MANHATTAN SCHOOL OF MUSIC

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF VOCAL TRACT RESONANCE

IN SAXOPHONE PEDAGOGY

by

Wonki Lee

A THESIS

Presented to the Faculty of Manhattan School of Music

In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements
For the Degree of Doctor of Musical Arts
Major: Classical Saxophone Performance

_____________________________________________
Dr. Paul Cohen, advisor

_____________________________________________
Dr. Reiko Füting, second reader

_____________________________________________
Dr. Jeffrey Langford, Assistant Dean for Doctoral Studies

New York, NY

February 2019
 ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS

Practical Application of Vocal Tract Resonance in Saxophone Pedagogy

by

Wonki Lee

Thesis advisor: Dr. Paul Cohen

This study provides scientific explanations for the mechanics of vocal tract influence in

various tasks of saxophone performance and their practical application to saxophone pedagogy.

First, major saxophone treatises on saxophone altissimo by Raschèr, Rousseau, Sinta, and Liebman

are compared. Next, scientific research of vocal tract influence in saxophone performance by

acoustical physicists is introduced. These studies demonstrate how vocal tract manipulation affects

the sound pressure levels and the overtone spectrum of saxophone tones, especially in the high

register, bugling, and pitch bending. The following chapters investigate the influence of air

pressure difference between the player’s mouth (vocal tract) and the mouthpiece by applying

Bernoulli’s Principle. Then the study shares the examination of pressure variations in various tasks

of saxophone performance with five saxophonists (two professionals and three students) using the

manometer to measure the pressure in the player’s mouth while playing the instrument. The

concluding chapter integrates practical applications of studies into a new pedagogy using phonetics

that utilizes vowels and consonants, kinesthetics of muscles, and throat-tonguing. This study

allows students to accelerate the process of learning the use of vocal tract by addressing an

empirically-based understanding of relationships between vocal tract manipulations and mouth-

pressures, and how they specifically produce different sound qualities.

ii
 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Dr. Paul Cohen for the

mentorship that has lasted for thirteen years starting from the pre-college to the doctorate at

Manhattan School of Music. I am truly privileged to have such a relationship and I thank

immensely for your full support and guidance. I would like to thank my second reader Dr. Reiko

Füting. Your lectures transformed how I view musical compositions and allowed me to look inside

of a composer’s creative mind. Moreover, your professionalism has always inspired me. I would

like to thank Dr. Jeffrey Langford for your guidance through the doctoral years. It was always

joyful to attend your classes. Your love for music has always penetrated through your lectures.

A sincere thank you to Barbara Burke for graciously sharing her knowledge and experience of

English writing with me. I would like to show my special gratefulness to Ki Yang Sung and Mi

Hae Kim for their unwavering faith, unconditional love, and wholehearted support. I am forever

grateful for your kindness. I thank my parents for giving me a life and allowing me to pursue what

I love. You sacrificed so much and I cannot thank enough for your love and support. I want to

thank my daughter Daon Eunice Lee for motivating me to complete this thesis. Finally, I want to

thank my wife and best friend, Jihye Sung. No matter what, you have always believed in me. I

love you and thank you for everything.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... iii

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1
Purpose of the Study............................................................................................................ 1
Justification for the Study .................................................................................................... 5

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............................................................................... 7

Saxophone Pedagogical Literature ..................................................................................... 7
Technological Studies – Proof of Vocal Tract Resonance .................................................. 15
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 34

3. VOCAL TRACT RESONANCE........................................................................................... 35

Air Pressure ...................................................................................................................... 36
Reed Vibration .................................................................................................................. 39
Bernoulli’s Principle ........................................................................................................ 43
Manometer Test ................................................................................................................ 52
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 61

4. PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION ........................................................................................ 62

Phonetic Approach ............................................................................................................ 63
Kinesthetic Approach ........................................................................................................ 72
Anatomy of Vocal Tract ..................................................................................................... 72
Open Throat ...................................................................................................................... 76
Laryngeal Elevators and Depressors ................................................................................ 81
Throat Tonguing Approach ............................................................................................... 87

5. CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................... 91

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 95
VITA ...................................................................................................................................... 102

iv
 1. INTRODUCTION
Purpose of the Study

In Adolphe Sax’s vision, the saxophone combined unique characteristics of the

brass and woodwind families, creating a new and unique instrument. He envisioned that

the saxophone - this new instrument to the symphony orchestra - would bridge an acoustic

gap within the orchestra that existed between instrumental families, such as the strings,

winds and brass. Sax realized that there was no bass instrument that possessed the

increasingly necessary wide range of dynamics and agility demanded in new music of the

time.

Hector Berlioz, who was Sax’s ardent supporter, notes in the Journal des débats

that considerable progress had been made in the art of musical instrumentation, and he

lavishly praised the saxophone and contributions Sax had made:

As for the sound, it is of a nature that I don’t know a low instrument currently in

use to which, in that respect, it can be compared. It is full, mellow, vibrant,

extremely powerful, and capable of being soft. It is much superior...for the

precision and consistency of the sound, the character of which is in any case totally

new and does not resemble any of the timbres that one presently hears in the

orchestra...Composers will be much indebted to M. Sax when his instruments come

into general use. May he persevere; he will not lack encouragement from friends

of art.1

The first saxophone was the bass saxophone in C. Eventually the orchestral role was

superseded by the bass clarinet, which was also perfected by Adolphe Sax. Nonetheless,

composers raved about this new instrument and the saxophone found its way into the

1
Stephen Cottrell, The Saxophone (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 44.

1
French military band complementing the wind sections. Thereafter, Sax acquired a patent

of his new invention in 1846, and its development underwent exponential growth and

transformation. According to Jean-Marie Londeix’s Guide to the Saxophone Repertoire,

more than 29,000 works were written for saxophone in between 1844 to 2012. This means

that roughly 170 new works were written for saxophone each year since its creation.

Current musical trends suggest that saxophonists will be responsible for the advancement

of technical prowess to accommodate musical demands of contemporary composers.

Techniques required for contemporary repertoire often include multi-phonics, slap-

tonguing, double tonguing, and an effortless control over the altissimo register. These

techniques are often referred to as “extended techniques.” Today they are no longer

extraordinary because of their common use in the saxophone repertoire. Eugene Rousseau

states the necessity of acquiring such techniques in his altissimo book:

The ability to exhibit fluency in playing above the saxophone’s normal range [key

range from B flat to F sharp] is no longer a frill, nor is it an option; it is a necessity.2

Donald Sinta echoes the necessity of mastery over the altissimo register for the

contemporary saxophonist:

For the contemporary saxophonist playing modern repertoire, it is a must! The

competitive saxophonist of the 1990’s must be proficient in the instrument’s third

register.3

Indeed, extended techniques have become a norm of contemporary repertoire. The majority

of saxophone repertoire of the 20th century includes extended techniques. For instance,

2
Eugene Rousseau, Saxophone High Tones, 2nd ed. (Maryland Heights: Lauren Keiser Music Publishing,
2008), iv.
3
Donald J. Sinta and Denise C. Dabney, Voicing: An Approach to the Saxophone’s Third Register (Laurel:
Sintafest Music, 1992), 1.

2
Leslie Bassett’s Music for saxophone and piano and William Albright’s Sonata for alto

saxophone and piano employ the altissimo register extensively. Takashi Yoshimatsu’s

Fuzzy Bird Sonata requires both playing in the altissimo register and slap-tonguing.

Luciano Berio’s Sequenza VIIb & IXb both demand the altissimo register, slap-tonguing,

and multiphonics.

The contemporary repertoire requires saxophonists to learn these skills early in their

training. This necessity requires a new pedagogical approach to guide students to acquire

these essential skills quickly. However, the majority of extended techniques are neither

new nor contemporary. For example, slap-tonguing and the employment of the altissimo

register were already evident in the 1930s with the concertos by Glazunov, Ibert, and

Larsson, all of which were written for Sigurd Raschèr, an important figure in the

development of the 20th century repertoire for the classical saxophone. In 1973, Edison

Denisov composed his Sonata for alto saxophone and piano that served as a pivotal point

of saxophone history in that it was the first composition to fully utilize extended techniques

that would become the standard for future repertoire.

It is interesting to note how little pedagogical material was written for the extended

techniques in the earlier years. Nonetheless, when dealing with most of extended

techniques, saxophonists would agree that having the control of the vocal tract space with

the tongue is critical as it significantly affects tonal quality, overtone spectrum, and overall

control of the instrument. In vocal pedagogy, the manipulation of the vocal tract space is

called “vocal tract resonance.” However, it has been understood that the mastery of vocal

tract resonance requires years of training in which only advanced students or saxophonists

can attain its mastery. Larry Teal clearly states this perspective:

3
 High tones should be attempted only by advanced saxophone players who have a

well-developed embouchure and an accurate sense of pitch discrimination.4

This author acknowledges the pedagogical challenges in teaching vocal tract resonance to

students regardless of their levels. An apparent reason is undeniably its invisibility to the

players. Teachers cannot physically display exact tongue positions when teaching students.

Although there have been numerous studies conducted with the use of modern MRI

(Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and/or CT (Computed Tomography) scan to visually

designate exact tongue movements during singing and playing instruments, pedagogical

challenges still remain, even as those studies revolutionized our awareness toward

phonation and vocal tract resonance in singing and performing wind instruments. It is

certainly true that this author has struggled with guiding students to help understand the

placement of tongue position in order to achieve a successful result. Yet this author realized

that it was possible for beginners to acquire the technique after teaching just one lesson.

One day in a single lesson of thirteen-year-old student who just began studying the

saxophone, after guiding him with several different approaches to correct tongue positions

for vocal tract resonance, he was able to correctly manipulate his vocal tract to obtain the

altissimo register as well as the pitch bending. Immediately, it was clear that the technique

can be taught at early stage of learning, which indeed refutes the traditional thinking of

vocal tract mastery. The potential exists to shorten the time for learning the vocal tract

control to allow students to acquire the necessary techniques to accommodate

contemporary demands.

4
Larry Teal, The Art of Saxophone Playing (Evanston: Summy-Birchard Co., 1963), 98.

4
 Justification for the Study

There are several pedagogical writings designed to guide students to acquire control

of vocal tract resonance, including Developing A Personal Saxophone Sound by David

Liebman, Top Tones for Saxophone by Sigurd Raschèr, Saxophone High Tones by Eugene

Rousseau, and Voicing by Donald Sinta. While there are other resources, these four books

are most commonly used in the United States. While all of them are beneficial tools for

acquiring the technique through trial and repetition, they do not discuss in detail how you

should move your muscles in the vocal tract to achieve the desired result. It is almost

certainly impossible for students to work with the presented exercises without truly

understanding the mechanics of the vocal tract. It is a pedagogical necessity to seek

methodology to translate fact-based information into practical applications for teaching.

As Rousseau writes “the consideration of tongue position, throat opening, etc. – must be

translated into language that will produce a meaningful result.”5

This thesis will seek to clarify the mechanics of saxophone acoustics and kinetics

of the vocal tract. Then it will attempt to fill three pedagogical gaps in teaching vocal tract

resonance: the gap between our sensory awareness of our muscles and actual mapping, the

gap between available exercises and their executions, and the gap between modern

acoustical studies and saxophone pedagogy. Although studies regarding specific influence

of vocal tract resonance for saxophone pedagogy is limited, a great number of studies

conducted by voice pedagogues and physics acousticians exists. The acoustic bibliography

regarding vocal tract resonance is indeed immense. Most of the studies were conducted on

the subject of vocal tract influence from perspectives of vocal pedagogy and acoustical

5
Rousseau, Saxophone High Tones,79.

5
physics. However, those studies are often quite technical and scientific using mathematical

equations and numbers that may be challenging for musicians and hard to understand. The

information presented in those studies does not translate into practical application in

teaching.

Mark Watkins’ “The Saxophonist’s Vocal Tract”6 is the only comprehensive study

regarding the use of vocal tract resonance in saxophone written by a saxophonist in recent

years. In his research, Watkins uncovers the mechanism of vocal tract resonance in the

saxophone, offers acoustic explanations, and suggests pedagogical applications. Indeed,

Watkins’ studies are extensive and informative. While the author agrees with Watkins’

studies in the vocal tract resonance, there is still the need to clarify the ambiguous

mechanics. Moreover, there are two critical aspects of vocal tract resonance that need to

be further elucidated. First, studies clarifying the kinetics of the vocal tract should be

implemented. Vocal pedagogues are well aware of the gaps that exist between what we

feel inside of our vocal tract and what is actually occurring. There are plenty of studies in

vocal pedagogy, and they are a helpful reference to understand the mechanics of vocal tract

resonance. Filling the perceptive gap in kinetics can be further addressed.

Second, scientific clarification of vocal tract influence over saxophone acoustics

needs to be addressed. This will serve to clarify misconceptions as to why certain acoustical

effects happen during vocal tract movements. There are numerous scientific studies done

by acousticians, but they are rather technical in a scientific language. This thesis will

translate the scientific information into practical evidence for general use and attempt to

serve as a bridge between the available literature and practical application in the studio.

6
Mark Watkins, “The Saxophonist’s Vocal Tract,” Saxophone Symposium 27-28 (2002).

6
 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Saxophone Pedagogical Literature

Top-Tones for the Saxophone: Four-Octave Range by Sigurd M. Raschèr

Raschèr’s Top-Tones was one of the very first method books for the production of

the extended register. It was reasonable for him to create a document on this subject as he

is regarded to be the pioneer of the extended register, as is evident through numerous works

written for him over the course of his career. The first edition was published in 1941.

Raschèr first focuses on acquiring great control over the regular range of the saxophone by

sustained tone and interval exercises. Then he directs the reader to approach the

saxophone’s altissimo register through overtone exercises. Raschér intentionally omits

explaining any details regarding saxophone acoustic and its mechanics. On the contrary,

he emphasizes the importance of an “active mind” and “ear of the mind” in obtaining and

developing skills:

The production of an overtone is the result of a delicately adjusted embouchure

coupled with a completely controlled flow of air. Variations of these two factors

are so nimble that the author hesitates to define them. The attempt to do so would

be comparable to the admonition of the voice teacher: “Give 4 and 1/16 ounces of

tension on the vocal cords, produce an outgoing airflow of 3278 cc. per minute and

check with your ear that the desired number of vibrations of the vocal cords and,

hence, of the tone per second is 660 – that is, E.” Instead, he tries to give the student

an accurate concept of the aimed-for tone (pitch as well as other properties) which,

in turn, influences (below the level of consciousness) the action of the lungs, vocal

cords, etc., resulting eventually in the production of the tone.7

7
Sigurd Raschèr, Top-Tones for the Saxophone (New York: Carl Fischer, 1983), 11.

7
 By using a hypothetical example of a voice teacher, Raschèr considers that it is not

applicable to guide students with technical facts that do not translate well into a successful

result. He suggests that being able to sing or imagine the pitch should allow the student to

adjust necessary muscles to produce overtones:

Play slowly a C scale from middle to high C, up and down. Now sing (DON’T

PLAY!) the fourth tone of this scale. If necessary, begin to sing on C and sing step

by step to the fourth tone of the scale...When this fourth tone of the C scale has

been sung, finger (again, DON”T PLAY!) low Bb. Now, without any changes of

the finger position (no octave key please!) sound on the saxophone the tone you

just sang...Remember: it is the mind, that gives the order; diaphragm, embouchure,

etc. will carry it out only when and if it is clearly given. The activity of the mind

must precede that of out bodily organs.8

In fact, Raschèr chooses not to attempt to explain specific procedure in the manipulation

of the vocal tract. Instead he approaches it from the perspective of an ear-training discipline

to obtain a certain result. While this author agrees that it is not reasonable to simply state

scientific facts when teaching the vocal tract resonance, the human sensory awareness is

often unreliable, and relying on our mind alone does not yield an optimal result. As

Rousseau states, it needs to be translated into a language that will produce a meaningful

result.

