Davis Thesis

A MODEL VIEW:
ACHIEVEMENT, RECREATION AND ADULT BEGINNING

VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
Lauren Davis
A thesis submitted in fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Australian National University
2009
I certify that this thesis is my own work and that all sources used have been acknowledged.
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ABSTRACT
This thesis explores the subject of beginning violin adult students from the point of
view of instructional texts across the seventeenth to the twenty-first centuries, with the
majority of the focus on the texts published in America from the nineteenth century
onward. Deep analysis of the American texts was undertaken in order to determine what
changes occurred in violin instruction over the course of two centuries and what effect
those changes have had on today’s beginning adult violin student.
This study is necessary because while there are clear indications of adult interest in
playing the violin, and a growing field devoted to music as lifelong learning, there are no
texts currently available that are written specifically for adults. Despite a growing body of
research on adults and music, particularly the piano, there is little research focusing on
adults and violin playing. The majority of music education research is about children and
music in schools.
From the seventeenth century through a portion of the nineteenth century, it is

possible to see two distinct types or models of violin instruction. One is exemplified by
European texts and treatises such as those published by Geminiani, Spohr, and Leopold
Mozart et al. These texts were designed to be used by a teacher and were used by a variety
of students, from children to serious adult amateurs interested in playing European classical
music. The learning presented in these texts is highly structured, involving a particular
evolution of skills with the pace being dictated by both the teacher and the text. The other
model of instruction is exemplified by a variety of self-instructing texts whose audience
was adult amateurs. This model presents a less formal learning process with the pace set by
the learner himself, and the repertoire consists of popular music of the day instead of solely
European classical music.
It is argued that from these two very different approaches clearly evident into the
nineteenth century, we have arrived in the early twenty first century with a single model
which is largely an extension of the European model. While there are still self-instructing
texts today, they are markedly different from self-instructing texts of the nineteenth
century. The self-instructing model, as it appeared until around the turn of the nineteenth
into the twentieth century, has disappeared. The few modern self-instructing texts, while
ostensibly for an adult audience, have a uniformity of approach consistent with the texts for
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younger students, suggesting that there is no differentiation between audiences or types of
desired outcomes. The lack of discussion around this issue points to an underlying
sensibility to do with music making that includes, but goes beyond, those working in the
field.
A significant number of violin instructional texts that were designed for, or may
have been used by adults, have been examined for this thesis. Making sense of the texts
required a diverse range of approaches and the need for a broad sweep of secondary
literature on a variety of related subjects. The research is qualitative and historical using the
technique of discourse analysis to help formulate the two models used as a framework for
the analysis.
This thesis does not promote the efficacy of one method over another. It is also not
designed to offer a complete social history of the violin, but to highlight particular social
events and developments that have relevance to violin instruction. Through a combination
of deep textual analysis and a broad study of related social factors, the study provides a
context for viewing current attitudes towards adult violin instruction and provides
suggestions, based on that contextual view, for possible change.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
With thanks and gratitude to those friends who have helped me on my

journey.
Dr. Susan West (Supervisor)

Dr. John Diamond
Susan Burghardt-Diamond
Dr. Merrilyn Fitzpatrick Pike
Andrew Pike
Georgia Pike
I would also like to thank my past and present adult beginning violin students
who were my inspiration.
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FOR MY PARENTS
WHO GAVE ME THE GIFT OF MUSIC
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1

