calcium chloride usually contains suficent kal to tender the freshly prepared brine slightly alkaline. When ay brine is exposed to air, it gradually absorbs carbon dioxide and aay gems which eventually make the brine slighty aei, Dilute brines Gizelve oxygen more readily and generally are more corrosive than tnsentated brines, One ofthe best preventive measures is 40 make closed rather than open system, usinga regulated inert gas over the ‘Mice ofa closed expansion tank (see Figure 2), However, many ‘Stems, such as ice-making tank, brine-spray unit coolers, and brine-spray carcass chill roams, cannot be closed. Wh brine pH of 75 for @ sodium or calcium chloride system is dca, ecauve itis safer to have a slightly alkaline sather than & ‘ighily acd brine, Operators should check pH regularly. “ta brineis acid, the pH canbe raised by adding caustic sods dis solved im warm water I @ brine is alkaline (indicating, ammonia Ttakage into the brine), carbonic gas or chromic, acetic, or Hyro, Chea aed should be added. Ammonia leakage rust be stopped {immediately so thatthe brine ean be neutralized. BS In addition to controlling pH, an inhibitor should be wed. Generally, sodium dichromate iste most effective and economi- Afar att brine systems, The granular dichromate is bright Stange and ready dissolves in warm water. Because it dissolves sea Somly in eold brie, it should be dissolved im warm water NE ded tothe brine far enough ahead ofthe pump so that oBly arthute solution reaches the pump. Recommended quantities are 5 Kw of ealeium chloride brine, and 3.2 kg/m’ of sodium chlo ride brine ‘Adding sodium dichromate to the salt brine does not make it09- corrosive immediately, The process is affected by many factors

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