8
Ibid., 12.

8
Saxophone High Tones: A Systematic Approach to the Extension of the Range of All

the Saxophones by Eugene Rousseau

Rousseau’s Saxophone High Tones was published in 1978. He begins with

introducing fundamentals and the importance of proper embouchure by utilizing the test of

blowing on the mouthpiece alone and attaining the concert pitches presented in the book.

The test determines the proper amount of mouthpiece needed in the mouth as well as the

strength of the jaw pressure and the roundness of the embouchure:

By changing the embouchure and air pressure it is possible to bypass the

fundamental, thereby causing one of the harmonics to be heard as the main pitch.

For this purpose the saxophone embouchure needs to be stronger than normal (a

stronger circle), with slightly more reed exposed within the mouth. This should be

realized by a very slight forward movement of the jaw rather than taking more

mouthpiece into the mouth.9

Rousseau explains that the embouchure and air pressure causes the bypassing of the

fundamental to produce the harmonics. He further articulates the importance of air pressure

in obtaining higher harmonics:

The air pressure must be increased as the higher harmonics are attempted – the

effect being a smaller quantity of air put to use. This technique will equate with a

higher pitch on the mouthpiece alone, following the testing procedure described

page 7.10

Rousseau emphasizes that the increase of air pressure will produce the higher harmonics.

It implies that the air pressure and the harmonics are related to each other; therefore,

9
Rousseau, Saxophone High Tones, 2.
10
Ibid.

9
increase of pressure automatically amplifies the higher partials. Put in other words, the

vocal tract may act as a device to regulate the pressure of air coming from the lungs.

Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of Rousseau’s book is the use of the high F key

as an additional vent key. This methodology of acquiring a sensation of achieving high

tones distinguishes his pedagogical methodology from other literature. The high F key is

pressed by the left-hand index finger, and usually utilized as alternative fingerings for

written high E, F, and F sharp. It slightly opens the tone hole of the left side F key, which

allows it to act as a vent. Instead of the front F key, Rousseau suggests using a small flat

object such as paper or old reed to hold the left side F key, then he guides the reader to

follow the fingerings presented in the book to achieve the altissimo register.

Figure 1. Black notes indicate the fingerings while white notes are
the pitch to be produced by utilizing the prepared front F key.11

11
Ibid., 9.

10
 Furthermore, Rousseau describes the sensation of playing the altissimo register. He

claims that one should use a smaller quantity of air as pitch goes higher in the range, and

the sensation resembles the opening of the throat:

When the above-normal tones are played, a proportionally smaller quantity of air

is used as the frequency of vibration increases. In other words, as one plays higher

the air stream becomes increasingly smaller. This phenomenon accounts for the

unusual feeling the performer experiences inside the mouth when first playing high

tones. It has often been described as an “open throat”, an unfortunate term for more

than one reason. In the first place, ambiguity often takes place in the mind of a

saxophonist, or any wind player for that matter, who is told for the first time to

keep an “open throat.” What is being referred to is the inside of the mouth and

throat and its shape while playing, although it is impossible to see any of these

shapes and functions!12

Rousseau clearly discusses the ambiguousness of “open throat” and tongue shape when

attempting to play the altissimo register. However, he chooses not to explain the placement

of tongue position for the successful high tones any further. Nevertheless, Rousseau clearly

introduces the idea that there is a relationship between the high air pressure and the

execution of higher harmonics, which this thesis will examine in later chapters.

12
Ibid., 79

11
 Voicing: An Approach to the Saxophone’s Third Register by Donald J. Sinta

Sinta’s Voicing was first published in 1992. Different from Rousseau’s approach,

Sinta primarily focuses on obtaining control of soft flexible tissues in the oral cavity and

vocal tract with only a mouthpiece. He explains that one can acquire the control over pitch

manipulations with only the mouthpiece by moving the tongue and changing the

configuration of the oral cavity and the pharyngeal cavity. Exercises in the book are

extensive and practical. Contrary to Teal’s claim in learning the vocal tract manipulation,

Sinta suggests the importance of the study of vocal tract resonance at an early age:

Frustrations should be anticipated, especially for the advanced player unfamiliar

with oral cavity manipulation. It is for this reason that the authors strongly

recommend the study of voicing to begin at an early age...Beginning students will

master the concept surprisingly fast and be spared many future frustrations.13

It is interesting to note that Sinta shares his observations of beginning students mastering

the technique rather quickly compared to common practice.

The general approach of voicing is creating muscle memory through trial and error

using various exercises that are designed sequentially. Regarding the acoustic reason for

pitch bend, Sinta states that changing the resonance cavity can shift the mode of the

vibrating air column thus producing various pitches.14 Moreover, he suggests that the use

of consonants such as “kuh” or “kah” produced in the back of the throat would produce a

higher partial when playing the low written F.15 Similar to Rousseau, Sinta does not further

pursue addressing mechanical details of vocal tract acoustics. In striving for an optimal

13
Sinta, Voicing, 3
14
Ibid., 7.
15
Ibid., 11.

12
result, Sinta utilizes different vowels and whistling to manipulate the tongue position.

However, he does not offer any specifics regarding exact positioning of the tongue.

Developing a Personal Saxophone Sound by David Liebman

Liebman’s method book was first published in 1989. The organization of contents

is similar to Teal’s The Art of Saxophone Playing as Liebman introduces saxophone

playing mechanisms from breathing to tongue position and articulation. The book also

includes a chapter for overlaying principles of practicing. The uniqueness of Liebman’s

approach is that he focuses on a scientific perspective of the human body. He explains

anatomy and functions of organs related to the production of sound such as the breathing

apparatus, the vocal cords, and the vocal tract. There is a minimum number of exercises

introduced in the book, thus it is serving as a treatise to saxophone performance.

Interestingly, Liebman asserts the importance of the movement of the vocal cords in

maneuvering overtone series:

It is the movement of the vocal cords in combination with reed vibration and

fingering (regulating tube lengths) that all combine to emphasize or de-emphasize

partials. Our task is to be able to efficiently use vocal cord movement to maximize

the results.16

This observation differs from previous authors because of the inclusion of the vocal cords,

which requires clarification. Although there is no scientific proof of the vocal cords’

influence in affecting harmonic partials, there is a research on the glottal movement during

performance on alto saxophone by Jeffrey T. Peters.

16
David Liebman, Developing a Personal Saxophone Sound (Medfield: Dorn Publications, 2006), 16.

13
 He observed glottal movements by employing a fiberoptic laryngoscope during the

performance of five different musical tasks: (1) various pitch range and registers, (2)

fortissimo and pianissimo dynamic levels, (3) crescendo and decrescendo, (4) long tones

with vibrato, and (5) legato and staccato styles of articulation.17 Peters concluded that the

glottal movement appeared especially during pianissimo performance acting as an

expiratory airflow constrictor, which means narrowing of vocal cords that restrict the air

flow.18 Moreover, he observed the greatest variety of glottal movement in one subject who

used a softer reed and an instrument with a slightly larger bore design, which gives

relatively less resistance. Therefore, the glottis might help to give additional resistance

when performing on a saxophone. However, Peters could not conclude the relationship

between the glottis movement and altissimo register.19 Thus, it is possible that the glottal

movement is affecting airflow, but the magnitude of influence seems insignificant that it is

less likely to affect harmonic partials.

Finally, similar to Sinta, Liebman encourages working with a mouthpiece alone in

obtaining mastery of vocal cord/tract movement. He states that it is possible to manipulate

different pitches at least the range of a tenth on the mouthpiece with the correct lip, teeth

and tongue positions.20 As with previous authors, Liebman does not take further actions to

clarify the influence of vocal tract in the overtone exercise.

17
Jeffrey T. Peters, “An Exploratory Study of Laryngeal Movements During Performance on Alto
Saxophone” master’s thesis., North Texas State University, 1984, 62.
18
Ibid., 68.
19
Ibid., 65.
20
Ibid.

14
 Technological Studies

The research on the influence of the vocal tract on playing woodwind instruments

has been well documented by numerous researchers such as Anfinson, Carr, Compagno,

Mooney, Pappone, Patnode, Peters, Watkins, and Wheeler. These studies support that the

vocal tract has influence over the tonal spectrum of woodwind instruments. The tendency

to play the low register with an arched posterior tongue and to play the upper register with

a forward tongue position with the posterior down is supported by a significant amount of

data. 21 However, there are several different theories for how the vocal tract affects

saxophone performance.

Perhaps the most common theory is that the change in length and volume of the

vocal tract affects the pitch and its overtone spectrum. This supports the idea that the vocal

tract is an extension of the instrument, thus adjustment of vocal tract length is the equivalent

of adjusting the tube length of the instrument. Teachers who have this perspective often

explain that the pitch drops when the player open his/her vocal tract, because it elongates

the instrument itself. It sounds appealing for its simplicity but this view has no scientific

basis. If the vocal tracts are truly the extensions of the instruments, there must be

differences in sound and pitch among male and female players because their average vocal

tract lengths are different. Since female players have shorter vocal tracts, they should

produce higher pitch when playing the same instrument and set ups. However, there is no

evidence of such situations; therefore, the idea that our vocal tracts extend the instrument

is not convincing. Campbell and Greated concludes that the cavity shape has a little effect

21
Mark Watkins, “The Saxophonist’s Vocal Tract,” Saxophone Symposium 27-28 (2002): 59.

15
on flute and recorders although many players feel that the mouth resonance is important in

tone production.22

Another common theory states that the vocal tract is the secondary resonator of the

instrument (first resonator is the bore of the saxophone). This idea is derived from the vocal

pedagogy in which case the vocal tract is indeed the resonator of the sound source created

by the vocal cords. Miller explains the role of the vocal tract in singing:

Laryngeally-produced sound (the result of airflow and vocal fold approximation)

is modified by a mechanical acoustic filter, the vocal tract. Minifie (1973, p.243)

points out that the shape and size of the vocal tract determines the nature of the

filtering properties. Baer et al. (1978, p.49) state that laryngeal sound “depends on

the acoustic properties of the filter that are excited by the source.” They suggest

that, although there are basic acoustic principles which apply to both speaking and

singing, singing involves different patterns of control over the source and the

filter.23

Similarly, some saxophonists believe that the sound vibration originated by the reed

reflects within the vocal tract so that the sound becomes modified by the shape of the vocal

tract, and it might amplify different partials in giving pitch. This idea is much more

convincing due to the relationship with vocal pedagogy and science. Campbell and Greated

also suggest that different shapes of the mouth gives different focus of the air stream, which

would affect tone quality.24 This observation must be different in clarinet, saxophone, oboe,

and bassoon due to the presence of the reed in sound production, although there is

22
Murray Campbell and Clive Greated, The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics (New York: Schirmer Books A
Division of Macmillan, Inc., 1987), 287.
23
Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing (New York: Schirmer Books A Division of Macmillan, Inc.,
1986), 48.
24
Campbell et al., The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics, 287.

16
speculation that changing air direction using different tongue shapes cause the difference

in pitch and timbre.

Another speculation involves the acoustic impedance and pressure differences

between the vocal tract and the instrument. Campbell and Greated also state that the

player’s windways can be considered to be a second instrument with the air flowing in the

“wrong” direction that is, towards the lips rather than away from them.25 They also suggest

that in the brass instruments, the tubes and cavities of the windway will also create an

acoustic impedance, and the fluctuations in the air flow introduced by the lip vibrations

will cause a fluctuating pressure difference between the lungs and the mouth. 26 This

implies that there may be relationships between the air pressures in the mouth and the

outgoing sound from the instrument.

In pursuit of empirically-based teaching of vocal tract resonance in saxophone,

three very recent scientific studies are introduced in this chapter. All of these studies

utilized the scientific measurement system to quantify various aspects of tonal adjustments

during saxophone performance, especially the ones that require vocal tract manipulations.

25
Ibid., 325.
26
Ibid.

17
Measurement of Vocal-Tract Influence During Saxophone Performance by Gary P.

Scavone, Antonie Lefebvre, Andrey R. da Silva, and NFH (2008)

This is a study of vocal tract influence during saxophone performance conducted

in 2007 by the researchers at McGill University in Canada. The experiment utilized a

measurement system that provided a relative comparison of the upstream windway and

downstream air column impedances under normal playing conditions, allowing researchers

and players to investigate the effect of vocal tract manipulations in real time. In order to

conduct the experiment under normal playing conditions, the researchers developed a

special saxophone mouthpiece in which two small microphones were inserted. One

microphone was threaded through the top of the mouthpiece to obtain internal pressure

values, and the other microphone was placed behind the front edge of the mouthpiece

where the player’s teeth rest. This way, the researchers were able to compare differences

in pressure levels between the player’s mouth and the mouthpiece. This implies that a

relative measurement of the upstream (vocal tract) and downstream (saxophone)

impedances can be obtained from the entrance pressure in the player’s mouth and the

instrument mouthpiece, which is sufficient to indicate when vocal-tract influences are

being exerted.

Moreover, a measurement of these two pressures can provide a good indication of

how the reed oscillations are influenced by the two systems on either side of it.27 The

researchers use the sound pressure level (SPL) as the measurement system with the decibel

(dB) unit. The sound pressure is the Newton force (N) of sound on a surface area (m2)

perpendicular to the direction of the sound; therefore, the unit for the sound pressure is

27
Gary P. Scavone, “Measurement of vocal tract influence during saxophone performance,” Journal of
Acoustic Society of America Vol. 123, No.4, (2008): 2392.

18
N/m2 or pascal (Pa). Now Pa is a large-scale unit (Human ears’ audible sound pressure

range from 20 µPa [hearing threshold] until 20 Pa [pain threshold], resulting in the scale 1:

10,000,000) and is not practical. Thus, a logarithmic scale in dB was introduced to express

the sound pressure levels. The decibel describes a ratio between two power sources. For

instance, if one speaker produces twice as much power than another speaker, the difference

in dB is 3 dB. Also 0 dB occurs when the sound pressure is equal to that of the reference

level, and it does not mean there is no sound, because decibel measures the ratio. It is also

possible to have negative sound levels. For instance, -20 dB means that a sound with

pressure 10 times smaller than the reference pressure.