CHAPTER 1: SETTING THE STAGE .................................................................................................................7
1.1 My Introduction to Adult Beginners ..............................................................................................7
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................11
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................11
2.2 Qualitative Research ...................................................................................................................11
2.3 The Importance of the Texts ........................................................................................................12
2.4 The Search for Texts....................................................................................................................14
2.5 Discourse Analysis ......................................................................................................................16
2.6 Historical Research .....................................................................................................................19
2.7 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................21
2.8 The Development of Models ........................................................................................................22
2.9 Scope of the Thesis ......................................................................................................................23
2.10 Researcher Perspective ...............................................................................................................25
CHAPTER 3: MUSIC EDUCATION AND ADULTS ...........................................................................................26
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................26
3.2 Music Education..........................................................................................................................26
3.3 Music Learning and Adults .........................................................................................................33
3.4 Adult Piano Instruction ...............................................................................................................37
3.5 Adults and the Violin ...................................................................................................................42
SECTION TWO: ANALYSIS OF THE TEXTS......................................................................................52
CHAPTER 4: DESCRIPTION OF THE MODELS ...............................................................................................52
4.1 Categories ...................................................................................................................................53
4.2 Discussion of Characteristics......................................................................................................55
CHAPTER 5: ACHIEVEMENT MODEL TEXTS................................................................................................68
5.1 Introduction: The Archetype: Julius Stulberg’s A Violin Course for Adult Beginners (1938) and
Albert Lazan’s Basic Violin for Adults (1968).........................................................................................68
5.2 General First Impressions...........................................................................................................69
5.2.1 AM1 Focus on Skill Development and Accuracy................................................................69
5.2.2 AM2 Prescriptive................................................................................................................69
5.2.3 AM3 ‘Work’ Based .............................................................................................................70
5.3 Attitudes of the Author/Publisher ................................................................................................71
5.3.1 RM4 Assuming Cognitive Maturity.....................................................................................72
5.3.2 AM5 Music for Technique ..................................................................................................72
5.3.3 AM6 Accuracy Defined.......................................................................................................74
5.3.4 AM7 Stresses Practice ........................................................................................................79
5.3.5 AM8 Importance of Teacher...............................................................................................80
5.3.6 AM9 Sequenced and Progressive .......................................................................................81
5.3.7 AM10 Skill Development through Teacher or Correct Approach ......................................81
5.4 Approach to Technique ...............................................................................................................82
5.4.1 AM11 Technique Leads ......................................................................................................83
5.4.2 AM12 Emphasis on Improvement.......................................................................................84
5.4.3 AM13 Descriptions Detailed and/or Sophisticated ............................................................85
5.4.4 AM14 ‘Chunking’ of Skills to Aid Progression...................................................................86
5.4.5 AM15 More Technical Work than Music............................................................................86
5.4.6 AM16 Technical work Prerequisite for Playing Music ......................................................86
5.5 Nature of the Repertoire..............................................................................................................87
5.5.1 AM17 Emphasis on Playing Elite Art Music ......................................................................87
5.5.2 AM18 Repertoire for Improvement.....................................................................................88
5.6 Other Achievement Model Texts..................................................................................................88
5.7 General First Impressions...........................................................................................................89
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5.7.1 AM1 Focus on Skill Development and Accuracy................................................................90
5.7.2 AM2 Prescriptive................................................................................................................90
5.7.3 AM3 ‘Work’ Based .............................................................................................................91
5.8 Attitudes of the Author/Publisher ................................................................................................92
5.8.1 AM4 Linking Inexperience with Cognitive Immaturity.......................................................92
5.8.2 AM5 Music for Technique ..................................................................................................95
5.8.3 AM6 Accuracy Defined.......................................................................................................96
5.8.4 AM7 Stresses Practice ........................................................................................................99
5.8.5 AM8 Importance of Teacher.............................................................................................102
5.8.6 AM9 Sequenced and Progressive .....................................................................................104
5.8.7 AM10 Skill Development through Teacher or Correct Approach ....................................104
5.9 Approach to Technique .............................................................................................................106
5.9.1 AM11 Technique Leads ....................................................................................................106
5.9.2 AM12 Emphasis on Improvement.....................................................................................106
5.9.3 AM13 Descriptions Detailed and/or Sophisticated ..........................................................106
5.9.4 AM14 ‘Chunking’ of Skills to Aid Progression.................................................................109
5.9.5 AM15 More Technical Work than Music..........................................................................109
5.9.6 AM16 Technical Work Prerequisite for Playing Music....................................................110
5.10 Nature of the Repertoire............................................................................................................110
5.10.1 AM17 Emphasis on Playing Elite Art Music ....................................................................110
5.10.2 AM18 Repertoire for Improvement...................................................................................111
5.10.3 Conclusion........................................................................................................................111
CHAPTER 6: RECREATIONAL MODEL TEXTS ............................................................................................112
6.1 Introduction: The Archetype: Violin Instructer (1828) .............................................................112
6.2 General First Impressions.........................................................................................................112
6.2.1 RM1 Focus On Enjoyment and Ease ................................................................................113
6.2.2 RM2 Optional ...................................................................................................................113
6.2.3 RM3 Enjoyment Based......................................................................................................114
6.3 Attitudes of the Author/Publisher ..............................................................................................114
6.3.1 RM4 Assuming Cognitive Maturity...................................................................................114
6.3.2 RM5 Music for Playing.....................................................................................................115
6.3.3 RM6 Accuracy Undefined.................................................................................................115
6.3.4 RM7 Does Not Stress Practice .........................................................................................117
6.3.5 RM8 Teacher Not Considered Essential...........................................................................117
6.3.6 RM9 No Sequence or Progression....................................................................................118
6.3.7 RM10 Skill Development through Different Pathways .....................................................118
6.4 Approaches to Technique ..........................................................................................................119
6.4.1 RM11 Music Leads ...........................................................................................................120
6.4.2 RM12 No Emphasis on Improvement ...............................................................................120
6.4.3 RM13 Descriptions Simple and Concise ..........................................................................120
6.4.4 RM14 No ‘Chunking’........................................................................................................121
6.4.5 RM15 More Music than Technical Work..........................................................................122
6.4.6 RM16 No Technical Prerequisite to Play Music ..............................................................122
6.5.1 RM17 Mixed Repertoire ...................................................................................................123
6.5.2 RM18 Repertoire for Enjoyment.......................................................................................123
6.6 Other Recreational Model Texts ...............................................................................................124
6.7.1 RM1 Focus on Enjoyment and Ease .................................................................................125
6.7.2 RM2 Suggestions ..............................................................................................................127
6.7.3 RM3 Enjoyment Based......................................................................................................128
6.8.2 RM5 Music for Playing.....................................................................................................129
6.8.3 RM6 Accuracy Undefined.................................................................................................129
6.8.4 RM7 Does Not Stress Practice .........................................................................................131
6.8.5 RM8 Teacher Not Considered Essential...........................................................................132
6.8.6 RM9 No Sequence or Progression....................................................................................133
6.8.7 RM10 Skill Development through Different Pathways .....................................................133
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6.9.1 RM11 Music Leads ...........................................................................................................135
6.9.2 RM12 No Emphasis on Improvement ...............................................................................136
6.9.3 RM13 Descriptions Simple and Concise ..........................................................................136
6.9.4 RM14 No ‘Chunking’........................................................................................................137
6.9.5 RM15 More Music than Technical Work..........................................................................137
6.9.6 RM16 No Technical Prerequisite to Play Music ..............................................................137
6.10.2 RM18 Repertoire Less Sequential and More Room for Choice........................................139
CHAPTER 7: HYBRID TEXTS .....................................................................................................................140
7.1 Introduction: The Archetype: George Saunders’ New and Scientific Self-Instructing School for
the Violin (1847)....................................................................................................................................140
7.2.1 AM1/RM1Focus on Accuracy and Skill Development/Focus on Enjoyment and Ease.....141
7.2.2 AM2/RM2 Prescriptive/Optional......................................................................................142
7.2.3 AM3/RM3 Work Based/Enjoyment Based ........................................................................142
7.3.2 AM5/RM5 Music for Technique/ Music for Playing.........................................................144
7.3.3 AM6/RM6 Accuracy Defined/ Accuracy Undefined .........................................................145
7.3.4 AM7 Stresses Practice ......................................................................................................147
7.3.5 AM8/RM8 Importance of Teacher/ Teacher Not Considered Essential ...........................148
7.3.6 AM9/RM9 Sequenced and Progressive/No Sequence or Progression ..............................150
7.3.7 AM10 Skill Development Through Teacher or Correct Approach ...................................150
7.4.1 AM11/RM11 Technique Leads/Music Leads ....................................................................151
7.4.2 AM12 Emphasis on Improvement.....................................................................................152
7.4.3 AM13/RM13 Descriptions Detailed and Sophisticated/Descriptions Simple and Concise
152
7.4.4 RM14 No ‘Chunking’........................................................................................................154
7.4.5 AM15/RM15 More Technical Work than Music/More Music than Technical Work ........154
7.4.6 AM16 Technical Work Prerequisite for Playing Music....................................................154
7.5.2 AM18/RM18 Repertoire for Improvement/Repertoire for Enjoyment ..............................156
7.6 Other Hybrid Texts....................................................................................................................156
7.7.1 AM1/RM1Focus on Accuracy and Skill Development/Focus on Enjoyment and Ease.....157
7.7.2 AM2/RM2 Prescriptive/Optional......................................................................................158
7.7.3 AM3/RM3 Work Based/ Enjoyment Based .......................................................................159
7.8.1 AM4/RM4 Linking Inexperience with Cognitive Immaturity/Assuming Cognitive Maturity
159
7.8.2 AM5/RM5 Music for Technique/Music for Playing..........................................................160
7.8.3 AM6/RM6 Accuracy Defined/Accuracy Undefined ..........................................................160
7.8.4 AM7/RM7 Stresses Practice/Does Not Stress Practice ....................................................162
7.8.5 AM8/RM8 Importance of Teacher/Teacher Not Considered Essential ............................163
7.8.6 AM9/RM9 Sequenced and Progressive/No Sequence or Progression ..............................165
7.8.7 AM10/RM10 Skill Development through Teacher or Correct Approach/Skill Development
through Different Pathways..............................................................................................................166
7.9.1 AM11/RM11 Technique Leads/Music Leads ....................................................................167
7.9.2 AM12/RM12 Emphasis on Improvement ..........................................................................168
7.9.3 AM13/RM13 Descriptions Detailed and Sophisticated/Descriptions Simple and Concise
169
7.9.4 AM14/RM14 ‘Chunking’ of Skills to Aid Progression/No ‘Chunking’.............................170
7.9.5 AM15/RM15 More Technical Work than Music/More Music than Technical Work ........170
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7.9.6 AM16/RM16 Technical Work Prerequisite for Playing Music/No Technical Prerequisite to
Play Music ........................................................................................................................................170
7.10.1 AM17/RM17 Emphasis on Elite Art Music/Mixed Repertoire..........................................171
7.10.2 AM18/RM18 Repertoire for Improvement/Repertoire for Enjoyment ..............................172
7.10.3 Conclusion........................................................................................................................172
7.11 Summary/Conclusion.................................................................................................................173
SECTION THREE: PARALLELS IN CULTURAL, EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SOURCES .....176
CHAPTER 8: 1800-1840............................................................................................................................177
8.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................177
8.2 Development of Musical Life in the Colonies pre-1800 ............................................................177
8.3 Musical Life in the Early Nineteenth Century ...........................................................................182
8.4 Summary/Conclusions ...............................................................................................................189
CHAPTER 9: 1840-1905............................................................................................................................191
9.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................191
9.2 The Establishment of the American Music Industry ..................................................................192
9.3 The Influence of Europe and the Growth of the Symphonic Tradition ......................................194
9.4 Developments in the Late Nineteenth Century ..........................................................................204
9.5 Music Education and its Effect on Violin Instruction................................................................207
9.6 Summary/Conclusions ...............................................................................................................213
CHAPTER 10: 1905-PRESENT....................................................................................................................215
10.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................215
10.2 Instrumental Music Education Enters Public Schools ..............................................................215
10.3 Jazz............................................................................................................................................220
10.4 Development of Radio ...............................................................................................................224
10.5 Current Developments which Help Adults Engage with Music.................................................227
10.6 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................232
CHAPTER 11: CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................234
11.1 Ways Ahead for Adult Violin Instruction...................................................................................235
11.2 Ways Ahead for Music Teaching in General.............................................................................240
11.3 The Future .................................................................................................................................240
SECTION FOUR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................245
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Section One: INTRODUCTION
This research derives from my experiences with teaching adult beginners. I had
been teaching for ten years before I taught my first adult beginning violin student. Rather
than being an anomaly as I first supposed, I discovered over the next decade that there were
numbers of adults who wished to learn the violin. As I looked for instructional texts, books
of repertoire or other suitable materials, and even a dialogue among teachers about teaching
adult beginners, it became clear that there was little such material available. Moreover,
discussions with other violin teachers revealed a lack of interest in adult students, other
than those who were continuing from early childhood. Some of my adult students told me
they had been given the impression from some teachers they had contacted that they were
too old to learn the violin, but persevered anyway. As I began to look more closely at the
provision for adult violin students, I found other evidence of adults wanting to learn the
violin in the form of groups such as the East London Late Starters Orchestra and the New
Horizons Orchestras, both of which offered tuition in a group setting as well as the
orchestral experience. I also discovered an internet chat group, Beginning Adult Violinists
(BAVS), which was the only such group devoted solely to the subject. It was clear that
some adults did indeed want to learn the violin, but that, by and large, there was little
provision made for them.
The amount of research about adults learning to play music is growing but limited.
Research about adults learning the violin, however, is even more limited. It cannot be said
to represent a strong ‘field’ either in the area of adult learning theory or music education.
The vast majority of the focus in music education in general, and violin study in particular,
revolves around teaching children. This focus on pedagogy, while not universal, is so
prevalent, it seems clear that a high proportion of music educators do not think in terms of
andragogy, or the teaching of adults.
Regardless of the focus on children in music education, there is a significant amount

of contemporary instructional materials for adult beginning pianists. The availability of this
material suggests that there is a market for it: it is seen as worth producing and points to an
assumption that adults can and do learn to play the piano. Magazines for piano teachers
routinely publish articles on teaching adults. These articles are in the nature of advice from
one teacher to another on working with their adult students, reviews of the latest adult texts
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to be published, and suggestions of repertoire that will be easy for a beginner but not
condescending to the adult. Why is there so much adult material for the piano and not for
the violin? Is it assumed that adults can’t learn the violin? Is there no real market? Is the
lack of market created by the lack of interest from violin teachers or the other way around?
Is it because the available instructional material is considered suitable by the small numbers
who use it?
If we look back to earlier periods we see a wealth of material that could have been
used by adult beginners in the form of both instructional texts and repertoire books. Given
the lack of both a body of research and modern-day materials that are designed for adult
violin beginners, an in-depth analysis of the texts that are available seemed a logical and
useful starting place to shed more light on the subject. Since there is minimal literature in
this area, an initial study of the ‘field’ of materials was appropriate both in terms of the
materials themselves but also in terms of what the materials might reveal about the
relationship between society, adults and music learning in the twenty-first century.
This thesis explores the subject of beginning violin students from the point of view
of the instructional texts from the seventeenth to the twenty-first centuries, with the
majority of the focus on texts published in America from the nineteenth century onward. Its
subject is both historical and musical in nature, using the historical texts as a starting point
for in-depth analysis of the overt and covert attitudes displayed, and discussing these
attitudes in relation to socio-musical events of the period covered.
These instructional texts are written for beginning violin students, though often it is
not clear whether the intended audience is child or adult learners. The texts are both
European and American in origin, and presuppose no musical knowledge on the part of the
user. They include therefore, the rudiments of music reading, and descriptions of how to
hold the violin and bow. Texts published in nineteenth century America specifically for
adult amateurs are of particular interest. In looking at these texts, it is possible to gain
insight into what the attitudes towards learning the violin were at that time, how and when
they changed and when and why texts for adult beginners disappeared.
The majority of violin instruction texts, no matter when they were written, do not
specify a particular audience. The rationale behind writing a text, and for whom they are
intended, is not an area which is generally researched although there are exceptions. It
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could be argued that the texts do not specify an audience because they are intended for use
by, and are suitable for, any person who wishes to learn the violin, a one-size-fits-all
approach. However in the majority of cases the authors are really intending their audience
to be children, even, as will be demonstrated below, in texts purportedly for adults.
Not only is there a lack of information about the audience for whom the texts were
written, there is also very little information on why the authors have written the texts as
they have. We do not know why they have chosen to introduce the skills in a particular
order or why they have begun with a particular key, or their reasons for picking particular
repertoire because they do not tell us. There is little in the way of methodological detail,
and certainly no stated philosophical rationale for the content or ordering of content.
Analysis of the texts will help us to discover the explicit and implicit attitudes of the
authors about learning the violin, and what their motivations and intentions might have
been. One attitude which was surprising was the inherent bias found in texts from different
eras. The more recent texts showed a bias towards technical development whereas the
earlier texts showed a bias towards social playing. As I examined the texts more deeply, my
position began to favor that of the earlier texts. The analysis of the historical texts, which
function as primary source material, considers each text in its entirety: art and photography,
preface and other author’s comments, introduction of various skills, included repertoire, for
whom the authors may be writing, and what their educational philosophy and methodology
may be.
Lack of available information about adult beginners in violin, as well the physical
location of texts, proved a significant challenge. Analysis of the discovered materials, given
the lack of any written statements about their purpose, was equally challenging. Making
sense of the texts required a diverse range of approaches and the need for a broad sweep of
secondary literature on a variety of related subjects. Violin instructional texts from across
this wide period finally yielded a rich and meaningful canvas on which to explore attitudes
towards music learning and violin instruction from both the specific musical, and general
social, perspectives.
One of the most important areas for review in this context is the development of
music education. Music education underwent considerable changes in the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries which influenced both the teaching of music and the materials
used to teach. In the early part of the nineteenth century, music instruction was not
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standardized and could occur in a variety of ways. Self-instruction was one way, while for
the wealthy, a tutor might come to the house to give instruction. Children at boarding
school might have had private or group instruction at the school base. Lessons were also
available to the general public at music stores. Later in the century, music schools offered
larger group instruction, and the conservatories and colleges offered private instruction and
small master classes. In the late 1800s professional organizations were set up to develop a
more uniform approach to music education. Eventually, around 1913, instrumental music
education began in public schools. With development of music education in public schools,
texts were needed for that audience and thus we see the development of class methods
designed to be used by children with a particular outcome in mind. Over the course of the
century, music education became more formalized, and as a result, the instructional texts
themselves became more standardized.
While the development of music education is of great importance, the range of

materials analyzed has significance in a broader dimension. Modern music education is
obviously influenced by relevant social changes and conditions. They include the influence
of immigrants, the arrival of virtuoso performers, the social acceptability of ‘high’ and
‘low’ culture and a range of other factors including the spread of affluence, advances in
transportation, the development of recorded music and, more recently, huge technological
advances like the Internet. Aspects of all of these areas are relevant to the analysis of the
primary source materials, particularly given the lack of commentary within the texts
themselves.
This study is divided into three main sections with eleven chapters. These main
sections are:
SECTION ONE: Introduction
SECTION TWO: Analysis of the Texts
SECTION THREE: Parallels in Cultural, Education and Social Sources.
SECTION ONE comprises a statement of how the topic was developed, explains
the methodological approaches used in the thesis and contains a literature review that
discusses previous and current research done in a variety of areas pertinent to the thesis.
Chapter 1, Setting the Stage, discusses my background. This chapter is necessarily

personal since it recounts the journey I took in arriving at the topic of my research. Chapter
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2, Methodology, sets out the methodological framework and techniques used in this
qualitative research, including a discussion of the historical nature of the study and the
qualitative technique of discourse analysis. It also provides a rationale for the importance
of these texts in shedding light on current attitudes towards beginning adult violin students.
This chapter also discusses the placement of several literature reviews within the thesis, the
scope of the study and the development of the models used in the textual analysis. Chapter
3, Music Education and Adults, is a discussion of the literature on a variety of subjects
pertinent to the thesis. These include current instructional materials for adult beginning
violinists, music education, music learning and adults, pedagogy and andragogy, adult
piano instruction, development of materials for adult beginning violinists, and a discussion
of attitudes some teachers hold towards adult beginning violin students.
SECTION TWO contains a description of the two models developed for the textual
analysis, as well as the analysis of violin instructional material with the goal of ascertaining
how the texts reflect the two models and what the findings of the analysis might mean for
the adult beginning violinist.
Chapter 4, Description of the Models, describes the characteristics of the two

models used as a framework for the textual analysis. Chapter 5, Achievement Model Texts,
is an analysis of ten texts which exemplify the Achievement Model. Chapter 6,
Recreational Model Texts, is an analysis of nine texts which exemplify the Recreational
Model. Chapter 7, Hybrid Texts, is an analysis of seven texts which are hybrid or
transitional in nature.
SECTION THREE contains an overview of socio-educational-musical life in