The researchers gathered data of pressure changes in traditional and extended

registers, pitch bending, bugling, multiphonics, and timbre variations. In the traditional

range from the lowest written B-flat to the highest F-sharp on an alto saxophone, which

corresponds to the frequency range of 138.6 Hz - 880 Hz, they observed that the SPL ratio

at the fundamental frequencies are below -20 dB for most notes in the traditional range. It

means that pressures in the mouthpiece for these notes are typically 10 times greater than

those in the player’s mouths. A fairly abrupt change in SPL ratio is evident when subjects

prepare to enter the extended register.28

28
Ibid., 2395.

19
 20
Subject A
Subject B
10 Subject C
Subject D

First Partial SPL Ratios (dB)

0

−10

−20

−30

−40
5 10 15 20
Scale Note Index

20

10
First Partial SPL Ratios (dB)

−10

−20

−30

−40
0 5 10 15 20
Scale Note Index

ctrograms of the SPL ratio between the mouth-
es when playing a scale !Subjects A and D, from
position is well within the mouth given also refutes
Scavone
typically rest anywhere from about 13
outhpiece tip. Both Endevco transduc- of
higher harmonics
imum SPLs between 170 and 180 dB
unaffected by moisture.
with an upper harmonic
rophones would be located at the front
ece !inside and outside", which repre-
oth the downstream and upstream air
erimented with two mouthpiece
29 trans-
Ibid., 2393.
clarinet and selected 30the
Ibid.,
more2395.
distant
cause of noise due to unsteady flow
The results from a digital waveguide
ylinder-cone model23 suggest that the
e 8510B-1 transducer at a distance of
differs from the downstream input im-
FIG. 3. Average SPL ratios for first partials of scale: individual by subject
!top" and Figure
for all subjects !bottom".
2. Average SPL rations for first partials of scale. An
abrupt change occurs at scale note index 19 which is the
highest written note F in the scale that falls within the
traditional register.29
study does not exceed 2000 Hz and that we are mainly in-
terested in the use of a vocal-tract resonance that runs from
about 500 to 1500 Hz.
the ideatransducers
The pressure that performers might tune
were connected to anupstream
Endevco resonances with
136 differential voltage amplifier and the signals from there
a played
were routed note. He concludes
to a National !NI"systematic
that no
Instruments PCI-4472 note-to-note
dy- tuning
namic signal acquisition board. The acquisition card sample
rate was
was set
found. 30 000 Hz. An NI LABVIEW interface was
to 12 In the pitch bending, the subjects were asked to finger
designed to allow real-time display of the spectra of the two
pressure signals. The Endevco transducers were calibrated
relative to one another prior to the experiment, as described
in the Appendix.
To help distinguish between vocal tract and embouchure
changes, a small circular !12.7 mm diameter" force sensing
resistor !FSR" made by Interlink Electronics was placed un-
der the cushion on the top 20of the saxophone mouthpiece to
obtain a relative measure of the upper teeth force !see Fig.
1". The time-varying sensor voltages were input to the signal
a written high D6 (698 Hz) with the first palm key and to play the note normally. Then

they were asked to pitch-bend to the lowest note they could comfortably maintain. While

lip pressure variations affect the average reed tip opening and can provide lowering the

pitch, the maximum frequency modulations are about a half semitone. The result shows

that the pitch bends of 300 cents and more can only be the result of vocal-tract manipulation,

and the high SPL ratio during the bend indicates that a significantly stronger resonance (or

sound pressure) exists in the player’s mouths during the pitch bend than in the downstream

air column. The implication is that performers can create a resonance in the upstream

windway in the range 700-550 Hz that is strong enough to override the downstream air

column and assume control of the reed variations.31

Figure 3. The pitch bend spectra on an alto saxophone at the starting frequency
700 Hz and at the lowest frequency 580 Hz. As pitch drops from 700 Hz to 580
Hz, the mouth pressure increases for about 40 dB while the mouthpiece pressure
drops for about 20 dB.32

31
Ibid., 2396.
32
Ibid., 2394.

21
The figure clearly shows the increase of pressure in the players mouth during the pitch

bending. The performer’s mouth pressure was strong enough to override the downstream

air column and assume control of the reed vibration. The upstream resonance frequency is

mainly controlled via tongue position variations.33 Scavone also addresses that the pitch

bend is only possible for notes higher in the traditional range where the air column

resonance structure is relatively weak. This explains why it is not possible to bend the pitch

using the vocal tract manipulation in the lower range of the saxophone.

Bugling, which is the synonym for overtone exercises, is the articulation of the

notes of an overtone series while maintaining a fixed low note fingering. It typically takes

years of dedicated practice to develop the flexibility of the vocal tract that allows one to

clearly articulate the higher partials of the fundamental. The study indicates that the vocal

tract influence is evident from the third overtone where downstream instrument resonances

begin to weaken. Put in other words, it is difficult to play the third overtone without some

vocal tract manipulation. This clearly explains why beginners are usually able to produce

overtones up to the second partial, but no farther. Additionally, Scavone addresses that the

SPL ratio of the 1130 Hz component when playing the fundamental of the overtone series

is -8.7dB averaging across all the subjects, and the ratio at this same frequency when

playing the third overtone is 4.8 dB, which indicates that the higher pressure is observed to

successfully articulate the overtone from the fundamental.34 The negative decibel (-8.7dB)

indicates that the impedance of the instrument is much stronger than the player’s mouth.

Conversely, the positive decibel suggests that the player’s mouth possesses stronger

33
Ibid., 2396.
34
Ibid., 2397.

22
 resonance and pressure, which allows the player to pronounce the specific partial of the

fundamental.

7
x 10
7
Register Key Closed
Register Key Open
6
Impedance Magnitude (Pa s m )

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Frequency (Hz)

FIG. 6. Input impedance of the alto saxophone for the D6 fingering.

l frequencies for each scale note are shown in Fig. 3 for

ch subject and averaged across all subjects. For most notes
the traditional range, the SPL ratios at the fundamental
equencies are below −20 dB. In other words, pressures in
e mouthpiece for these notes are typically 10 times greater
an those in the players’ mouths. Based on the assumptions
utlined in Sec. II, this indicates a similar ratio of input
mpedance peak levels at the fundamental playing frequen-
es on either side of the reed and thus minimal upstream
fluence for notes in this range. These ratios display a local
inima centered at the thirteenth note of the scale !466 Hz",
hich may be related to the fact that notes in this range are
latively easy to play. The standard deviation of the SPL
tios are shown by the error bars in the lower plot of Fig. 3.
A fairly abrupt change in SPL ratios is evident when
bjects prepare to enter the extended register, a result that FIG. 7. !Color online" Spectrograms of the SPL ratio between the mouth
as also reported by Fritz and Wolfe.6 Scale note index 19 in Figure
and mouth piece pressures when
4. Spectrograms performing
of the the bugling
SPL ratio between !Subjects
taskthe mouthB
and C, from top to bottom".
g. 3 is the highest note !written F6" in the scale that falls and mouth piece pressure when performing the bugling task
ithin the traditional register. An alternate fingering exists for two subjects. Intensity of SPL ratio is indicated by the
r F6 on the saxophone that has a playing behavior more color atic lines.
note-to-note
35 tuning with an upper harmonic was found.
ke extended register notes !it is based on the use of a third It is unlikely that upstream tuning would help stabilize a note
r column partial", though the fingering used by subjects in unless the fundamental is weak and only one or two higher
is study was not specified or recorded. Averaged SPL ratios partials exist below the cutoff frequency of the instrument.
Overall,
ross all subjects for the extended register notes the Scavone’s
are be- That said,study
variationsevidently indicates
of upper partial vocal-tract
ratios could affect the manipulations in
ween 3 and 5 dB, though the standard deviation is signifi- timbre of the instrument and this is investigated further in
nt. In particular, Subjects A and B show large variations in Sec. III E.
PL ratios from note to notevarious playing
in this range, conditions.
whereas the re- Especially in the pitch-bending, altissimo register, and bugling,
lts for Subjects C and D are more consistent. It should be
B. Pitch pending
oted that the task called for a legato scale, or slurring from
the vocal-tract influence
ote to note. Future studies could investigate potential varia-
is significant enough to override and manipulate control of the
Saxophonists make frequent use of pitch bends in their
ons of SPL ratios in the extended register when the notes playing, especially in jazz contexts. There are several ways
e attacked individually, with or without breaks between such frequency modifications can be achieved, including lip
ch. pressure and tonehole key height changes, as well as vocal
It has been suggested by Wilson5 that performers might tract manipulations. Lip pressure variations, which are used
35 higher harmonics of a played
ne upstream resonances with Ibid., 2395. to produce vibrato, affect the average reed tip opening and
ote. There are some instances in Fig. 2 !and the data for the can yield maximum frequency modulations of about half a
her subjects" where the ratios for upper partials of notes are semitone. The use of vocal tract manipulations for pitch bend
ar 0 dB, typically in the range 600– 1600 Hz, though this can achieve downward frequency shifts of a musical third or
ries significantly among the subjects. However, no system- more. Significant upward23 frequency shifts using lip pressure

Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 123, No. 4, April 2008 Scavone et al.: Vocal-tract influence in saxophone performance 2395
fundamental vibrating frequency of the reed. Moreover, Scavone refutes a number of

previous studies regarding vocal-tract influence in the regular register of woodwind

instruments. He states that there is a common misconception among some scientists and

players that vocal-tract influence is exerted on a nearly continuous basis while playing a

single-reed instrument in its traditional range. For instance, the study by Clinch et al.

concluded “that vocal tract resonance frequencies must match the frequency of the required

notes in clarinet and saxophone performance.”36 Similarly, Wilson claims that for most

tones in analyzed melodic phrases, “the performer’s airways were tuned to the first

harmonic or to the second harmonic, or there was a resonance aligned with both the first

and second harmonics.” 37 Scavone claims that these suggestions have no basis in

performance practice. Finally, the result of Scavone’s study indicates that vocal-tract

influence for “normal” playing within the traditional range of the saxophone is primarily

limited to timbre modification because most of these notes are well supported by the

downstream air column.38 Scavone concludes that saxophonists do not manipulate vocal

tract resonance as much in the regular range because the vocal tract resonance is not

significant enough to affect the sound. Nevertheless, his study clearly proves that the vocal-

tract influences the sound pressure level which affects the pitch and the timbre of

saxophone. It is also important to note that Scavone indicates the greater pressure

difference overrides the reed vibration of the saxophone, thus saxophonists are able to

manipulate the pitch and the timbre.

36
P.G. Clinch, G. J. Troup, and L. Harris, “The importance of vocal tract resonance in clarinet and
saxophone performance: A preliminary account,” Acustica 50 (1982), 280-84.
37
T. D. Wilson, “The measured upstream impedance for clarinet performance and its role in sound
production” PhD diss., University of Washington, Seattle, 1996.
38
Scavone, “Measurement of vocal tract influence during saxophone performance,” 2399.

24
 Saxophonists Tune Vocal Tract Resonances in Advanced Techniques by Jer-Ming

Chen, John Smith, and Joe Wolfe (2010)

The physics researchers of the University of New South Wales in Australia

conducted a similar test as Scavone in finding a vocal-tract influence in saxophone

performance. In the study, they used a tenor saxophone with the modified mouthpiece with

two tubes embedded to measure the acoustic impedance inside of the player’s mouth.

Instead of sound pressure levels in decibel, Chen et al. used the acoustic impedance, which

had the symbol of Z and is the ratio of acoustic pressure p to acoustic volume flow U that

can be defined as Z = p/U. This is equivalent to the usual electrical impedance, which is

voltage (potential energy per unit charge) divided by current (flow of charge).39 The units

for acoustic impedance are Pa.s/m3, which is called ohm. Pa stands for the pascal that is

the unit of pressure. Flow is measured in cubic meters per second. For a linear quantity like

sound pressure or impedance, you can convert to dB by takin the log of any ratio, then

multiplying by 20.40 Eight saxophonists, from both classical and jazz background, were

engaged in the test. Five were professional saxophonists and three were amateurs. Similar

to Scavone’s experiment, the tasks were bugling, playing in the altissimo register, and pitch

bending. Overall, the researchers observed strong influences of vocal tract resonance in

different parameters of advanced saxophone techniques. For instance, for the note in the

altissimo range (written C7, sounding A sharp 5), the result shows a strong peak in ZMouth

(acoustic impedance in the player’s mouth) at 980 Hz with magnitude 33MPa.s/m3, which

is more than three times the magnitude of the peak in ZBore (9.8 MPa.s/m3 at 949 Hz). The

39
Walter E. Worman, “Self-Sustained Nonlinear Oscillations of Medium Amplitude in Clarinet-Like
System” PhD diss., Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, 1971, 11.
40
Joe Wolfe, What Is Acoustic Impedance and Why Is It Important?
http://newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/z.html (accessed October 17, 2018).

25
sharp spike at 921 Hz is the note sounded, 60 Hz below the maximum of the broad peak in

ZMouth.41

Figure 5. Acoustic impedances measured in the vocal tract of an expert

saxophonist playing the written note D6 and the altissimo note C7. In the altissimo
note, ZMouth shows a strong peak at 980 Hz whereas ZBore shows a peak at 949 Hz.
The sharp spike at 921 Hz is the note sounded.

Therefore, it suggests the acoustic impedance in the player’s mouth overrides the acoustic

impedance of the saxophone bore, which is relatively weak in the high register. The

researchers also observed differences in vocal tract resonance of professional and amateur

players. While professionals displayed broadly distributed vocal tract resonances, the vocal

tract resonances of amateur players remained fairy static. Over the altissimo range, the

amateur players were no longer able to produce the sound of the notes desired. On the other

41
Jer-Ming Chen et al., “Saxophonists tune vocal tract resonances in advanced performance technique,”
Journal of Acoustic Society of America Volume 129, No.1 (2011): 421.

26
hand, expert players were able to execute the task easily. Chen et al. observed that

experienced players tune a strong vocal tract resonance near to the note played, typically

not more than 100 Hz apart.

Figure 6. Frequencies of the second vocal tract resonance plotted against the
frequency of the note sounded; dark dots are measured for armatures while open
circles indicate experts. The size of each circle represents the magnitude of the
acoustic impedance for the measurement. The vertical line indicates the transition
from standard to altissimo range.42

Chen et al. agrees with the findings of Scavone that the much stronger vocal tract resonance

is evident in the altissimo range:

In the altissimo range, however, impedances of tract resonance measured are

typically an order of magnitude greater than those used across the standard range:

Tract resonances select or dominate bore resonances. This agrees with the

measurements of Scavone et al. (2008), who found the ratio of the acoustic

42
Ibid., 422.

27
 pressure in the mouth to that in the mouthpiece, measured at the playing frequency,

increased abruptly when players entered the altissimo range.43

In the standard range, Chen et al. observed that the vocal tract resonance did not have an

obvious effect, because saxophone bore resonances are much stronger than the vocal tract.

Furthermore, Chen et al. suggest that the vocal tract selects a specific bore resonance but

the exact sounding frequency is largely determined by the bore and the reed.44 Similarly,

the vocal tract influence is obvious in producing multiphonics and pitch bending.

Figure 7. Changes in vocal tract impedance control the combination of multiphonics sounded.45

43
Ibid., 423.
44
Ibid.
45
Ibid., 424

28
The figure 7 shows impedances of two different vocal tract configurations of the same

multiphonic fingering played by a professional saxophonist. It is clear that the changes in

vocal tract impedance control the combination of multiphonics sounded. Chen et al. states

that experienced players are able to adjust a strong vocal tract resonance sufficiently to

select particular bore resonance in the series combination, thus allowing the saxophone to

operate either solely at that frequency of in combination with other frequencies.46

In the pitch bending, figure 8 shows the acoustic impedance in the player’s mouth

and the bore of a saxophone while playing normally and during a pitch bend for the

fingering of written D sharp 6, sounding C sharp, 554 Hz. In normal playing condition, you

can observe that the magnitude of peak ZMouth is much smaller than the peak of ZBore,

therefore, the reed vibrates at a frequency (565 Hz) not far from that of the strongest peak

in ZBore (552 Hz).47 In the pitch bending, the magnitude of the maxima measured in ZMouth

is increased drastically and the sounding frequency was lowered by 91 Hz (300 cents or a

minor third), which is shown in the figure 8. Thus, the increase of impedance in the player’s

mouth controls the frequency during the pitch bending. This result coincides with the

conclusion of Sacavone’s study.

46
Ibid.,425.
47
Ibid.

29
 Figure 8. At the pitch bending, a stronger impedance in the mouth is observed,
which overrides the impedance of the bore.

Overall, the study of Chen et al. confirms that the vocal tract influence is evident

during bugling and altissimo playing on the saxophone due to a relatively weak bore

resonance of the saxophone. Moreover, experienced saxophonists are tuning their vocal

tract resonance closer to the ideal pitch that they desire to produce.