America across the period when the analyzed texts were published. The aim is to consider
other events of this roughly two hundred year period and place the texts analyzed within
this framework. This survey has been placed after the analysis of the primary source
material in order to understand the detail discussed there in relation to this broader canvas.
These chapters offer a chronological summary of relevant events and sociological

developments, as they relate to the analysis of the texts in Section Two. In Chapter 8, 1800-
1840, the review includes the development of musical life in the American colonies, the
influence of immigrants, musical life in the early nineteenth century, the establishment of
performing groups, and early music education. Chapter 9, 1840-1905, discusses the
5
ongoing development of musical life, instrument manufacturing, music publishing,
European influences, the establishment of symphony orchestras, virtuosi and touring
orchestras, developments in music education, the growth of the symphonic tradition, the
development of the phonograph, and the appearance of ragtime and early jazz. Chapter 10,
1905-Present, describes the beginning of instrumental music education in public schools,
and discusses the appearance of jazz, the development of radio, CDs, DVDs, and the
Internet, and the founding of the New Horizons bands and orchestras. Chapter 11,
Summary/Conclusions, draws together all the information discussed in the thesis and
makes recommendations for further research.
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CHAPTER 1: Setting the Stage
1.1 My Introduction to Adult Beginners
In the early 1990s, I was in the USA making a living as a freelance musician and
teacher. I had completed both a Bachelor of Music and a Master of Music in violin
performance, and had settled in one place to make my living as a professional musician. I
played in a number of symphony orchestras, with a string quartet, and had a teaching studio
in my home. At that time I had approximately 30 students – all of them school age. The
stories related below are some of the critical incidents which aroused my interest in the
subject of this thesis and brought me to Australia to study.
At this juncture I would describe myself as a typical violin teacher. Like many, I
was not trained as a music educator but as a performer and taught, in part, to supplement
the income derived from my performing. I taught my students using my own training as a
guide. The instructional materials I used were those that I had either used myself in the
course of my training, or were those that I saw my various teachers use. I used some of the
same ideas and analogies that my teachers used, and sought to develop my students’
technique and have them progress. I did not give a great deal of thought as to why I was
teaching as I did. However, this began to change when I started working with adult
students.
I was not aware that adults wanted to learn to play the violin until I received a
telephone call from a woman named Penny who was inquiring about violin lessons for
herself rather than for a child or grandchild. Penny was not an absolute beginner, but she
had only been playing for about a year when she called me. I agreed to take her as a
student, which raised many questions. Would she be different to teach from my young
students? What materials would I use? How would I go about it? I decided I would take my
cues from her. She wasn’t a complete beginner and she would have materials from her
other teacher. I would meet her and go from there.
I was to discover that an adult wanting to learn the violin was not an anomaly as I
had first supposed. By the time I left America to come to Australia roughly half my studio
were adults who were novices when they came to me to study. As I began teaching adults
who had no prior musical and/or violin experience, I began to search for a beginning text
7
for them to use because the texts I used with my young students didn’t feel suitable for
adult beginners. After searching in the catalogues of companies that specialized in string
music I quickly learned that there were no materials being published specifically for adults.
Other local violin teachers didn’t know of anything for adults and those who actually had
adults in their studios said that they used what they had for their school age students. The
question was why was there a lack of materials, particularly since it was becoming quite
clear that adults wanted to learn?
I also discovered some teachers didn’t want to work with adult beginners. One of
my students, Walter, told me that he had had great difficulty finding a teacher, that the
numerous teachers he had called were not interested in working with an adult beginner. As
I was, by this point, really enjoying my adult students I found this curious.
I learned that my adult students had a variety of motivations which led them to
begin to study and an assortment of goals to accomplish. For example, Penny had inherited
her father’s violin which was one motivation for her to play, but her husband also played
the trumpet and she wanted to be able to share music making with him. Harold and Will
wanted to play familiar tunes; Betty wanted to be able to participate in a folk music festival
she had been attending for several years as an observer; Julie had always wanted to learn
but didn’t have the chance as a child; Walter wanted to learn so he could play at Mass; Kim
wanted to play with her granddaughters who were budding violinists; and Daniel wanted to
play the violin because it was a family tradition.
What I did notice was that most of them wanted to play with others in some social
situation, whether it was with family, or informal music making at a jam session at a
festival, or with other musicians at Mass, or with other adult students. For example, playing
duets in lessons gave some of my students their first ensemble experience in addition to the
benefit of helping them be less nervous and have fun. However, I also came to realize that
ensemble experiences for the beginning violinist were difficult to find as most local groups
were at a high standard of playing. Some of my students solved that problem by forming
their own ensemble, meeting weekly to play familiar tunes, help each other and enjoy the
camaraderie.
Through working with these students, I began to question my teaching practices.

These were adults – should I teach them in the same way I taught children? They had a
8
variety of goals and musical interests – should I expect them to learn the same music or
type of music as my young students? For example, one student was given lessons by his
sister-in-law. He was self-taught and had learned to play tunes by ear. His sister-in-law was
studying with me, felt that he didn’t play properly and the gift of lessons was her way of
encouraging him to study. Did he have ‘perfect’ positions? They were not exactly what you
would see in an orchestra of classically trained musicians, but certainly he was able to play
the tunes he liked in a way that made him happy. I offered him suggestions which made his
sound better and was able to help him add to his repertoire of tunes. After a time I decided
not to insist that he play with the ‘perfect’ classical style positions. If he were happy with
what he was doing and able to play the repertoire of his choice, was it necessary for me to
insist on perfection in this regard? He did not desire to play in an orchestra or play much
classical music so did he really need to play with ‘perfect’ positions?
I also began to wonder if I was presenting the violin in the best way for my adult
students. For example, Walter had a particular goal for his study; he wanted to be able to
play the violin at Mass. He was a very diligent student, learned quickly, and over the course
of the time I worked with him he reached a level of playing where he was able to use some
of the higher positions and play fairly complicated repertoire. However, he never did play
for Mass because he never felt that he was good enough to do so though in my opinion he
was more than capable. He clearly believed that he had to be at a very high standard before
he could play in public. Why did he feel that way? Why did he feel he had to be ‘good’
before playing in public – even for something like Mass where his music would have been
part of the worship?
I began to wonder why I was the one choosing the repertoire for my adult students?
Mightn’t it be better if they had some say? Julie was the student that made me consider this
issue, which had not occurred to me previously, in common with many other music
teachers. She became particularly interested in a piece which was quite difficult when
compared to other pieces she was learning. Not only did she like the sound of the piece, she
was excited because it was a movement of a concerto and she had never played a concerto
before. Even though I knew it would be very difficult for her to learn and I wasn’t sure she
was ready for it, I decided to let her try and see what happened. Though it did take her a
long time to learn it, she was happy to spend time on it.
9
Since my experience with Julie I have allowed my students more freedom in
choosing what they wish to play. I have discovered that if a student really likes a piece,
even if it is very difficult, the end (being able to play the desired piece) is worth the means
(the amount of time spent on it). It seems a reasonable assumption that if students are able
to play what they like, they are more likely to continue to like playing.
I also began to see signs that many adults are affected by their early training. Daniel
is a case in point. One day in his lesson he commented on how different my approach was
to his previous teacher and told me that the other teacher would hit his hands when he did
something wrong rather than explaining what was happening and how to fix it. I was
amazed that this man stayed with the teacher until he moved to the city where I was living.
Daniel seemed to believe that such a mode of teaching was acceptable, possibly because
similar events had occurred in his childhood, though I cannot say that for certain.
My teaching changed as I worked with successive adult students. I was now helping
the students learn what they wanted, not just what I thought they needed to learn in order to
be ‘good’ players. I was no longer teaching them using abundant technical work, but rather
choosing to help them learn new skills by suggesting pieces that used those skills. I was
incorporating more chamber music in the lessons, playing duets as a way of making music
with my students.
At this time, through the auspices of a medical doctor (not, interestingly enough, a
music educator), I became aware of a different paradigm of music education being
practiced in Australia by Susan West at the Australian National University. The approach
being developed at the ANU aligned with my own work. My desire to help my adult
students and offer them a different learning experience led me to Australia to begin my
PhD.
10
CHAPTER 2: Methodology
2.1 Introduction
This chapter summarizes the methods used in developing a structure for analyzing
the violin instructional texts and conceptualizing findings to highlight the issues involved.
A range of methodologies are used, all qualitative and inductive in nature including content
analysis, discourse analysis, historical research, and comprehensive literature reviews that
relate to the various issues involved in the principal research. The methodologies are
discussed below and include a description of the development of the models that are used in
the analysis of violin instructional material in Section Two.
2.2 Qualitative Research

This study focuses on violin instructional material over two centuries, examining,
analyzing and interpreting the content of those texts in order to shed light on the way in
which adult violin beginners are perceived and serviced today. The research in this thesis is
qualitative in nature. Arsenault and Anderson (1998) define qualitative research as: ‘a form
of inquiry that explores phenomena in their natural settings and uses multi-methods to
interpret, understand, explain and bring meaning to them’ (p.119).
Looking at the phenomena in a broad context is another aspect of qualitative

research. Patton (2002), for example, describes qualitative research as holistic and says: ‘a
description and interpretation of a person’s social environment...is essential for overall
understanding’ (p.59). While the central element of this thesis is violin instructional texts
rather than people, Preston’s statement still applies. Violin texts are, obviously, written by
individuals. The instructional material can tell us how particular authors and publishers
viewed learning the violin.
At the same time, placing the violin instructional material in the context of the
social environment that existed when it was published allows us to identify factors that may
have influenced those authors and publishers and effected change in those materials. The
texts are both a product of their time but also a contribution to the musical culture of that
time in a cyclical relationship.
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The development of a method for studying the texts was somewhat organic in that
the specific subject of the research was modified due to the findings revealed through
textual searches, requiring a development of the methodology. At the same time, a range of
different approaches was used for the analysis. The general approach was inductive in
nature. Patton (2002) says that induction ‘begins with specific observations and builds
towards general patterns’ (p.56). In examining the violin instructional material, specific
elements were observed which made it possible, after reviewing the material numerous
times, to define particular characteristics or patterns in the manner of instruction. The
emerging patterns were hand coded and revised, altered and/or elaborated through
numerous review cycles to help develop a model that aided final analysis.
One aspect of qualitative research that is relevant to this study is that of the
researcher’s perspective. As Arsenault and Anderson (1998) comment: ‘the researcher's
perspective also influences what might be found’ (p.119). As I shall be arguing in the next
section, lack of information in this area is problematic largely because there does not
appear to be a body of research, let alone research undertaken by expert violinists and
violin teachers. I undertook this study as both an expert player and an experienced teacher,
but also as a teacher who has extensive experience working with adult beginning violin
students, an anomaly in itself. My experience with adult students, as discussed in Chapter
One, suggests that adults have a variety of goals and wish to have a social outlet for their
playing which is not clearly or adequately addressed in the violin instructional material
currently available. This perspective has influenced the subject and direction of this thesis.
It was necessary to examine a broad range of areas in this study because of the
general lack of information about adults learning the violin. The small amount of existing
research will be detailed in Chapter Three. To present a more complete picture of current
views of adults learning the violin, evidence must be gathered from a variety of musical and
socio-historical sources. Additionally, a variety of methods need to be brought to bear on
the research as there is no single methodology that provides a specific fit for this purpose.
2.3 The Importance of the Texts

As far as can be ascertained through a careful survey of literature, there is no
evidence of any close analysis of violin instructional texts as undertaken in this study.
12
Given this fact, two questions present themselves: why are there no such studies and why
do one now? In fact, these two questions are related, as shall be seen.
Initially this research was not designed to focus primarily on instructional texts.
Information on texts as well as other discussion on the general field of adult violin
instruction was to be covered as part of the literature review. The bulk of the research was
to be case studies with adult beginning violin students. The case study method involved
trialing a variety of approaches to violin instruction with beginning adult students using a
range of methods to collect data on outcomes and attitudes towards the instruction and
analyzing that data to provide suggestions for alternative approaches for adult violin
beginners. In addition, qualitative questionnaires were designed for both adult violin
students and violin teachers to throw more light on an under-studied area.
While the case studies were begun and the questionnaires were being sent, research
in other areas continued. In reviewing the literature, it became evident that certain violin
pedagogues such as Auer, Rolland, Havas, Galamian and Suzuki, were discussed in the
literature to a certain degree. However, there exists a significant volume of violin
instructional material that was not discussed at all. This violin instructional material
included texts for adults and children as well as materials used in school programs across
the United States. Why was this material not studied? One possibility is that these texts
were not considered important or innovative enough for in-depth study, particularly when
compared with the contributions of the people listed above. For example, Suzuki’s method
was revolutionary at the time of its introduction and continues to influence instrumental
teaching today; Havas’s contribution is innovative in its quest to keep players injury free;
and Galamian was considered one of the most important teachers of the twentieth century.
Their status and innovations make them obvious choices to study. However, it could be
argued that many more people are influenced by these entry level texts because they are, or
were, used by a large number of beginning violin students.
Another reason for the lack of study of the particular type of violin instructional
material analyzed in this thesis is the focus on the adult beginner. As is shown in Section
One, Chapter Three, the study of adult involvement in instrumental instruction is limited
and the study of adult violin instruction is more limited still. For reasons which will be
discussed throughout this dissertation, the adult beginning violin student does not appear to
13
have registered as an important and even growing area in music education worthy of more
attention.
An in-depth study of this ‘entry level’ adult violin instructional material is

important and necessary because these types of texts are often the gateway to how students
view learning and whether or not they continue to engage with the instrument. One could
view the texts simply as ‘how-to’ manuals, but this would be doing the authors a disservice.
Texts from different eras can be viewed as a repository of ideas and attitudes about learning
the violin at those times. To date there has been no serious attempt to examine and compare
violin instructional material over a large period of time with the goal of determining the
explicit and implicit messages the author presents to the student and in turn discussing how
those messages impacted on the student and the social attitudes towards adult violin
learning today.
A study of this nature is timely now because while there is an increasing population
of adults beginning the violin, there is little instructional material currently available. It
became evident, however, through the acquisition of violin instructional material from the
nineteenth century, that at one time there was an abundance of material for the adult
amateur student. Analysis of these texts provided a wealth of information about changing
attitudes towards violin study and showed how particular changes informed the view held
today about adults learning the violin. A review of socio-historical source material was
accessed in order to consider why the instruction offered in the texts changed when it did.
2.4 The Search for Texts

The search for violin instructional texts written for adults took place in three phases
which were determined by the relative difficulties in locating texts both geographically and
physically. In summary these phases were:
1. An initial search which uncovered a body of material currently available

in the USA.
2. A search for historical texts based on listings by Pulver (1923/24) and

Eddy (1990).
3. The uncovering of texts as a result of secondary research on other factors