30
 Investigating Vocal Tract Modifications During Saxophone Performance by

Montserrat Pàmies-Vilà, Gary Scavone, Alex Hofmann, and Vasileios

Chatziioannou (2017)

The most recent study regarding the vocal tract influence in saxophone performance

was conducted by the researchers at the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna

and McGill University. Previous studies concentrated on the vocal tract influence on the

saxophone that can be observed in steady state or slow motions. This recent study attempts

to measure the vocal tract effect in fast transitions of notes. The researchers used the similar

measurement technique of Scavone and Chen to obtain data for the vocal tract influence

during various tasks. They used a modified mouthpiece in which two pressure transducers

were embedded to measure the pressure difference in the player’s mouth and the

mouthpiece. In addition, a strain gauge was attached to the reed surface to measure the reed

bending, which measured the use of tongue by the player. When the tongue strikes the reed,

the vibrations are damped and the reed closes towards the mouthpiece lay, and when the

player stops blowing or opens the mouth, this signal presents a downwards movement,

corresponding to widening the reed-tip opening. 48 The experiment ranged from pitch

bending, bugling, octave intervals in legato (without tongue) and portato articulation (with

tongue), and combined with narrow and wide intervals played for legato articulation.

In the pitch bending from concert pitch F to C sharp (written D to A sharp on alto

saxophone), the researchers observed that the pitch of the reed vibration deviates from the

pitch fingered at the instrument bore when the RMS (root-mean-square) difference is

48
Montserrat Pàmies-Vilà et al., “Investigating vocal tract modifications during saxophone performance,”
Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics Vo.31, 035002 (2018): 4.

31
positive.49 Since RMS difference is calculated by the subtraction of Pm (the mouth pressure

indicated in blue) and P (the mouthpiece pressure indicated in green), RMS positive means

that there is a greater mouth pressure exerted when bending the pitch. Pàmies-Vilà et al.

also confirms that the reed indeed oscillates during the entire task during pitch bending,

even when the oscillations in the mouthpiece are drastically reduced.50

Figure 9. RMS positive is indicated with the red line, which suggests a greater
mouth pressure exerted in pitch bending.

In bugling, the result shows that there is a clear vocal tract manipulation starting

from the 5th harmonic. The players that were not able to control the vocal tract resonances

could achieve the harmonic series only up to the 4th partial, but the players that performed

vocal tract modifications could reach up to the 7th or to the 9th harmonics.51 Therefore, the

players achieved a mouth pressure oscillation wider than the pressure oscillation in the

mouthpiece of the instrument, and the result coincides with previous studies.

49
Ibid., 5.
50
Ibid.
51
Ibid., 6.

32
 Figure 10. Bugling exercise played by an experienced player on the lower B of the alto saxophone.52

In note transitions, the players intentionally modify the vocal tract to prepare the

low note when performing legato articulation of large intervals. However, in the portato53

or staccato, there is no evidence of vocal tract manipulations due to the interruption of the

reed vibration by the tongue.

52
Ibid.
53
A stroke in which each of several notes is separated slightly within a slur without a change in the
direction of the bow. It is used for passages of a cantabile character.

33
 Conclusion

Through studies presented in this chapter, a certain conclusion can be drawn

regarding the vocal tract influence for saxophone playing. All three studies concluded that

the stronger pressure exists in the vocal tract during the pitch bending and the altissimo

range of saxophone. The studies indicate that strong mouth pressure overrides the

frequency of the reed when the bore impedance is weak, which means the vocal tract

manipulation is not clearly observable in the lower range of saxophone because the bore

impedance is stronger. Moreover, these studies suggest that the advanced players create

resonances in the vocal tract when the resonance of the instrument is weaker by exerting a

strong pressure, which also affects the frequency of the reed so that players are able to

manipulate the pitch and tonal spectrum of the sound freely. Since the relationship between

the vocal tract and pressure is evident, this thesis will attempt to clarify the parameters of

air pressure in the next chapter.

34
 3. VOCAL TRACT RESONANCE

The vocal tract influence on the saxophone is evidently clear from the studies above.

Yet there are different speculations among saxophonists in how the vocal tract influences

the change of tones. One speculation is that the sound resonates in the vocal tract and

changing the volume of the vocal tract should affect the change of the tonal color and pitch.

Another speculation treats the vocal tract as a second instrument where the reed would

function as the stopped end and the vocal tract cords as the open end, reversing the

placement of nodes and antinodes as compared to the voice.54 These speculations seem to

be commonly accepted among saxophonists.

From the studies in the previous chapter, evidence reveals that the sound does

resonate in the vocal tract, as scientists were able to measure the sound pressure levels in

the player’s mouth while the instrument was being played. In addition, there seems to be

an important relationship in the pressure difference between the mouth and the mouthpiece.

As Scavone suggests, there must be a critical relationship between the pressure and the

behavior of the reed during saxophone playing conditions. Thus, the nature and behaviors

of air pressure and reed vibration need to be further examined.

Finally, the definition of vocal tract resonance is taken from the vocal pedagogy,

and the terminology may be confusing for saxophonists because it innately gives an idea

that the vocal tract is the resonator for the instrument. It is logical for singers to call their

vocal tracts resonators because the sound vibration created by the vocal cords resonates

through the vocal tract to create various pitches and timbres. However, the saxophone’s

sound source is the reed, and its resonator is the body of saxophone itself. Therefore, the

54
Watkins, “The Saxophonist’s Vocal Tract,” 21.

35
function of the vocal tract should be different from the voice. Nevertheless, this thesis

retains the terminology to designate the influence of vocal tract in saxophone sound.

Air Pressure

The source of acoustic energy in wind instruments is air coming from the lungs.

The air allows the reed vibrate to create a sound wave; therefore, it is a critical component

in understanding what the vocal tract does to manipulate the air pressure. Sound is a unique

product of Earth’s atmosphere due to the existence of air. This explains why there is no

sound in space, as sound travels in waves by making molecules vibrate. Since the air is

made up of 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen, we treat the air as a mixture of gases. Speed of

sound in dry air at room temperature (T=20 degrees Celsius) is 344 meters per second. If

the air temperature changes, then the speed of sound will change as well. This is reasonable,

because temperature is a measure of the activity of molecular agitation. If the temperature

is higher, the random molecular motions are faster, neighboring molecules collide more

often, and they can pass the sound disturbance faster from one region to another. 55

However, the influence of atmospheric pressure in speed of sound is minimal according to

Bryan H. Suits:

If the ideal gas model is a good model for a real gas, then you can expect, for any

specific gas, that there will be no pressure dependence for the speed of sound. This

is because as you change the pressure of the gas, you will also change its density

by the same factor.56

55
Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics (Pacific Grove, CA: Books/Cole Pub., 2002), 10.
56
Bryan H. Suits, Speed of Sound in Air, http://pages.mtu.edu/~suits/SpeedofSound.html (accessed October
8, 2018).

36
 Although the atmosphere is not an ideal gas due to a mixture of gases with some

variables, especially water vapor, which is humidity, the variation in speed of sound is

extremely minimal at most for the range of atmospheric pressures at low humidity and a

slight bit more pronounced at extreme humidity. Unless there are dramatic changes in

humidity, the sound will not be affected by the change of the atmospheric pressure.

Figure 11. Diagrams showing the relationship between speed of sound, pressure, temperature, and
humidity. Speed of sound increases as temperature increases. However, the speed of sound does not
change much by the increase of pressure.57

This clarification is critical because there is a common misconception that the more

pressured air may amplify higher partials due to the close proximity of each molecule

which may transfer the sound wave faster. However, the fact that the sound is not affected

by the change of atmospheric pressure disproves this misconception. Nonetheless, air

pressure is an important element in the explanation of vocal tract influence in saxophone

performance.

57
Bryan H. Suits, Speed of Sound in Air.

37
 James Edward Mooney suggests that the change of air pressure has a great influence

over tonal quality:

As the pressure was increased the even partials were affected by becoming weaker.

This is to be expected because the reed is being bent closer to the mouthpiece and

would be closed for more of its cycle, which would tend to reduce the strength of

the even partials.58

Mooney studied the influence of the tongue in clarinet acoustics by utilizing a mechanical

clarinet and an artificial tongue made of a thin, rolled-up strip of polyurethane foam that

was placed in the chamber between the air opening and the reed. He concluded that the

insertion of the tongue affects changes in the air pressure and the airflow which impact

overtone spectrum and fluctuates the pitch. Mooney suggests that the change of airflow

influences the reed vibration:

...the artificial tongue has had the effect of increasing the strength of the even

partials. This indicates that pressure on the reed was reduced, in which case the

pitch should have dropped. The addition of the “tongue” did not indicate this effect

until the side pressure had been removed. In other words, when the artificial tongue

was added, an unexpected effect on the pitch was evidently caused by the addition

of the side pressure. From the previous evidence and discussion, it would seem

that the tone is affected in both quality and pitch by not only the lip pressure, point

of damping and chamber pressure, but also by the direction of the air flow of air

against the reed, and its actual performance, by the position of the tongue in the

mouth.59

58
James Edward Mooney, “The Effect of the Oral Cavity on the Tone Quality of the Clarinet” PhD diss.,
Bingham Young University, Provo, 1968, 56.
59
Ibid., 58.

38
 Mooney’s study addresses definitive manipulations on the reed by the change in

the direction of airflow affected by the insertion of the tongue. The study is useful because

it successfully examines the influence of tongue in parameters of clarinet tone by excluding

other variables, which would have been difficult to observe from a human clarinetist. It is

interesting to note that Mooney believes that the change in the direction of airflow caused

by the movement of the tongue position affects the reed. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify

the behavior of reeds and whether the air pressure and/or the direction of airflow has a

significant relation to manipulating the various tonal outcomes of the reed.

Reed Vibration

As Mooney suggests, there is a strong relationship between the air pressure and the

behavior of the reed vibration. Campbell and Greated state that the pressurized air inside

of the player’s mouth dampens the reed’s natural resonant frequency:

The oscillations of the reed are strongly influenced by the oscillations within the

air column, i.e. there is a strong coupling between them. This is in contrast to the

reeds used in an accordion or reed organ where each reed vibrates essentially at its

own natural frequency, separate reeds being used for each note. The woodwind

reed always follows the pressure variations between the player’s mouth and the

mouthpiece cavity, provided that the oscillation frequencies are lower than its own

natural resonant frequency. If the reed is blown without damping, however, then it

can vibrate at its own resonant frequency and a high-pitched squeak results.60

60
Murray Campbell and Clive Greated, The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics (New York: Schirmer Books A
Division of Macmillan, Inc., 1987), 260.

39
The reed has a resonance frequency of its own at some 2000 to 3000 cycles per second,

depending on how much it is free to vibrate in the player’s mouth, and it can vibrate in the

normal manner at this frequency.61 Interestingly Worman discusses the difference between

the cane reeds and the fiber-cane reeds in their natural frequencies. He states that fiber-

cane reeds have a lower natural frequency than natural cane reads, and they perform

reasonably well when the frequency of oscillation is well below their natural frequency,

but are not adequate for high notes such as those in the upper register of a B-flat clarinet.

The interpretation is consistent with the musicians’ observation that their usefulness is

greater for lower instruments such as bass clarinets and saxophones.62

Moreover, no oscillations are possible for frequencies above the natural frequency

of the reed.63 It suggests that saxophonists are essentially dampening the reed’s natural

resonant frequency (a squeak) to create ideal tonal color by manipulating air pressure in

the vocal tract along extra dampening from the embouchure. Walter Ell Worman supports

this perspective by stating that a reed with very little damping, such as a reed of an organ

pipe, will greatly favor oscillation at frequencies just below the reed’s own natural

frequency; whereas a fairly damped reed, such as a clarinet reed, will be willing to sustain

oscillations at frequencies far below its natural frequency.64 Joe Wolfe provides a good

explanation in the behavior of the clarinet reed’s vibration:

Normally, the reed’s vibration is controlled by resonances of the air in the clarinet,

as we shall see. But it’s also true that the reed vibration controls the air flow into

the clarinet: the two are interconnected...If you increase this pressure difference,

61
John Backus, The Acoustical Foundations of Music (New York: W.W. Norton, 1969), 194.
62
Walter Ell Warman, “Self-Sustained Nonlinear Oscillations of Medium Amplitude in Clarinet-Like
System,” PhD diss., Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, 1971, 60.
63
Ibid., 31.
64
Ibid., 32.

40
more air should flow through the narrow gap left between the tip of the reed and

the tip of the mouthpiece. So a graph of flow vs pressure difference rises quickly:

it has positive slope. However, as the pressure gets large enough to bend the reed,

it acts on the thin end of the reed and tends to push it upwards so as to close the

aperture through which the air is entering (the arrow in the sketch at left). Indeed,

if you blow hard enough, it closes completely, and the flow goes to zero. So the

flow-pressure diagram looks like that in the graph sketched below, where the blue

curve represents a small lip force and the red curve a larger one.

Figure 12. Relationship of air flow and blowing pressure. A

minimum pressure that will play a note is indicated with the
dotted red and line.

So in this regime, the clarinet will not play, though there is some breathy noise as

air flows turbulently through the gap between reed and mouthpiece. The operating

regime is the downward sloping part of the curve. This is why there is both a

minimum and maximum pressure (for any given reed) that will play a note. Blow

too softly and you get air noise (left side of the graph), blow too hard and it closes

up (where the graph meets the axis on the right). (In the diagram above, the upper

41
 curve could represent a stiffer reed or a more open mouthpiece, or less lip force:

in all cases, more pressure is required to close the reed.)65

What Joe Wolfe proposes here is that there is a balance between the blowing pressure and

the airflow when producing a sound from the reed. If a player applies too little pressure,

then the reed will not vibrate; conversely, if a player applies too much pressure, it seals the

reed with the tip of the mouthpiece completely thus producing no sound. The air pressure

and the airflow work in equilibrium to produce a sound from the woodwind reed. Similarly,

Backus explains the behavior of clarinet’s reed in loud dynamics:

For soft tones the tip of the reed never touches the mouthpiece. As the blowing

pressure is increased, the amplitude of the reed vibration increases until for loud

tones the tip of the reed is against the tip of the mouthpiece for approximately half

each cycle. Such arrangement, in which the reed touches its mounting during the

cycle of the variation, is called a beating reed.66

Wolfe further clarifies the reed’s behavior in both soft and loud dynamics:

For small variation in pressure and small acoustic flow, the relation between the

two is approximately linear...A nearly linear relation gives rise to nearly sinusoidal

vibration (i.e. one shaped like a sine wave), which means that, even if the

fundamental in the sound spectrum is strong, the higher harmonics are weak. This

gives rise to a mellow timbre.

65
Joe Wolfe, Clarinet acoustics: an introduction, http://newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/clarinetacoustics.html
(accessed October 9, 2018).
66
Backus, The Acoustical Foundations of Music, 193.

42
Wolfe indicates that the addition of air pressure would result in louder volume and more

higher harmonics, which will make the sound brighter. Yet as Mooney suggests, it must be

possible to control (dampen) the higher harmonics in louder volume by the adjustment of

tongue position, in which case, the air flow speed and the air pressure should affect the

frequency of the reed. The specific influence of the pressured air on the reed can be further

understood by the Bernoulli’s Principle which explains critical relationships between the

air pressure and the airflow speed from the law of conservation of energy.