that influenced the style, content and marketing of instructional texts.
14
The first phase involved collecting texts currently available in the United States
that stated they were for adult beginners. Catalogues from companies specializing in string
music, such as Shar Products Company and Southwest Strings, were searched. One text,
The ABC’s of Violin for the Absolute Beginner by Janice Tucker Rhoda (2000), stated it
was for both children and adults, but it was the only text found that specifically included
adults as an audience. The other texts either did not specify an audience or were clearly
written for children. Searching for texts for adults in the WorldCat database yielded two
that were out of print. The first was Stulberg’s A Violin Method for Adult Beginners (1938);
the second was Yost’s The Yost Violin Method (1946), which like the Rhoda above stated it
was for both children and adults.
The second phase was initiated through locating two articles about violin methods.
The first was Jeffery Pulver’s (1923/24) “Violin Methods Old and New”; the second was
Alexandra Eddy’s (1990) “American Violin Method-Books and European Teachers,
Geminiani to Spohr”. Pulver discusses a number of texts from the seventeenth, eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries and made particular note that some texts, mostly self-instructing,
were written for amateurs and others were written for professionals. Pulver is one of the
few writers to discuss these texts and the audience for whom they were written. Eddy’s
article is a detailed discussion of violin instructional texts published in America during the
nineteenth century. Her goal was to show the extent to which these texts – again intended
for the amateur rather than the professional – borrowed from and, indeed, very often
plagiarized texts written by particular European masters. Included in the article is a list of
all the violin instructional material published in the United States during the nineteenth
century that Eddy had found.
As in the Pulver article, Eddy indicated that the majority of the texts written for
amateurs were self-instructing, which by their very nature were not intended for children.
The majority of these texts are not discussed in violin pedagogy circles today and do not
appear to be widely known. However, because they are written for the amateur adult player,
they are of central importance to this research, especially given the general lack of modern
materials available.
Locating these texts, as well as obtaining copies for analysis proved time consuming
since there is no single repository for such texts and the nature of the material caused
inconsistencies in cataloging. Extensive study of some texts was inhibited by the fragile
15
nature of the manuscripts, particularly with some older manuals like the Ole Bull
Instruction Book (1845). Despite difficulties in locating and viewing texts a substantial and
representative sample was obtained.
The New York Public Library housed some of the texts that Eddy listed. More texts
were housed in the Library of Congress [LoC] which had a wealth of violin instructional
material, including texts not listed by Eddy and Pulver. Much European instructional
material including in the LoC collection was not relevant to this study, but some significant
examples were accessed for comparison with USA material that arose from that European
tradition.
The third phase of searching for violin instructional texts helps to clarify the
difficulties in accessing relevant material. While researching the development of music
education in public schools in America from its inception to the early twentieth century, a
book by Sollinger (1974) titled String Class Publications in the United States, 1851-1951,
was uncovered. Within the comprehensive listing of texts in Sollinger’s book were a few
that were designed to be suitable for both young and adult beginners in groups. However,
even though Sollinger sourced his listed texts to the Library of Congress, the items could
not be viewed. The researcher assigned to my requests reported that five of the six items
were no longer in their catalogue and the sixth item (the only extant copy) was damaged
and too fragile to copy by any means.
One can see from this description that even dogged determination could not uncover
some material that may have been relevant. However, it was possible to obtain a substantial
body of texts from the various decades of the nineteenth century to the present day from
which to sustain the research and fulfill the scope of the thesis [see below]. Given the
exhaustive nature of the search, the examining of a large proportion of published materials,
the obtaining of copies of a significant number of the most relevant for more detailed
analysis, and use of secondary sources like Sollinger to consider the contents of texts no
longer extant, this study can claim to be representative of the range of materials published
across the wide period under discussion.
2.5 Discourse Analysis

While this study is largely concerned with the analysis of the content of violin
instructional manuals, it does not specifically fit the detailed criteria for content analysis as
16
described by writers such as Bailey (1978), Borg (1963) and Travers (1964). Bailey (1978),
for example, indicates that the method of content analysis will appeal to ‘researchers
interested in the more traditionally scientific or quantitative sort of hypothesis testing’
(p.276). He goes on to say that:
The basic goal of content analysis is to take a verbal, nonquantitative document and
transform it into quantitative data. The results of content analysis can generally be
presented in tables containing frequencies or percentages in the same manner of survey
data (p.276).
However, content analysis can be viewed from a broader perspective. Patton (2002)
says that:
More generally…content analysis is used to refer to any qualitative data reduction and
sense-making effort that takes a volume of qualitative material and attempts to identify
core consistencies and meanings (p.453).
The analysis of the violin texts in this study can be described as content analysis in
this general sense. The aim has been to find the ‘core consistencies’, and use those
consistencies to describe particular characteristics in order to understand the attitude of the
author towards violin instruction, consider how that attitude affects the students using that
text, and place both author and text in its socio-historical context with regard to the overall
effect on adult violin learning.
Chimombo and Roseberry (1998), state that the purpose of discourse analysis is to
‘gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of texts.’ While the word discourse might
imply the analysis of speech or conversation, it is also a way to analyze written texts. The
discourse here in this context is the ‘conversation’ between the teacher, in the form of the
violin instructional text, and the student.
One of the goals of this study is to use the detailed analysis of violin instructional
texts to ascertain the views of the authors of those texts in order to show how those views
affect the student and reveal historical and contemporary attitudes. However, a problem in
discussing these views is that it is very rare for authors of violin texts to write clearly or at
any length about their beliefs and attitudes. Indeed, one aspect of the argument presented
here is that the authors themselves may not be fully aware of the underlying philosophical
position they are adopting; that some aspects of music education are socially embedded in a
way that is unconsciously recognized and accepted by teachers and students without deep
thought or analysis. The full attitude or intent, including what can be described as the
‘hidden curriculum’ of the author, can therefore only be ascertained by looking at the text
17
in its entirety and extrapolating their beliefs from the way they present the various
elements. The attitude or intent of the author is important because of the way it might
impact upon the student’s learning experience and his/her future engagement in music
making, as well as indicating more general points about the development of music
education.
Discourse analysis takes into account the fact that a text may contain elements other
than words that can be analyzed. Chimombo and Roseberry define a text as follows:
A text is commonly thought of as consisting of written or printed words on a page; but a

text may also consist of sign language or spoken words, or it may comprise only the
thoughts of a writer, or speaker, on the one hand, or a reader or listener, on the other. In
addition to words, a text may consist of other symbols, sounds, gestures, or silences, in
any combination that is intended to communicate information such as ideas, emotional
states, and attitudes (p.ix).
The purpose of violin texts is to communicate a method of acquiring the skills a
person needs to play the violin. In order to do this, the texts contain a variety of elements,
including words, pictures, illustrations, and musical examples all of which can give clues to
underlying attitudes. It is not only what information is apparent but how the teacher
presents the information which is important. For example, the order in which items are
introduced, repertoire that is included, and what the author says or does not say to the
student, all reflect how the teacher views learning and playing the violin.
Discourse analysis also seeks to identify the goals of the author. Chimombo and
Roseberry (1998) say that: ‘Because most texts are goal oriented, part of the purpose of
discourse analysis is to enable people to recognize the intended goal of the writer or
speaker and thus achieve some measure of control over the discourse’ (p.ix-x). Authors of
violin texts clearly have some goals in mind when writing their texts which may or may not
relate to the goals of the adults using them. The explicit goal of violin instructional texts is
to teach students the basics of playing the violin, but an implicit goal can be the purpose for
which the violin is being played and whether or not that is transmitted to the reader. In
identifying the underlying intent of the author we can then determine how the implied goals
might have an impact on students and how they view their own goals. Discourse analysis
allows us to look for the subtler messages the author is sending the student through the text,
thus allowing us to see how this subtext can influence students and their attitude towards
learning and playing the violin.
18
Another important feature of discourse analysis is that it also takes into account the
social context of the texts under discussion. In discussing how to interpret a text,
Chimombo and Roseberry (1998) opine that the context:
has its roots in the culture and the situation, including the interpersonal and intertextual
relationships that gave rise to it. At its most general level, the context is the culture. How
people in their societies view the world and their place in it is a crucial part of
understanding the texts they create (p.5).
Placing the texts within a socio-historical context can help inform us about why
authors present the instruction in the way they do. As the authors of the texts are influenced
by society, so society, and those learning to play the violin, are influenced by the texts.
2.6 Historical Research

By collecting and reviewing violin instructional texts from several centuries and
considering the findings from a socio-historical perspective, the research presented in this
study included elements of historical research. Fundamentals of Educational Research
(Anderson, 1998) defines historical research as:
past-oriented research which seeks to illuminate a question of current interest by an

intensive study of material that already exists. The research is intended to help
understand or explain what went on and perhaps to predict into the future. The
motivation is to describe something that has not been fully described before (p.94).
The ‘question of current interest’ in this study is what changes have occurred in
violin instruction that have resulted in a present-day lack of materials for and discussion
about adults learning the violin even while there seems to be interest from adults wishing to
learn.
Previous limited research and analysis discussed in this thesis does not focus on the
development of contemporary attitudes and practices in adult violin instruction. The aim of
this study was to consider the current problem for adult violin beginners in a longitudinal
fashion reflected through the materials published in the last two hundred years. By looking
to the past, we seek to inform the present.
Historical research, some writers argue, can be applied to questions of education

such as the one posed here. Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2000) assert that historical
research can ‘yield insights into some educational problems that could not be achieved by
any other means’ (p.159). Stevens (1981) speaks of historical research in regard to music
education in a way that is particularly relevant to this study:
19
The careful and critical investigation and description of past people, practices,
movements, institutions and materials involved in both music teaching and music
learning in order to establish facts or truths and to draw conclusions (p.4).
Historical research relies on a range of sources, both primary and secondary. The
primary source material in this instance is the instructional materials analyzed. Researchers
define primary sources in different ways. Gottschalk (1950) defines primary sources as:
the testimony of an eyewitness, or of a witness by any other of the senses, or of a

mechanical device like the Dictaphone – that is, of one who or that which was present at
the events of which he or it tells. A primary source must thus have been produced by a
contemporary of the events it narrates (p.53).
Cohen et al, (2000) define primary sources as ‘those items that are original to the
problem under study’ (p.161). The violin instructional texts are the primary sources of
information on teaching the violin across the period under discussion. In order to ascertain
the attitudes of the authors/publishers of violin texts towards the adult violin student over
the course of the two centuries, it was necessary to extrapolate that information from the
texts because other sources of information do not exist. The texts are our primary and, in
some cases, only, source of information about how violin teaching was approached. In
relation to Gottschalk’s definition, above, the authors of the texts are clearly contemporary
to the ‘events’ they ‘narrate’: the production of manuals that highlight, through the delivery
of the material, the attitudes and norms from whence they came.
Discussion of violin instructional books as ‘texts’, should not be confused in this

context with ‘textbooks.’ Borg (1963) defines a textbook as one that:
combines the work of many other persons and simplifies or eliminates much of the
technical material that is not of interest to the general reader, thus providing a quick and
relatively easy method of obtaining a good overall understanding of the field (p.41).
The violin instructional material being discussed here does not seek to provide the
student with an ‘overall understanding’ of the field of violin pedagogy, but rather provides
a ‘how to’ approach to playing the violin. The texts themselves do not provide a history of
violin playing but are a practical guide to playing the instrument. Certainly the texts do
contain the work of ‘many other persons’ if one considers the composers of the repertoire,
but this is in the service of providing the student with music to play.
Borg (1963) also says that: ‘Most secondary sources such as textbooks contain a
bibliography listing the sources from which the material was obtained so that the student
can generally locate the primary source’ (p.41). Violin instructional material does not
contain bibliographical material, even when perhaps it should. In addition, much of the
20
material contained within the texts, in the form of technical material, repertoire, and ideas
are original to the author.
The historical nature of this research applies to the analysis of primary textual
source material and also to the study of a range of secondary source material giving broader
details of the periods concerned. In order to help understand the findings observed in the
analysis of the instructional material, it was necessary to put them in a social context and
look for supporting evidence in that secondary material. This meant examining a variety of
sources other than violin instructional material. A broad-ranging survey of literature
considered pertinent to the texts included history, social history, and the history of music
education.
2.7 Literature Review

The literature review for this thesis is wide-ranging and includes literature on
adult/lifelong learning, current literature on music education and adults, adult piano study,
adult violin students, and a social, historical and educational survey across the entire period
from which instructional texts have been selected. While it is common to place reviewed
literature at the beginning of the discussion, this practice has been varied slightly here in
order to best inform the different areas under discussion. The literature review sections are
as follows:
• In Section One, Chapter Three: Contemporary Music Education, adults

and education, adults and instrumental study prior to the textual analysis;
• In Section Two: Literature relating specifically to the texts and their

analysis as part of the textual analysis;
• In Section Three: Social, historical, and education survey after the textual
analysis.
Literature relevant to contemporary attitudes [Section One, Chapter Three] leads the
discussion because it illustrates the current thinking regarding adults learning music in
general and the violin in particular, thus placing the following discussion of the historical
texts against the modern perspective. A small amount of literature that relates specifically
to the texts and their analysis will be discussed in Section Two of the thesis in the analysis
itself. This placement gives immediacy to the discussion of the instructional texts and their
21
analysis. The literature review of social/historical/educational conditions are in Section
Three as this literature is being examined in relation to the findings of the preceding textual
analysis in Section Two. The analysis of the violin texts invites comparison with
sociological phenomenon occurring over the course of two centuries in order to understand
better our current situation regarding adult beginning violinists. The survey is broad, rather
than deep, in scope because there are a number of social forces which influence the
development of music, music instructional material and music making.
2.8 The Development of Models

Initial study of the twenty-six texts analyzed in this study was both enlightening and
confusing in a number of ways. For example, it was enlightening to see certain unspoken
attitudes represented strongly in more than one text; it was confusing in that those attitudes
often held inherent contradictions. The breadth of material, its composition, and the stages
at which material was acquired all required multiple cycles of reexamination of the entire
collection in order to make useful comparisons. Through these repeated examinations it
became evident that there were clear differences and similarities among the texts, as well as
undeniable confusions.
Music instruction material is often as significant for what it does not say as for
what it does say. It can be argued, as indeed, some writers do [see Chapter Three below]
that music education adopts positions that are assumed without a great deal of questioning.
Such stances affect written materials as well as teaching practices. At the same time, one
cannot assume those assumptions are at work, particularly when viewing materials across
such a large time span. It became necessary to find a way to reduce and work with the
wealth of material in order to better compare and contrast that material and draw
conclusions. The method employed needed to be able to draw conclusions about the texts
under study in an objective manner.
To this end, two contrasting models were developed and used as a framework for
textual examination. These models, described in detail in Chapter Four, represent two
contrasting approaches to violin instruction that, on the one hand, lean towards a more
formal, achievement focused goal or, on the other, to a more social, recreational approach
to learning. They include eighteen pairs of antonyms arranged into four groups that relate to
different aspects of tuition, as evidenced in the texts.
22
The extreme or ‘pure’ form of each model was represented in at least one, and
sometimes more than one text which became the archetype for that model. Additionally, a
group of texts emerged that appear to embody the confusion that occurs between these two
models. This third group is conceptualized not so much as a third, independent model, but
as an ‘in-between’ or Hybrid Model, that evidences various aspects of both the
Achievement Model and the Recreational Model, sometimes leaning one way, and
sometimes the other.
The Models and their characteristics will be discussed in detail in Chapter Four.
2.9 Scope of the Thesis

The subject of violin instruction is a large and currently under-studied field. The
subject of adult beginning violin instruction is particularly unrepresented in both academic
and instructional writings. Deep study of any particular aspect of the field is also lacking.
This thesis aims to provide depth in one particular area through the analysis of instructional
texts that might be deemed appropriate for adult beginners, and breadth through positioning
the analysis of those historical and contemporary texts within a broader discussion of
historical, social and educational influences.
First, this study is focused on the adult beginning violin student rather than young
beginners. Adult beginning violin students can be considered to fall into two categories.
The first category is those who are already highly trained on an instrument or as a singer
but who are new to the violin. The second group contains those adults who have not played
the violin and who may not have much experience with musical training. It is the latter
category with which we are most specifically concerned: adults who are, to all intents and
purposes, musical beginners as well as violin beginners.
Secondly, it is limited to certain types of violin instructional texts. The texts chosen
for analysis here are of two types.
The first texts to be included in the study are instructional texts that state
specifically that they have been written for adults or written for both adults and children.
This focus on the adult student eliminates methods that were designed for very young
children such as Suzuki and Colorstrings. It also eliminates the types of text known as
‘class methods’. While adults can certainly learn in a class or group situation, class methods
were developed for use in school orchestra programs which have an audience of child
23
beginners rather than adult students. Also eliminated are any instructional texts that
concentrate on only one style of playing such as bluegrass or Scottish fiddling. The focus
instead is on those texts which can be considered an introduction to any style of playing.
There is a second group of texts included that, while they do not state their
audience, can be considered to be for adults. This second type of text includes those that are
designed to be self-instructing. By their very nature, self-instructing texts are intended more
for the adult student than the child learner. The student using a self-instructing text needs to
be able to read and comprehend the instructions, sometimes written in fairly sophisticated
language, and put them into action.
Of the materials available that fit the above criteria, further limiting factors were
included that were designed to make the study manageable without affecting its general
validity. One should not presuppose any musical knowledge on the part of any beginning
violin student, so only those texts which offered information on how to hold the violin and
bow, and covered the rudiments of musical notation were included as they are the type of
text most likely to be chosen by the teacher of a beginning student or by the beginning
students themselves.
The study was limited by the difficulty of locating and obtaining extant violin
instructional material, particularly that from the nineteenth century. However, texts
representing almost every decade in the nineteenth century were procured as well as
pertinent twenty- and twenty-first century texts. Given the results of the analysis in Section
Two, they can be considered to comprise a representative sample.
Texts were also limited geographically. The United States offered a rich source of
violin instructional texts, particularly of the self-instructing type, in part due to its
pioneering background which will be discussed in detail in Section Three of the thesis.
Choosing the United States also allowed the study of a body of work that carried influences
from Europe and other traditions which had implications for the findings. The US also
represents a large, cohesive social environment that makes it possible to draw general
conclusions about music education in that country, while still offering possible conclusions
for other democracies that might have been influenced by the US, such as Australia.
Therefore, the texts analyzed in Section Two of this thesis were published in the
United States from 1800 to the present day. According to Eddy (1990), who has provided a
24
comprehensive list of all violin instructional material published in the United States up to
the twentieth century, there is little that appears prior to the nineteenth century. Excluded
by virtue of their European origin and their intended audience (advanced students) are
treatises such as those by Geminiani and Leopold Mozart, and etude books by composers
such as Mazas, Kreutzer, and Campagnoli. European material is also excluded in that it was
designed for young beginners in order to propel them to a high standard of playing thus
making it unsuitable for the study here. Certain European authors of treatises and
instructional material, such as Geminiani and Kreutzer, are related to the texts under study
here in that many of the nineteenth century self-instructing texts borrowed or plagiarized
from their works (Eddy 1990), but as will be shown did so with a completely different
sensibility.
2.10 Researcher Perspective