Bernoulli’s Principle

Bernoulli’s Principle is widely reorganized in our lives today. The principle is

named after Daniel Bernoulli who was a Swiss mathematician and physicist. He published

the idea in his book Hydrodynamica in 1728 for the first time. There, Bernoulli introduced

the movement of a fluid through a space of different pressure and measured how the

pressure difference will result in a net force where the Newton’s second law67 will cause

an acceleration of the fluid. Thus, Bernoulli’s Principle states that a rise in pressure in a

flowing fluid must always be accompanied by a decrease in the flow speed and a fall in

pressure comes with an increase in the flow speed. Therefore, Bernoulli’s equation relates

67
Newton’s second law of motion pertains to the behavior of objects for which all existing forces are not
balanced. The second law states that the acceleration of an object is dependent upon two variables – the net
force acting upon the object and the mass of the object. The acceleration of an object depends directly upon
the net force acting upon the object, and inversely upon the mass of the object. As the force acting upon an
object is increased, the acceleration of the object is increased. As the mass of an object is increased, the
acceleration of the object is decreased. (https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-
3/Newton-s-Second-Law)

43
the pressure, speed, and height of any two points in a steady streamline flowing fluid. The

Bernoulli’s equation is written as following diagram.

Figure 13. Bernoulli’s equation with the illustration of a streamline of fluid from point 1 to 2.68

Therefore, its principle can be simplified into the following relationship:

Increase of Pressure = Decrease of Flow Speed

Decrease of Pressure = Increase of Flow Speed

This exists because of the law of conservation of energy, which is one of the basic laws

of physics that governs the microscopic motion of individual atoms in a chemical

reaction. The law of conservation of energy states: In a closed system, i.e., a system that

68
Carl R. Nave, “Bernoulli Equation,” HyperPhysics, Georgia State University, http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pber.html (accessed November 1, 2018).

44
isolated from its surroundings, the total energy of the system is conserved.69 Therefore,

decreasing area causes increase of velocity and increasing velocity causes decreasing of

pressure.

One of the most popular applications of Bernoulli’s Principle is the explanation of

the lift of aircraft wings. Aircraft wings are designed to create the force of lift by the curved

shape of the wings. The upper air travels faster than the lower air streamline because the

air travels longer distance in the same amount of time. The characteristic to stay attached

to the convex surface of the wing is known as Coandă Effect70 , which yields low air

pressure on the upper part of the wing. Because the air travels more slowly in the lower

part of the wing, it yields the high pressure that creates the force of lift due to Bernoulli’s

Principle.

Figure 14. The side view of an airplane wing that illustrates of the airfoil lift. The low
velocity of air stream under the wing pushes the wing upward due to the pressure
difference from the top of the wing.

69
Mark E. Tuckerman, “Law of Conservation of Energy,” Advanced General Chemistry I, New York
University, http://www.nyu.edu/classes/tuckerman/adv.chem/lectures/lecture_2/node4.html (accessed
November 2, 2018).
70
Coandă Effect is the phenomena in which a jet flow attaches itself to a nearby surface and remains
attached even when the surface curves away from the initial jet direction,
http://www.thermofluids.co.uk/effect.php

45
 The same principle can explain the behavior of the reed vibration by the air pressure

although liquids and the air (gasses) differ in their behaviors in terms of pressure. A liquid

is difficult to compress and, for many purposes, may be regarded as incompressible due to

the tight adherence of molecules in the liquid. Therefore, Bernoulli’s Principle states that

a liquid’s speed gets faster when entering a narrower space by compromising its pressure.

Meanwhile, a gas is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with pressure are

large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes of temperature. When a gas

(air) enters narrower space, its molecules are compressed and becomes dense. Thus, the

speed decreases while the pressure increases. The fundamental difference between gasses

and liquids is their reversed behaviors when passing through a narrower space.

Liquids Air (Gasses)

When entering a Faster Flow Speed Slower Flow Speed

narrower space: Decrease of Pressure Increase of Pressure

Another law of physics that is relevant for this study is Boyle’s Law. Boyle studied

the compressibility of gasses in 1660 when he observed “At a fixed temperature, the

volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted by the gas.”71 Therefore,

Boyle’s Law states this equation where P stands for the pressure and V stands for the

volume:

71
N. De Leon, “Elementary Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law,” Chemistry 101, Indiana University,
http://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/gases/boyleslaw.html (accessed November 2, 2018).

46
 P1 V1 = P2 V2

Because the sum of energy is constant (the law of conservation of energy), decreasing the

volume yields an increase in the pressure of gas. Conversely, increasing the volume yields

a decreasing of the pressure. Therefore, one can increase the pressure of gas by increasing

the difference in two volumes. This idea will be further discussed in a later chapter.

In the acoustic of woodwinds, Bernoulli’s Principle could also clarify the behavior

of reed vibration. Campbell and Greated explain the behavior of a reed by showing the

oscillatory cycle:

At phase position 1 the reed is partially closed and there is a flow of air from the

high-pressure region of the player’s mouth to the lower pressure in the tube. This

lower pressure is approximately atmospheric. One quartet of a cycle later the

pressure has risen to its maximum inside the mouthpiece, forcing the reed to its

most open position and causing an increase in flow rate which feeds the pressure

build-up. At phase position 3 the mouthpiece pressure has again dropped to

atmospheric, causing a partial closure of the reed. In the last quarter of a cycle the

pressure has fallen below atmospheric, causing the reed to close and the flow to be

cut off...At phase position 2 the high speed of flow over the reed causes a suction

which assists in drawing the tip of the reed upwards.72

72
Campbell et al., The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics, 260.

47
 Low Pressure (High speed of air flow drops the
pressure inside of the mouthpiece)

High Speed Air Flow

Higher Pressure (Pushes the reed upward)

Figure 15. The illustration showing Bernoulli’s principle applied on the reed vibration.

Campbell and Greated imply that the whole cycle of the reed vibration is caused by the rise

and fall of pressure in the mouthpiece which is caused by the airflow. Thus, it is evident

that both air pressure and air flow greatly affect the behavior of reed vibration. As

numerous studies of vocal tract influence have shown, by changing its shape, saxophonists

are able to modify pressure inside of the mouth when exerting air into the mouthpiece.

Bernoulli’s force can articulate this idea.

Campbell and Greated further explain the relationship of pressure difference in the

mouth and the mouthpiece and the force exerted on the brass player’s lips by the

Bernoulli’s force. According to their studies, the magnitude of the Bernoulli force (FB) is

given by:

1 )
FB = 𝑢 𝐴
2𝑄

Q represents the density of air, u represents the air flow speed, and A represents the

effective area. The air flow speed is determined by the pressure difference across the lip

48
opening; it can be shown that the relationship is approximately given by (Backus 1963;

Fletcher 1979):

2
𝑢) = + , (Ps − PM)
𝑄

We can thus combine these two equations to eliminate 𝑢) , giving:

FB = (Ps − PM) 𝐴

(Elliot and Bowsher 1982)

The summary of definitions of the letters are stated as follows:

Ps = the mouth pressure

PM= the mouthpiece pressure

FB = the Bernoulli force

u = the air flow speed

Q = the density of the air

A = the effective area

This equation FB = (Ps − PM) 𝐴 reveals that: if the mouthpiece pressure PM increases

towards the mouth pressure Ps, the Bernoulli’s force FB will be reduced. Conversely, if the

mouth pressure Ps increases, FB will also increase. This phenomenon can be applied to

understanding of mouth pressure affecting the reed vibration.

FB
Pressure
Pressure PM
Ps
FB

Figure 16. Illustration of pressure differences creating the Bernoulli force exerted on the reed.

49
 Previously, Bernoulli’s Principle stated that the change in the air flow speed creates

the change in the air pressure. However, Elliot and Bowsher’s equation suggests that the

pressure difference between the player’s mouth and the mouthpiece gives a force to push

the reed to the tip of the mouthpiece regardless of the speed of air flow. In other words, it

suggests that a greater mouth pressure can provide enough force on the reed to override its

vibration (hence, frequency). The Bernoulli force could explain various manipulations of

saxophone sound by the vocal tract shape. For instance, we observed from previous

scientific studies that there was a great amount of pressure created in the saxophonist’s

vocal tract when bending the pitch from left side key D to A. It implies that the player

increases the mouth pressure by the manipulation of the vocal tract shape which yields

slow air flow to dampen the reed vibration (pitch drops). The high mouth pressure also

activates the Bernoulli force to keep the reed closer to the mouthpiece, thus manipulating

the equilibrium of a minimum and a maximum pressure to play a note that was explained

previously by Wolfe. Worman also agrees that the player can adjust the equilibrium

position about which the oscillations take place by adjusting the player’s embouchure.73

However, Worman refutes that the Bernoulli force is minimal that it is negligible for the

influence on the reed.

The Bernoulli force is at most only 1.7% of the value given in equation A.15 (it

can move the reed only 0.007mm), and so can be neglected for present purpose.

The Bernoulli force probably becomes important for other types of valving

mechanism such as double reeds. Benade has recently found that it plays an

73
Worman, “Self-Sustained Nonlinear Oscillations of Medium Amplitude in Clarinet-Like System,” 106.

50
 important role in the brasses, being large enough to change considerably the

conditions under which oscillations can occur.74

Nevertheless, Worman’s calculation is based on the normal playing condition where there

is no extreme adjustment of vocal tract. Thus, the exact calculation of Bernoulli force

acting on the reed during the vocal tract adjustment is non-existent. The exact number of

the Bernoulli force during vocal tract manipulation should be revealed in future studies

with acousticians.

To summarize, the sound production of the reed depends on sensitive correlations

of the pressure in the vocal tract and the air flow speed and volume, especially in the higher

register. Through numerous studies, two conclusions can be drawn. First, the manipulation

of vocal tract shape yields an increase and a decrease of pressure in the tract. By creating

a greater pressure difference between the player’s mouth and the mouthpiece, the speed of

airflow is reduced based on Bernoulli’s Principle. Second, the increase in mouth pressure

yields a stronger Bernoulli force exerted on the reed that influences the equilibrium of air

flow volume and pressure in the reed oscillations. Based on these conclusions, high-

pressured air created in the vocal tract allows the reed to vibrate in the lower frequency

than it normally does and allows the saxophonists to manipulate the quality and the pitch

of specific note.

74
Ibid., 111.

51
 Manometer Test

In order to observe the influence of air pressure in various tasks in saxophone

performance, this author investigated air pressure adjustments inside of the player’s mouth

during playing of the saxophone using the manometer. Two professional saxophonists and

three saxophone students at the Manhattan School of Music were selected for the

experiment. The Hti-Xintai Digital Manometer was used to measure air pressures in

cmH2O (centimeter of water), which is a manometric unit used to relate a pressure reading

to the height of fresh water at a temperature of 4 degree Celsius, and 1 centimeter of water

equals 98.0665 pascals. A narrow tube is attached to the side of the mouthpiece in order to

measure blowing air pressure while a player is doing various tasks. In this investigation,

players were asked to play four octaves from the lowest written note B flat of the alto

saxophone, a pitch bending from the left palm key D to A, altissimo register from G to F,

and bugling from the fundamental to the 11th partial. The players were asked to hold each

note for about 5 seconds in a medium dynamic of mezzo forte. Based on Bernoulli’s

Principle, the hypothesis of the test is that a great increase in air pressure should be

observed when pitch bending from D to A because dampening of the frequency of the reed

due to slow air flow is necessary to bend the pitch, according to the study of Scavone. The

second hypothesis is that a great decrease of air pressure should be observed in the higher

altissimo register in order to emphasize the higher overtone of the reed. Watkins conducted

a similar test in which he examined direct comparison of high tongue positions and low

tongue positions and how they affect the sound and the amount of air pressure. He observed

the overall decrease of air pressure when lower tongue positions were activated. In addition,

52
the lower tongue positions strengthen higher overtones, which brings brightness and

projection to the sound.

In the following charts, the parenthesis indicates difficulty of producing a specified

note by the test subject while measuring the air pressure. The centimeter water unit is

uniformly used throughout this investigation. N/A (Not Applicable) designates the inability

to produce the sound in a specific task. The subjects were asked to play on their own

instruments and set ups in order to reflect actual playing conditions. Thus, subjects’

mouthpieces and reeds are different, which affect overall resistance. Professional A,

Student B, and Student C use medium chamber mouthpieces whereas Professional B and

Student A use large chamber mouthpieces, which inherently give more resistance.

Therefore, a difference in the air pressure level is evident between the two mouthpieces.

Nonetheless, certain tendencies in the air pressure deviation were observed through this

investigation.

In the normal playing position, saxophonists were asked to sustain four B-flat notes

from the lowest written B flat to the altissimo B flat, which covers a three-octave range of

the saxophone. Interestingly, all of subjects increased the air pressure significantly when

they played Bb3, which is two octaves above the lowest B flat. Students B and C were

unable to successfully produce or sustain the altissimo B flat. Both Professional A and B

decreased their pressure when playing the altissimo B flat. It makes sense that professional

players adjusted their vocal tracts to lower the pressure in order to create a faster air stream,

which would amplify the higher overtone. Watkins also observed the same result when

producing the altissimo written C on his tenor saxophone.75 On the other hand, Student A

75
Watkins, “The Saxophonist’s Vocal Tract,” 24.

53
increased the air pressure during the task. It was most likely because the student increased

the airflow volume. Student A produced significantly louder volume while producing the

altissimo B flat. In fact, this is the limitation of this investigation: we cannot distinguish

between the manipulations of air pressure by the vocal tract or insertion of a greater airflow

volume.

Normal Playing Condition

Professional Professional
Student A Student B Student C
A B

Bb1 22 (cmH2O) 30 25 25 23

Bb2 27 36 25 23 24

Bb3 33 44 29 38 29

Bb4
24 33 32 [30] [23]
(altissimo)

Equipment YAS-82 YAS-82 Silver

YAS-875G YAS-82 Silver YAS-62
(Instrument/ Caravan Yamaha 4C
S90-170 Caravan Vandoren AL3
Mouthpiece/ Legere Vandoren
D’addario 3.5 D’addario 3.5 D’addario 3+
Reed) Signature 3 Traditonal 3

Figure 17. Five saxophonists’ air pressure levels in the mouth while playing four octaves
from the lowest note of alto saxophone (B flat).

54
 Next, saxophonists were asked to sustain the left palm key D and then bend down

the pitch to A (which is the perfect fourth below) without changing the fingering. This

amount of pitch bend cannot be achieved by solely the lip pressure. According to the study

of Scavone, lip pressure variations alone can only produce bends of about 54 cents, the

pitch bends of 300 cents and more can only be the result of vocal tract manipulation.76

Therefore, a great deal of pressure difference should be observed. Except for Student A,

all the subjects were able to bend the pitch successfully and indeed increased their air

pressures sharply when bending the pitch from D to A. The average air pressure difference

between the two notes was 15.25 cmH2O. Student A only increased 5 cmH2O, which is

three times less than the other successful subjects. Therefore, not enough change in the air

pressure was observed and that made it impossible to bend the pitch. In other words,

Student A could not correctly manipulate the vocal tract to create the high-pressure

environment necessary for the reed to be affected.

76
Scavone, “Measurement of vocal tract influence during saxophone performance,” 2396.

55
 Pitch Bending D to A

Pro A Pro B Student A Student B Student C

D3 28 (cmH2O) 40 35 37 25

A2 40 60 [40] 54 37

Difference 12 20 [5] 17 12

Figure 18. Pressure difference when pitch bending from the left side key D to A that is perfect fourth below. Each
saxophonist increased the pressure level in the vocal tract to lower the pitch.

In the third test, subjects were asked to play in the altissimo register starting from

written G to F. Professional saxophonists had no difficulty playing in that register and

observed the same tendency in air pressure modifications. Both saxophonists clearly

decreased their air pressure as they ascended higher in the register. In other words, they

increased the flow speed toward higher notes. This tendency makes sense because the faster

air flow amplifies the higher partials of the overtone, which means it tries to let the reed

vibrate near its natural frequency of 2000 to 3000 Hz. When comparing Professional A to

Professional B, it can be noted that the pressure level of Professional B is significantly

higher. This is because of the large chamber mouthpiece which inherently is more resistant

than the medium chamber mouthpiece. On the contrary, student subjects had difficulty

producing the notes consistently in the altissimo register and different pressure levels in

various pitches were observed. Student A experienced difficulty producing the sound

above C sharp. It is clear to see that the Student A maintained rather strong air pressure

56
throughout the altissimo register, which explains the inability to produce high altissimo

notes from D to higher. Rather than reducing the pressure and increasing the air flow speed,

the Student A attempted to produce the sound rather forcefully by pushing the air through

the mouthpiece and reed.

Two things might have happened: 1) the strong air pressure pushed the reed

upwards to close the space between the mouthpiece, or 2) the slow air flow caused by the

high air pressure that dampened the reed vibration to the point where it was unable to

produce the required pitch. Similarly, Student C experienced the same difficulty in playing

the altissimo register. It is interesting to note that Students A and C use completely different

mouthpieces which have different resistances. Yet their tendency in the deviation of air

pressure coincides with the result. Student B experienced difficulty in the first four notes

of altissimo register but was able to produce D and D#, which Students A and C were not

able to. Interestingly, Student B’s air pressure levels in the first four notes are extremely

high compared to other subjects. Moreover, Student B uses the Vandoren Optimum AL3

mouthpiece, which is a medium chamber mouthpiece. Therefore, having greater air

pressure than Professional B and student A means that the air pressure applied to the reed

is excessive.

57
 Altissimo Register

Pro A Pro B Student A Student B Student C

G 27 (cmH2O) 41 35 [49] 25

G# 24 37 40 [42] 23

A 24 33 33 [41] 20

A# 22 32 37 [40] [22]

B 21 30 40 35 25

C 21 26 33 30 16

C# 20 25 30 27 20

D 20 26 [30] 22 [21]

D# 20 24 [30] 22 [20]

E 18 21 [33] [30] [23]

F 18 22 [35] N/A [20]

Figure 19. Pressures in the mouth when playing notes in the altissimo register.
Generally, as players try to sound the higher pitch, their pressure decreases.

In the last experiment of the overtone series, the result coincides with the result of

the altissimo register. It is understandable because bugling and playing the altissimo

register are essentially the same task of manipulation of the vocal tract to amplify a certain

partial of the note. However, each player has his or her preference in fingerings in the

58
altissimo register, and the resistance levels were different depending on their choice of

fingerings. Yet in the bugling test, they must keep the exactly the same low B flat fingering

throughout the test. Therefore, it enabled us to obtain a more accurate comparison of vocal

tract influence. Both Professionals A and B revealed the same tendency in which the air

pressure increases toward third partial then decreases toward the 11th partial. It is

interesting to note that the third partial of the overtone requires the strongest air pressure.

This is most likely because the strong fundamental and 2nd partial need to be dampened for

the 3rd partial to be amplified. Therefore, a greater air pressure is necessary to act on the

reed. As professional players sounded higher partials, the air pressure decreased in order

to increase the airflow speed to amplify the higher overtone. Interestingly, students’

maximum pressures are observed in different partials: the seventh partial for Student A,

fourth partial for Student B, and second partial for Student C. In order to play those partials,

students struggled to pin-point the exact vocal tract shape, which caused them to push the

airflow to forcefully pronounce the partials.

59
 Overtone Series (Bugling)

Pro A Pro B Student A Student B Student C

Bb
20 (cmH2O) 28 28 23 22
(fundamental)

Bb (2nd partial) 32 44 44 26 34

F (3rd partial) 36 48 48 36 32

Bb (4th partial) 34 43 50 42 28

D (5th partial) 34 38 48 N/A 22

F (6th partial) 27 35 45 N/A 21

Ab (7th partial) 23 35 51 N/A 24

Bb (8th partial) 23 33 45 N/A 25

C (9th partial) 20 32 37 N/A N/A

D (10th partial) 20 29 35 N/A N/A

E (11th partial) 21 26 N/A 24 16

Figure 20. Pressure differences in each partial of the overtone series. Similar to the altissimo register,
as players try to sound higher partials, their air pressure decreases.

60
 Conclusion

In this investigation of air pressure variations in various tasks of saxophone

performance, one can conclude that there is a certain tendency in the pressure changes

when saxophonists are doing various tasks. First, a great increase of air pressure is observed

in the pitch-bending test. It is interesting to note that saxophonists cannot raise the pitch by

the increase of pressure; they can only lower the pitch. It suggests that the greater air

pressure affects the reed to dampen the frequency by reducing the airflow speed. Next,

decrease of air pressure is observed in higher altissimo notes and higher partials of

overtones. Although saxophonists cannot raise the pitch by the increase of air pressure,

they can produce higher altissimo and partials by decreasing the air pressure, which

increases the airflow speed that affects the reed frequency. This idea is reiterated in the

relationship of the volume. In a louder volume, players add more airflow volume to the

reed and mouthpiece, which creates a brighter tone because higher partials are amplified

by the faster airflow. Similarly, saxophonists are able to amplify high partials of overtones

by creating a low air pressure environment in the vocal tract. The sensation of the vocal

tract is often referred to “open position” or “low tongue position.” The open space in the

vocal tract allows air to travel faster; however, it compensates its energy by decreasing the

pressure in the tract. Since there is a definitive relationship in increase and decrease of air

pressure in the vocal tract, there are questions to be asked: “What kinds of vocal tract shape

give high and low pressures?” and “How can we teach the specific vocal tract shape to

students?” These two questions suggest the importance of the pedagogical applications of

findings so far, which will be discussed next.

61
 4. PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION

The influence of the vocal tract has been documented based on scientific research

throughout this thesis as well as mechanics of vocal tract manipulation on the reed and the

sound spectrum using Bernoulli’s Principle. Now it is a question of how to transfer these

findings to actual teachings in a practical way; as Eugene Rousseau says “The

consideration of tongue position, throat opening, etc.,– must be translated into language.”77

One of the biggest obstacles in teaching vocal tract resonance is the ambiguities in defining

our sensory awareness of the vocal tract. Often saxophone teachers use phrases like “open

throat” “high and low tongue position” “pushing the throat further back” in order to guide

students to manipulate the vocal tract shape to achieve a successful result. However, there

is no evidence that our sensory awareness is the same. It is highly possible that our sensory

awareness and actual results do not coincide. Therefore, this thesis focuses on creating a

common ground where we can use the same vocabulary to attain the same outcome. In

attempting to do so, two main approaches are introduced in this chapter. However, this

thesis will not address “correct” answers about tone, because the definition of “good tone”

or “beautiful tone” is completely subjective. For instance, one might prefer a warmer sound

created by the dampening of the reed frequency, or the other may prefer a bright projective

tone acquired by the low-pressure position of the vocal tract. Moreover, the ideal tone

should be different in various musical styles. Therefore, this chapter is dedicated to

providing readers with the “cause and consequence” of vocal tract manipulations. First, it

introduces the phonetic approach that utilizes vowels and consonants to successfully place

the tongue in certain positions. Then it introduces the kinesthetic approach, which it reveals

77
Rousseau, Saxophone High Tones, 79.

62
our false sensory awareness and suggests ways to correctly map muscles in our vocal tract.

The goal is to find the vocal tract shapes that produce high and low air pressure. In order

to create high air pressure in the vocal tract, the air needs to pass through a small space in

the tract; therefore, we are looking for a specific shape that will provide the most closed

space for the vocal tract. Conversely, open space in the vocal tract will produce a low air

pressure with a fast air flow.

Phonetic Approach

The phonetic approach is a common pedagogical tool for singers and wind players

to successfully translate the tongue position in a certain playing condition. This is possible

because we share the same language or at least similar vowels and consonances to

communicate. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is utilized to clarify the vowels

and consonances and their tongue positions. A vowel is a speech sound that is produced by

comparatively open configuration of the vocal tract with vibration of the vocal cords but

without audible friction. Because vowels do not involve extreme narrowing of the vocal

tract, they cannot easily be defined by the placement of articulation. Instead, they are

classified in terms of an abstract ‘vowel space’, which is represented by the four-sided

figure known as the ‘Vowel Quadrilateral’.78 This space bears a relation, though not an

exact one, to the position of the tongue in vowel production.79 (See the figure below.) The

figure shows four tongue shapes and their placement within the oral cavity. [i], which is

the vowel of heed, shows its tongue position of forward and upward position toward the

78
Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic
Alphabet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 11
79
Ibid., 10.

63
hard palate. Because the tongue is placed near the roof of the mouth, this vowel is described

as ‘closed’, and since the highest point of the tongue is at the front of the area where vowel

articulations are possible, it is described as ‘front’. Thus [i] is “Closed-Front” position.

Conversely, the vowel [ɑ] is like palm where the tongue is placed downward and backward

closing the pharynx. The space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth is as large as

possible, therefore, this vowel is described as “Open-Back” position. The vowel [u] raised

the tongue as close as possible at the back of the mouth, which results the vowel of French

vous or German du. Therefore, it is designated as “Closed-Back” position. Finally, if a

vowel is produced in which the highest point of the tongue is at the front of the mouth and

the mouth is as open as possible, the result is [a]. This is rather like the quality of the vowel

in cat, which is “Open-Front” position.80

Figure 21. Mid-sagital section of the vocal tract with the outline of the
tongue shape for each of four vowels superimposed.81

80
Ibid., 11.
81
Ibid.

64
To be more specific, vowels can be further divided into combinations of front, central, back,

close, close-mid, open-mid, and open positions. Although the number of vowels differ by

the language, American English possesses at least eleven different vowels which are

specified in Figures 22 and 23 below.

Figure 22. The left figure shows vowel configurations from the international phonetic alphabet
and the right figure shows vowels of American English.82

The following list shows examples of words for each vowel and its tongue position. These

words are useful because they allow us to easily place the tongue into the designated

position, which help to establish the common sensory awareness.

82
Ibid., 42.

65
 Vowel Tongue Position Words

[i] Closed-Front police, tip, feet, eat, pick

[e] Closed-Mid-Front let, make, press, send, end

[I] Closed-Mid-Front it, sit, kick, bitter

Open-Mid-Front end, bet, less, letter

[ɛ]
[æ] Open-Front at, apple, land, travel

[u] Closed-Back rude, room, tool, fruit

[ʊ] Closed-Mid-Central cook, should, pudding, foot

Central butter, collar, flavor, firm, burst

[ɚ]
[ʌ] Open-Mid-Central bus, blood, come, up

[ɑ] Open-Back father, walk, arm, heart, lager

Closed-Mid-Back not, rock, model, bottle, copy

[o]

Figure 23. Examples of words with specific vowels and their tongue positions.

However, as mentioned previously, the placement of vowels is somewhat

ambiguous due to the absence of articulation without consonants. Consonants, on the other

hand, involve placement of articulation; therefore, they can specify the placement of tongue

more accurately. On the IPA chart (Figure 25) each column represents a place of

articulation, which is reflected in the labels across the top of the table from bilabial at the

left to glottal at the right. The bilabial and labiodental indicate that the consonant is made

by the lower lip against the upper lip and the upper front teeth respectively (see figure 25).

The alveolar is made with the tip of the tongue on the back of upper front teeth such as the

word “stop.” Similarly, the postalveolar is achieved by the tip of the tongue further back

in the mouth than the alveolar. The example of postalveolar consonant is “vision.” The

66
palatal consonant is pronounced with the middle part of the tongue against the hard palate

of the mouth such as “yes.” Velar is the back of the tongue against the soft palate (the back

part of the roof of the mouth known as the velum.) Examples of velar consonance are “ring,”

“skip,” and “get.”83 If you place the back of your tongue to farther back in the mouth than

velar consonants, the uvular consonant is obtained. The example is “Nihon,” which means

Japan in Japanese, or Paris in French. To further specify the sound, the IPA indicates the

manner of articulation, which is labeled on the left side column.

Figure 24. Mid-sagittal section of the vocal tract with labels for place of articulation.84

The manner of articulation is classified by terms such as Plosive, Nasal, Trill, and

reflect another major descriptive dimension for consonants. The Plosive consonants can be

achieved by the blockage of airflow in the vocal tract. It can happen in a number of ways

83
Ibid., 8.
84
Ibid., 7.

67
by the lips, placement of tongue, and glottis. The Nasal consonants are achieved by the

lowering of the velum, the soft palate, allowing the air to escape freely through the nose.

Trill consonants are possible by the vibrating tip of the tongue interrupting the air flow.

The example of that is perro in Spanish, which means dog.85 Tap or Flap consonants occur

when a small accumulation of pressure at the place of articulation is released in a short

amount of time, which creates a rather percussive sound. The standard American English

does not have a tap consonant. Fricative consonants are created by the narrowing the

airflow passage to become turbulent, which can be achieved by the lower lip against the

upper teeth, and the back of the tongue against the soft palate. The Lateral Fricative is the

sound achieved by the airflow blocked by the tongue in which the tip of the tongue contacts

the upper teeth or the upper gum. Approximants/Lateral Approximants can be considered

half way between vowels and fricatives. When pronouncing an approximant, the air flows

smoothly through the vocal tract so that very little friction is created.

Figure 25. The list of consonants from IPA 201886

85
Ibid., 8.
86
The International Phonetic Association, IPA charts and sub-charts in four fonts,
https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/IPA/IPA_charts_2018.html (accessed October 23, 2018).

68
Now that types of consonants are clarified, it is possible to indicate appropriate tongue

positions using the place of articulation and the manner of articulation combining with the

vowel placement.

In order to create a high air pressure in the vocal tract, narrowing of the air flow is

necessary as suggested by Bernoulli’s principle, which suggests an outcome of a turbulent

sound of fricative consonants. Moreover, in order to keep the increased pressure, the

narrow space in the oral cavity needs to be constant towards the opening of mouth.

Although exact placement of vowels is precisely the goal of this phonetic approach, the

vowel placement is still ambiguous. Therefore, use of consonants allow us to aid the

placement of the tongue into the specific vowel positions. Thus, closed vowels of [i] or [u]

near Palatal, Velar, or Uvular positions are ideal. Thus, following consonances are

Fricative Palatal, Velar, Uvular consonances, which provide hissing sounds.

Watkins also states that a hissing tongue position allows saxophonists to pitch bend, which

corresponds to fricative consonances.

In addition, pitch “bending” with the mouthpiece alone and while fingering the

palm keys on the saxophone was viewed with fluoroscope and endoscope

equipment. The results show that in order to affect more than minimal changes in

pitch, the center tongue was raised to lower the pitch, occurring approximately

69
 where on might pronounce the consonant “g,” as in “good,” or where the tongue

rises in order to hiss.87

However, a phonetic approach may not be sufficient to create a high air pressure that is

strong enough to override the reed frequency. In order to achieve the effect, the laryngeal

position needs to be taken into account. In fact, both pharyngeal space and laryngeal space

can be manipulated by the longitudinal movement of the larynx. The bigger the difference

between the oral cavity space and laryngeal space, the stronger the air pressure. How to

activate the laryngeal muscles will be discussed in the following chapter.

On the other hand, the open vowels [a] and [ɑ] provide reduced air pressure with

faster air flow due to the openness in the oral cavity. What we expect is more air flow in

the open vowels so that reduced turbulent noise is ideal for the consonant without touching

the lips, upper teeth, and hard palate of the mouth. Thus, the following consonants should

be appropriate, which are Approximant of Retroflex, Palatal, and Velar.

In Voicing, Sinta advises readers to use a “kuh” or “kah” sound produced in the back of the

throat for the attack of the upper note.88 In the phonetic terminology, they can be translated

as the Plosive Velar consonants with Open-Back vowel of [a]; thus it makes sense to

approach the upper overtone using such sound.

87
Watkins, “The Saxophonist’s Vocal Tract,” 15.
88
Sinta, Voicing, 11.

70
 It is a logical approach to utilize vowels and consonants in both vocal pedagogy

and wind instrument pedagogy because of their ability to provide common sensory

awareness of the tongue position. Based on Bernoulli’s Principle, open vowels provide a

faster air flow with reduced air pressure and amplify higher partials of overtones allowing

the reed to vibrate at higher frequency. Conversely, closed vowels give a slower air flow

with increased air pressure, which dampen the reed frequency to lower the pitch or amplify

the fundamental and lower partials of overtones. However, the phonetic approach does not

include the use of pharyngeal and laryngeal spaces, which are critical as they are parts of

vocal tract. Being able to manipulate those spaces provides greater potential to enhance

manipulation of air pressure and air flow through the vocal tract.

71
 Kinesthetic Approach

Anatomy of Vocal Tract

In understanding vocal tract resonance, it is necessary to understand the basic

anatomy of the vocal tract and its functions. The vocal tract is a container of air that starts

from the top of the vocal folds and goes all the way to the tip of the lips (see figure 26).

The length of the tract is typically 175 mm in men and 150 mm in women, although

considerable variation occurs from individual to individual.89 It is comprised of mainly

three different spaces: larynx, pharynx, and oral cavity. The vocal tract can be simply

divided into two groups: the transverse space (oral cavity) and the longitudinal space

(pharynx and larynx). Figure 26 shows principal parts of the vocal tract. The larynx is a

tubular structure that is connected to the top of the trachea (windpipe). It is located in the

neck and in front of the food pipe. The functions of the larynx are to protect the trachea

during swallowing of food and water, to allow the air into the lungs, and to produce sound

for speaking. The air is delivered upwards from the lungs to the trachea and then enters

the larynx where it holds vocal folds that provide the sound for speech and singing. At the

top of the larynx is the epiglottis, which works as a lid that closes the larynx during

swallowing to prevent food or liquid from going into the lungs instead of the stomach.

Space above the larynx is the pharynx, which is commonly called the throat and is

comprised of nasopharynx, oropharynx, and hypopharynx. The hypopharynx is at the lower

end of the pharynx and is the space just behind the larynx. The oropharynx is at the back

of the mouth behind the oral cavity and it includes the back third of the tongue, soft palate,

and the side and back walls of the throat. The nasopharynx is the upper part of the throat

89
Campbell et al., The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics, 479.

72
behind the nose. The pharynx permits the passage of swallowed solids and liquids into the

esophagus in which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. The space from the

mouth behind the teeth to the pharynx is the oral cavity. Above the oral cavity is the palate

comprised of hard and soft palates. The soft palate closes off the nose when swallowing

and it separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.

Figure 26. Sagittal view of the vocal tract and its various parts.

One of the most important organs in sound production is the tongue. It is one of the

most versatile muscular organs in the human body. The tongue 1) manipulates food for

mastication, 2) tastes, 3) swallows, and 4) enables speech and singing in humans. It is the

instrumental articulator in the vocal tract and is one of the strongest muscles in the body.

The tongue is comprised of two types of muscles: intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic

muscles of the tongue are muscles that are located only in the tongue. These muscles do

not originate or insert outside of the tongue. Since the intrinsic muscles are located inside

73
the tongue, these muscles function to change the actual shape of the tongue. The transverse

muscle lengthens and protrudes the tongue, the vertical muscle flattens and widens the

tongue, the superior longitudinal muscle elevates the tip and sides of the tongue, and the

inferior longitudinal muscle depresses the apex and sides of the tongue. Contrastingly, the

extrinsic muscles of the tongue originate from outside the tongue and then insert onto the

tongue. Rather than changing the actual shape of the tongue as intrinsic muscles do,

extrinsic muscles function to move the tongue around in the mouth.90 The styloglossus

raises and retracts the tongue back into the mouth, the palatoglossus raises the back of the

tongue as well as lowers the back roof of the mouth, the genioglossus lowers and protrudes

the tongue forward in the mouth, and the hyoglossus lowers and retracts the tongue back

into the mouth. The summaries of functions of tongue muscles are provided in figure 28

and 29.

Figure 27. Illustration of the intrinsic muscles of the tongue.

90
Dan Washmuth, Intrinsic & Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue, https://study.com/academy/lesson/intrinsic-
extrinsic-muscles-of-the-tongue.html (accessed October 3, 2018).

74
 Intrinsic Muscles Actions

Transverse Muscle Lengthens and protrudes the tongue

Vertical Muscle Flattens and widens the tongue

Superior Longitudinal Muscle Elevates the tip and sides of the tongue

Depresses the apex and sides of the

Inferior Longitudinal Muscle
tongue

Figure 28. Summary of the intrinsic muscles of tongue and their functions.

Extrinsic Muscles Actions

Styloglossus Raises and retracts the tongue back in to

the mouth

Palatoglossus Raises the back of the tongue as well as

lowers the back roof of the mouth

Genioglossus Lowers and protrudes the tongue forward

in the mouth

Hyoglossus Lowers and retracts the tongue back in to

the mouth.

Figure 29. Summary of the extrinsic muscles of the tongue and their functions.

75
 Open Throat

One of the biggest challenges in teaching vocal tract resonance is the ambiguity in

our sensory awareness of vocal tract organs. A kinesthetic approach aims to provide

additional common ground for saxophonists in mapping of muscles that activate vocal tract

manipulations. The mapping of the body has been emphasized by vocal pedagogues.

Bozeman in his book discusses the importance of accurate body mapping.

Accurate body mapping also can help. By way of review, body mapping – an

offshoot of Alexander Technique – is the observation that we each have an

internalized conceptual “map” of how the body is put together: where things are,

where joints are, how they articulate – in other words, of how the body works.

Body mapping theory suggests that inaccurate mapping leads to awkward use,

while accurate mapping facilitates better coordination. Because our kinesthesia is

backwards for throat space, it seems plausible that most people have inaccurately

mapped the location of the back of the throat and the insertion and function of the

tongue.91

In fact, the pedagogical challenge lies in our erroneous kinesthesia of throat space. For

instance, saxophonists often describe the sensation of playing the altissimo register as

“open throat.” Moreover, this term is often used to create a resonant sound in the regular

range. Interestingly enough, most vocal pedagogies advocate some sensation of an open

throat – indeed, it is such a universal ideal that it is given a special term in Italian: Gola

Aperta,92 which provides resonance to the voice by “opening” the throat through lowering

the larynx. However, there are conflicting schools of teaching Gola Aperta in vocal

91
Kenneth W. Bozeman, Kinesthetic Voice Pedagogy: Motivation Acoustic Efficiency (Gahanna: Inside
View Press, 2017), 10.
92
Scott McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 2nd ed. (Delaware: Inside View Press, 2012), 118.

76
pedagogy due to its ambiguous terminology. In saxophone pedagogy, Rousseau also

reiterates the issue of “open throat” terminology:

The phenomenon accounts for the unusual feeling the performer experiences inside

the mouth when first playing high tones. It has often been described as an “open

throat,” an unfortunate term for more than one reason. In the first place, ambiguity

often takes place in the mind of a saxophonist, or any wind player for that matter,

who is told for the first time to keep an “open throat.” What is being referred to is

the inside of the mouth and throat and its shape while playing, although it is

impossible to see any of these shapes and functions!93

In order to pursue an empirically-based understanding of “open throat,” Bozeman presents

a unique approach. He claims that our kinesthesia (sensory awareness) of throat space is

misleading and backward:

If you ask a group of people which vowel feels the most open-throated, most will

cite /ɑ/, or which vowel the most closed-throated, most cite / i/. This is indeed the

way it feels. If asked to inhale through their most exaggeratedly open-throated

sensation, most people will make a yawny /ɑ/, which upon inhalation will be

accompanied by a moderately loud turbulent noise and cooling in the

laryngopharynx (perceptual throat). Paradoxically the throat is rather narrow in the

/ɑ/ and at its most open posture with the vowel /i/, primarily due to the difference

in tongue shape and tongue fronting of those vowels.94

What Bozeman suggests here is the fact that what people perceive as “open throat” is

actually a “closed throat.” Conversely, the sensory closed throat of /i/ vowel in reality

yields the actual “open throat.”

93
Rousseau, Saxophone High Tones, 79
94
Bozeman, Kinesthetic Voice Pedagogy, 8.

77
 At this point, the primary question is this: Why do we have inaccurate sensory

awareness of the vocal tract muscles? It is also important to point out that those inaccurate

senses are shared by the majority of people; therefore, there must be specific reasons for

these erroneous sensory perceptions in our body. In pursuit of kinetically-based pedagogy,

it is important to examine anatomic realities of what actually happens within the body.

First, it must be noted that the muscles that open the throat are not in the throat.

Indeed, there are no muscles that can directly expand the pharynx. 95 All pharyngeal

muscles are termed constrictors for a reason: when activated, they narrow or constrict the

pharynx. This is crucial to understand because we easily associate “openness” with

“expansion” of muscles. However, as Bozeman states, it is completely the opposite. Since

the spinal column is directly behind the back-throat wall, unless the spine itself is contorted

it is not possible to distend the pharynx posteriorly (Figure 30). Instead of expansion,

muscles need to be relaxed in order to actually open the throat. Therefore, one can relax

the pharyngeal muscles, elevate the soft palate from above, lower or settle the larynx from

below, front the tongue, decompress the thyrohyoid space, and retract or deconstruct the

false vocal folds.96 McCoy reiterates that maximum opening of the throat occurs when all

tension is released from the three sets of constrictor muscles. The sensation is one of active

opening; the cause, however, is passive relaxation.97 When experiencing the false open-

throated sensation described above, there is a sensation of the back wall of the throat being

located father back behind our ears, which is considerably farther back than it actually is.

However, the back-throat wall is actually in front of our ears.

95
Ibid.
96
Ibid.
97
McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 119.

78
 Figure 30. Anatomy of the vocal tract. The spinal column is located directly
behind the back wall of throat.

Bozeman suggests that what we are perceiving in this maneuver as the back of the

throat is in fact activation of that lateral part of the tongue muscle group, the styloglossus,

that retracts the back of the tongue. 98 This occurs because the end of styloglossus is

98
Bozeman, Kinesthetic Voice Pedagogy,11.

79
connected to the bottom of the ear drum, which in fact gives the sensation in the back of

the ears. This explains the inaccurate sensory awareness of our “open-throat” position

(Figure 30).

Styloglossus
Genioglossus

Hyoglossus

Figure 31. The illustration of extrinsic tongue muscles.

The styloglossus muscle attached to the bottom of the ear.

The sensory awareness of tongue muscles is also misleading as we tend to perceive

the tongue as forming a somewhat rounded 90-degree angle that lies flat in the mouth and

then progresses down the throat vertically to attach to the larynx. Bozeman clearly explains

the mapping of the tongue muscles:

While there are some lateral (hyoglossus) attachments to the hyoid bone99 below,

the largest portion of the tongue muscle (the genioglossus) loops back to the front

under the tongue blade where it originates on the inside back of the chin. When

99
See figure 34.

80
 relaxed, the tongue is fronted, somewhat rounded, and usually in contact with the

roof of the mouth rather than lowered and flattened. Remapping the tongue from

running down the throat to folding back under itself to the chin will allow the

tongue to be fronted and relaxed and the larynx to be more independent from the

tongue. The sensation of pushing the larynx down from above is also false.

Muscles cannot push. They can only pull their ends toward the center or pull

toward the end of their more stable attachment (their origin). Activating the lateral

hyoglossus muscles lowers the back of the tongue and pulls up on the hyoid bone,

compressing the tongue into the hyoid bone, possibly even raising the larynx. This

helps neither voice acoustics nor laryngeal independence and freedom of

function.100

It is important to note that the most relaxed shape of the tongue is fronted and rounded,

which is contrary to what we may perceive (usually we may feel our tongues to be lowered

and somewhat flat). Bozeman suggests that relaxation of the tongue enables the larynx to

be independent from the natural reflex of the tongue.

Laryngeal Elevators and Depressors

The laryngeal movement needs to be coordinated with the placement of the tongue

in order to satisfy a pressure level that is sufficient enough to influence the sound. Watkins

observes movements of the larynx position as the saxophonist reaches the upper register:

The larynx, or Adam’s apple, starts a bit higher than normal and moves

progressively downward, especially from the second octave and up. One should

100
Bozeman, Kinesthetic Voice Pedagogy, 11.

81
 also notice that the posterior tongue descends as the notes ascend. The higher of

the posterior tongue is usually related, connected to the height of the larynx.101

As was mentioned in the phonetic approach, the high posterior tongue position coupled

with the low larynx position yields the optimal result in increasing the vocal tract pressure.

However, the conscious longitudinal manipulation of the laryngeal position is difficult and

an unnatural act because a natural reflex exists in the larynx movement. When you swallow,

the larynx raises, then the epiglottis closes the windpipe allowing food and liquid to pass

through the esophagus. The back of the tongue raises to the soft palate. If you touch your

larynx or Adam’s apple, which is the laryngeal prominence of the thyroid cartilage, and

gently push in with your finger then swallow, the elevation of your larynx can be observed.

This indeed folds epiglottis over the airway to prevent choking, while simultaneously

allowing food and liquid into the esophagus. Neither of these actions work properly if the

larynx does not rise. Therefore, the natural reflex of the larynx is to elevate, not to depress.

Another way to observe larynx movement is by singing low to high pitches. Untrained

singers will observe gradual elevation of the larynx as they go higher in the register. The

professional singers, however, utilize a high soft palate accompanied by a low laryngeal

position (not depressed, but simply allowed to remain at or a little below its normal resting

place). This action requires control of numerous muscles that can depress the larynx. For

saxophonists, the larynx needs to depress while the back of the tongue rises, which is

indeed confusing and challenging to do.

First, muscles that elevate larynx will be discussed. The inferior constrictor is

attached to either side of the thyroid cartilage and wraps around the vocal tract and the base

101
Watkins, “The Saxophonist’s Vocal Tract,” 50.

82
of the esophagus. While superior constrictor and the middle constrictor serve to narrow

the pharynx in order to assist in the transport of food to the esophagus, the inferior

constrictor contracts the pharynx and elevates the larynx.

Inferior Constrictor
Superior Constrictor

Middle Constrictor

Figure 32. Three constrictor muscles that assist to elevate the larynx.

The remaining direct elevators are the thyrohyoid muscles (see figure 34). This muscle lifts

the larynx and partially closes the gap between the thyroid cartilage and hyoid. Contraction

of the anterior digastric lowers the jaw while the posterior portion lifts the hyoid and larynx

during swallowing (see figure 33).

83
 digastric muscles

stylohyoid

hyoid bone

Figure 33. Stylohyoid muscle originated from the hyoid bone,

and digastric muscles located under the chin.

The stylohyoid muscle takes its origin from the styloid process and inserts again into the

hyoid bone, following the same general course as the stylohyoid ligament. This is a true

swallowing muscle, contracting to draw the hyoid and larynx both up and back.

Two muscles that primarily serve articulatory functions also have the potential to

impact laryngeal elevation. The hyoglossus, which lowers and retracts the tongue back into

the mouth, connects from the hyoid bone to the base of the tongue and is designed to

depress the back of the tongue during swallowing and during the production of certain

phonemes. The genioglossus muscle, which extends from the point of the chin to the root

of the tongue, is the muscle that sticks the tongue out of the mouth and is quite content to

also pull the larynx out of position. The sternothyroid muscles, which connect on the inside

surface of the sternum and extend to the lower edges of the thyroid cartilage, contracts to

lower the larynx. Sternohyoid muscles follow a path from sternum to hyoid bone and their

contraction serves to lower the larynx.

84
 hyoid bone

Thyrohyoid

Sternothyroid
Stylohyoid

Sternohyoid

Figure 34. Different muscles that act to elevate and depress larynx.

To summarize, there are three main muscles that raise the larynx. They are the inferior

constrictor, thyrohyoid muscles, and stylohyoid muscles. On the other hand, there are four

muscles that depress the larynx. They are the sternothyroid muscles, the sternohyoid, the

hyoglossus, and the genioglossus.

Muscles Actions

Inferior Constrictor Raises larynx

Thyrohyoid muscles Raises larynx

Stylohyoid muscles Raises larynx

Sternothyroid muscles Lowers larynx

Sternohyoid Lowers larynx

Hyoglossus (tongue) Lowers larynx

Genioglossus (tongue) Lowers larynx

Figure 35. Summary of muscles that raise or lower the larynx.

85
McCoy suggests that the optimal laryngeal position for singers is one that allows the larynx

to remain at or very slightly below its natural resting place:

To find this position, place a finger on your larynx to note its position and then

take a deep, relaxed breath. Notice that your larynx descends a little from start to

completion of the inhalation. This is due to the phenomenon of tracheal pull, which

occurs when the descending diaphragm pulls down the lungs, bronchial tubes,

trachea, and larynx.102

For saxophonists, muscles that depress the larynx independently from the other natural

reflexes are important because the tongue and the larynx need to move separately to create

an optimal vocal tract shape that produces a high air pressure. Therefore, the sternothyroid

and the sternohyoid muscles are independent depressors of the larynx, and they are attached

to the dorsal surface of the manubrium, which is the flat bone located in the upper center

of the chest. When activating these two muscles, one should feel a contraction toward the

chest. They allow the depression of the larynx while elevating the posterior tongue. In order

to test the successful depression of the larynx while keeping the high posterior tongue

position, voiceless exhalation can be useful. First, one should try to pronounce the fricative

sound created by the high posterior tongue position. You should hear a fricative hissing

sound coming from the mouth. Then try to touch your Adam’s apple while depressing the

larynx. One should feel a depression of the Adam’s apple and a tension in-between the

chest and the neck, which signifies the activation of laryngeal depressors. While depressing

the larynx, one should keep hearing the fricative sound with a small variation in vowels

that indicates the narrower space in the oral cavity.

102
McCoy, Your Voice: An Inside View, 122.

86
 Throat Tonguing Approach

The use of vowels and mapping of various parts of the vocal tract are both certainly

effective in attaining successful vocal tract resonance. While those two approaches are

recommended because of their scientific empirically-based methodologies, another useful

approach is introduced in this section. Throat tonguing, which can also be referred to as

double tonguing, uses the posterior portion of the tongue touching the soft palate to

articulate a note. The technique is most commonly used by brass players and flutists in

passages that require fast articulations of notes. The double tonguing of brass instruments

and flutes is achieved by two different tongue positions. The regular articulation, which is

used for single tonguing, activates the tip and front of the tongue to touch the alveolar part

of the hard palate. Therefore, this tonguing is often taught by consonants of /t/ or /d/. The

other portion of the double tonguing is achieved by the use of the posterior of the tongue

touching the velar or uvular part of the soft palate, which yields consonants of /k/ or/g/.

This is why the combination of those consonants are universally accepted in brass and flute

pedagogy of double tonguing. Johnson states that the ku (“kew”) sound is substituted in

various patterns of alternation with the tu sound.103 He also suggests that “gu” syllable can

be used for more legato passages. Similarly, Whitner uses the same syllables for the double

and triple tonguing:

The syllables “tu-ku,” “ta-ka,” and “tu-tu-ku,” “ta-ta-ka” are most often

recommended for this purpose. The main difficulty in double and triple tonguing

103
Keith Johnson, Brass Performance and Pedagogy (Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2002),
38.

87
 is achieving sufficient evenness that compares favorably to single tonguing. The

tendency inequality is caused by a certain weakness of the “k” syllables.104

In the flute pedagogy, the same syllables are used for double tonguing. Morris states that

“t-k” gives the very rapid staccato which is often need in fast tempos.105 Likewise, Toff

suggests similar syllables to achieve double tonguing in various articulations:

Today, the most accepted “pronunciation” of double tonguing uses the syllables

TE-KE or TUH-KUH, with DUH-GUH a close third and a frequent alternative in

passage where mezzo-staccato or louré articulation is indicated. Other possibilities,

though weaker, are TU-RU, TOO-KOO, DA-GA, DOO-GOO, and TOO-TLE.

TOO-TLE, is the weakest of the lot, because the indistinctness of the second

syllable prevents the escape of air, rather than propelling it as the initial syllable

should.106

However, achieving double-tonguing in reed instruments is slightly different and more

demanding due to the existence of the reed in the player’s mouth. Pino describes the

difference in his book of clarinet pedagogy:

The only difference is that since brass and flute players have no reed in the mouth,

their tongue strokes are directed at the roof of the mouth rather than at the reed

tip....Brass-and-flute multiple tonguing operates as follows: In double tonguing,

the player’s tongue pronounces the sound of the letters “t-k-t-k,” and so forth,

which ins effect, “doubles” the type of tongue stroke and greatly increases the

speed of the player’s tonguing...Clarinetists and players of other reed instruments

must, however, stay away from that type of multiple tonguing, because they do

104
Scott Whitener, A Complete Guide to Brass: Instruments and Pedagogy (New York: Schirmer Books A
Division of Macmillan, Inc., 1990), 114.
105
Gareth Morris, Flute Technique, (New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 1991), 30.
106
Nancy Toff, The Flute Book: A Complete Guide for Students and Performers, 2nd ed. (New York:
Oxford University Press Inc., 1996), 119.

88
 insert part of the instrument in their mouth, and while the “t” part of it is perfectly

all right (acted upon the reed tip), the “k” part of it results in musical disaster!

Remember I have stressed that all tonguing done on a clarinet must act upon the

reed tip; there is no way that a “k” or a “g” sound can be acted upon the reed tip.

When a clarinetist pronounces a “k” or “g” sound while tonguing, an air pocket

forms behind the tongue which, when released, fails to act upon the reed

instantaneously enough for clean articulation.107

As Pino describes, an unintended sound results from the syllables that include “k” or “g”

in reed instruments. Saxophonists and clarinetists need to spend hours of dedicated practice

to perfect the tonguing to make it undifferentiable from the regular tonguing. However,

this unwanted effect of the double tonguing is actually useful for teaching vocal tract

resonance.

When articulating a note with “k” or “g”, especially in high register of the

saxophone, one should experience a slight dip of the pitch immediately after the

articulation. This descent of pitch is not caused by the change of embouchure, rather it is

by the change of the vocal tract shape. It is the equivalent effect to the pitch bending of the

saxophone; therefore, the pressure in the vocal tract increases when releasing the tongue

from the velar and uvular positions. One of the biggest obstacles in teaching the vocal tract

resonance is the release of embouchure. When students are trying to lower the larynx, they

simultaneously drop their jaw unconsciously, which disables the creation of enough

pressure inside of their vocal tracts. The throat tonguing allows students to experience

lowering the larynx while keeping the posterior tongue around the uvular position without

changing the embouchure. However, it is only effective in the high register of saxophone

107
David Pino, The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), 93.

89
where the impedance of the bore is weaker. Therefore, it is recommended to practice the

throat-tonguing with notes with palm keys of saxophone (written D, D#, E, F).

First, one should palpate the Adam’s apple while pronouncing “g-ah”. One should

be able to feel the depression of the Adam’s apple, which also depresses the larynx.

Although the cause of depression is partially by the drop of the tongue, it still gives a

sensation of lowering the larynx without changing the embouchure. Next, try to play the

saxophone and articulate the note with “k” or “g” syllables. One should expect a drop of

pitch when releasing the articulation. After getting used to the sensation, try to lower the

larynx further down when releasing without moving the tongue. This should allow pressure

to increase in the vocal tract and lower the pitch even further. Being able to pitch-bend is

the proof of successful vocal tract manipulation; one can then apply the same technique to

bugling, altissimo register, and multiphonic.

90
 5. CONCLUSION

This thesis has sought to clarify how the vocal tract affects the tonal profile of the

saxophone in various situations. This chapter summarizes findings of the study of vocal

tract resonance. Vocal tract resonance, which is defined as a manipulation of saxophone

sound by the change of the vocal tract shape, is analyzed in three perspectives: 1) the effect

of vocal tract on the sound of saxophone, 2) the establishment of a correct mapping of

vocal tract muscles, and 3) the application of these findings to pedagogy.

First, studies show that there is a definitive relationship between the change of vocal

tract shape and the tonal profile of the saxophone. In general, a smaller (narrower) vocal

tract produces a higher air pressure, and a larger vocal tract shape yields a lower air pressure.

Based on Bernoulli’s Principle, high-pressured air is accompanied by a slow air flow speed.

Conversely, low-pressured air is coupled with a fast air flow speed. This change of air flow

speed directly influences the reed frequency in ways that amplify the higher partials to

make the sound brighter or dampen the partials to darken the sound and lower the pitch.

The manometer test supported the idea in various tasks of saxophone playing. In

the pitch bending test, it was clear that greater air pressure was applied to the reed in order

to bend the pitch without changing the lip pressure (embouchure). The vocal tract

manipulation only worked to bend the pitch lower and never raised the pitch. It seems

impossible to raise the pitch by changing the vocal tract shape. In the altissimo register, the

manometer test revealed that the air pressure needed to be reduced when ascending higher

in the extreme high register. It made sense, because the reduced air pressure yields faster

airflow speed, which amplified higher partials allowing the production of high altissimo

tones. Likewise, the bugling exercise (overtone series) showed the same result in which

91
reduced air pressure was observed as the player played higher in the overtone series. In

terms of tonal color, the brightness comes from amplification of the higher partials.

Conversely, the darker tone color was achieved by the dampening of the higher partials by

increasing air pressure in the vocal tract. Interestingly, there was no evidence of

amplification of lower partials by the changes of air pressure. Similar results were observed

in the overtone series in which the air pressure decreased as the player played the higher

partials.

The structure of the vocal tract is complex due to a large number of muscles that

interact in the system. This thesis mainly focused on clarifying different muscles of the

tongue and the larynx that control the change of the vocal tract shape. The main purpose

of this chapter was to overcome the false sensory awareness of the vocal tract space. It

also demystified the false sensory awareness of “open throat” by showing a specific muscle

that was attached to the tongue and the bottom of the ear drum (styloglossus). Moreover,

this thesis specified specific functions of tongue muscles and laryngeal muscles. In order

to obtain high and low air pressure within the vocal tract, the phonetic approach was

introduced to translate the exact tongue position into a practical application to teaching.

For example, closed vowels produce the higher air pressure as compared to open vowels.

Especially the closed vowels of [i] or [u] near Palatal, Velar, or Uvular positions are ideal

for producing a high air pressure. These sounds resemble hissing sounds. Contrarily, open

vowels with reduced turbulent noise are ideal for obtaining a low air pressure with a fast

airflow. In addition, the throat tonguing approach combines the phonetic approach with the

laryngeal depression to lower the pitch using the reflex of the throat tonguing. The

following chart provides solutions to common challenges of saxophone performance

92
regarding vocal tract resonance. It also provides a corresponding reference page for each

challenge.

Challenge Solution Reference Page #

A reed squeaks when it vibrates near

Reed Squeak
Obtaining Brighter Tone
its natural frequency, which is around 39-40
2000-3000Hz. Its cause is a fast
airflow with a reduced air pressure. 56
Try to increase the pressure by
changing the vowel to closed vowels.
42-43
The brightness of tone comes from
the amplification of higher overtone. 52-53
Use the open vowels to increase the
air flow speed. 61-62

The darkness of tone comes from

Obtaining Darker Tone
Bugling (Overtone Series)
Sounding Extreme High
Altissimo
Pitch Bending
dampening of higher overtones rather 39-43
than amplifying the lower over tones.
Use the closed vowels with the 69-71
laryngeal depression to increase the
air pressure.
Increase the air pressure using the
closed-back vowel with laryngeal
52-61
depression from 2nd partial toward 5th
partial. Reduce the pressure as you
play higher from the 6th partial.
Because the extreme high altissimo
note such as the highest written note
G in Frank Martin’s Ballade is close
52-61
to the natural frequency of the reed,
the note can be sounded with the high
airflow (a low air pressure) along
with less rolling of the lower lip.
20-24
Pitch bending is possible when the air
pressure in the vocal tract is greatly
28-30
increased. Increased pressure
dampens the reed frequency to bend
31-33
the pitch. Use closed-back vowel
with the laryngeal depression to
55-56
increase the pressure.

Figure 36. Solutions to common challenges of the saxophone performance.

93
 It is the author’s sincere hope that this study will provide a helpful guide to aid

teachers and students with their study of various saxophone techniques using available

resources and exercises. The secret to obtaining full control over the saxophone truly lies

within deeper understanding of the vocal tract. Watkins states that acceptance of the idea

that the vocal tract is involved with tone production from the larynx to the embouchure is

fairly universal in the woodwind world.108 Although there are numerous pedagogical texts

that guide students to acquire a control of the vocal tract, a text that addresses how to move

certain muscles to obtain results had not previously existed. This thesis demonstrates a

practical means to a new saxophone pedagogy that uses anatomically-based information

and new perspectives to understand this invisible mechanism. The author has found that

approaches explained in this thesis help students learn the technique significantly faster. It

also has been proven that vocal tract resonance can be taught to students in the early stage

of learning to play the saxophone. As the technical demand increases for contemporary

saxophonists, the method teachers utilize to teach students must evolve in order to

accommodate the ever-growing advanced repertoire of the saxophone.

108
Watkins, “The Saxophonist’s Vocal Tract,” 58.

94
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DVD

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Richter, M. Echternach, and L. Traser. 2017. Gemany: Helbling Verlag, DVD

101
 VITA

1989 Born in Tokyo, Japan

2003-05 Attended Dokkyo Middle School in Tokyo, Japan
2003 Began studying saxophone with Akemi Endo
2005 Studied saxophone with Shiro Hatae
Attended the Hamamatsu International Wind Instrument Academy and
Festival in Japan, studied with Otis Murphy
2005-08 Attended Professional Children’s School in New York City
Attended Manhattan School of Music Pre-College Division
Began studying saxophone with Dr. Paul Cohen
2010 Attended the Hamamatsu International Wind Instrument Academy and
Festival in Japan, studied with Nobuya Sugawa
Semi-Finalist for the Adolphe Sax International Saxophone Competition
in Dinant, Belgium
Korean Debut Recital in Seoul, South Korea
2012 Bachelor of Music, Manhattan School of Music
2013 Winner of the Vandoren Emerging Artist Competition USA
2013 Winner of the Eisenbach-Fried Concerto Competition, NYC
2014 Master of Music, Manhattan School of Music, received Janet D. Schenck
Award
2016 Principal Alto Saxophonist in New York Wind Orchestra, NY
2017 Masterclass at Bijoux Music Studio, Seoul, South Korea
2018 Chinese Debut Recital in Beijing, China
Masterclass at China Conservatory of Music, Beijing, China
Lincoln Center Debut Recital in New York
2019 Doctor of Musical Arts, Manhattan School of Music

102