Before undertaking the research in this thesis, I was a professional violin player and
teacher. As will be shown, little analysis exists of how and/or why violin teaching is
approached as it is, and there are few reflective writings by practitioners.
The divide between practitioners and academic arguments about aspects of music
education is well documented in the literature [see Chapter Three]. My aim was to bring my
extensive practical experience to an academic discussion of violin teaching, particularly in
relation to the adult beginner, both to provide some reflection of my own practice and
develop an argument that might provide a means of reflection for others. As a practicing
violinist and teacher, I am interested in bringing both a musical and theoretical perspective
to my analysis by providing a framework that other practitioners can relate to. The models
described here, based on primary source material, have implications for violin teachers, but
also for music education in general, and are designed to be useful in encouraging discussion
and debate.
My desire is to make this discussion accessible to and understandable by the

practitioner, because thinking about and reflecting on how one’s practice has affected
students is an important undertaking. The presentation of the research here opens up the
discussion for any who wish to participate and examine their own teaching philosophies.
The models themselves provide a way of looking at teaching methodology in a more
objective and non-judgmental way.
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CHAPTER 3: Music Education and Adults
3.1 Introduction
This chapter highlights the central issue of the thesis and summarizes the literature
in a number of areas relevant to the discussion. The main issue is the lack of instructional
materials for the adult beginning violin student. This dearth of materials raises questions
about why this is the case. Is there only an absence of violin instructional materials or is
there a paucity of research about adults and music generally and the violin specifically? Is
research being undertaken by music educators, by those in the field of adult education or
both?
3.2 Music Education

This study is primarily concerned with instrumental learning by adults, particularly
beginner adults. There is a growing body of research about adults and music which includes
research into instrumental learning, most particularly piano. [see below] This topic,
however, cannot be approached without consideration of certain aspects of music
education. Interestingly, discussion of music education is not as central as one might
imagine to the discussion at hand on adult violin beginners. As will be noted, music
education is not largely concerned with adults at all, the growing field of ‘lifelong learning’
notwithstanding.
Music education as a field is not age specific, but the bulk of the literature deals
with music in formal compulsory schooling. There is some logic in this focus on children,
given the general agreement that an on-going relationship with music begins in early
childhood (Wilkin, 1985; Gifford, 1985; Woodward et.al., 1992; Temmerman, 1995). It is
not so much music education research, which conceivably could include all age groups, as
research into music in education which centers on the formal, compulsory school years
(Ross, 1998; Pitts et.al., 2000; Lehmann, 2002). This focus in the literature fosters the
impression that music is something done only in school as a child (Pitts, et.al. 2000).
Paynter (1976) says: ‘To the average person, education is something that happens in school
so that one way or another, education stops when one’s time at the institution…comes to an
end’ (p.22)
26
The idea that learning music is something done principally during the school years
leaves the adult learner in a difficult position. The focus of the music education industry is,
first, on providing suitable opportunities for children. Indeed, McPherson (2005) has
extensively studied achievement in relation to continued engagement in school age
children. The assumption is, perhaps, that if children are well provided for musically that
they will continue making music into adulthood, thus increasing adult participation in
music. Given the statistics on adult music making discussed below that doesn’t seem to be
the case. Additionally, while there is some concern for the lack of adult music making,
there is not as much as one might like to see (Forrester, 1975; West 2007).
Adults learn non-musical subjects after the school years; the existence of the field of
adult learning and the enormous amount of research it generates bears testament to that
(Knowles, 1972, 1990; Fischer, 1998; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999; Hill, 2000; Vella,
2000;). There is also interest in lifelong learning (Machover, 1990; Tight, 1998; MacNeil,
1998). How does music fit in?
Looking first at an existing program for adults, rather than research into adults and
music, there is one clear example of an adult-oriented program in the New Horizons Band
and Orchestra program. This program will be discussed in detail in Section Three but a
brief discussion here will highlight some of the difficulties for adults learning music.
The New Horizons Program was founded by Dr Roy Ernst in 1991 (Freiberg, 2002).
Originally a band program, it has expanded to include orchestras. This program seeks to
engage and/or re-engage adults with music making. No experience in playing an instrument
is necessary; the program offers instruction as well as a social outlet for the participants.
Ernst comes from a music education background, and while each conductor has the
freedom to run his group in his own way, the program itself is modeled on band/orchestra
programs used with children in schools. One participant in an orchestra program noted that
they were taught ‘just like in elementary school’ (Freiberg, 2002, p.93).
A big issue for the Program is the lack of, or the appropriateness of, materials for
the adult student. This problem is not specific to this program but affects instrumental
education for adults in general (Ernst, 2001), with the notable exception of the piano.
Coffman (2002, p.137) illustrates the dilemma teachers have, in choosing a beginning
method to use with his New Horizons band. He chose a book that ‘contained a large
27
proportion of tunes [he] believed they would recognize’ but ‘wanted to avoid excessively
‘cute’ texts containing cartoons or statements that children find amusing, but adults
typically view as banal’. This is a difficult task because beginning band and orchestra
methods are designed for children learning in school. This lack of appropriate materials for
adults means that adults are being taught in a situation similar to that of school, using
materials designed for children.
Generally speaking, the goals of children’s instructional material focus on

improvement through the development of skills. In music, that translates to acquiring and
improving technique. Technique often appears to be the first priority in music learning.
Barenboim (1977, p.41) describes the ‘acquisition of instrumental-technical skills’ as
particularly important ‘at the early stage’ of the learning process. His assertion of
developing technique as a primary concern is supported by Schafer (1973), Leonhard
(1999), Davidson, Pitts & Correia (2001), and Reid (2001). Cameron & Carlisle (2004,
p.31) concur and say: ‘A dominant goal of traditional music education is to create an
exceptional product’. It is not enough for the students to improve; they are being steered to
a high level of achievement. How does one develop good technique? By practicing.
Practice is necessary in order to improve one’s playing. West (2007, p.82) says: ‘Practice is
considered essential to improvement, and improvement is considered essential’.
This focus on technique is seen as problematic by some writers (Schafer, 1973;

Enoch, 1977; Davidson et al, 2001; Peters, 2004; West, 2007). Davidson et al, for example,
opine that practice can turn making music into a chore rather than an enjoyable experience.
This technical focus is seen by Small (1980, p.94) as being detrimental to the average
person. Discussing the facility of young players in a competition situation he writes:
In setting standards of technical proficiency that non-professionals cannot begin to

approach, they are removing the practice of music ever further from the ordinary citizen
and confirming him even more completely in the role of consumer.
This attitude, while directed at children, may well impact upon the potential adult
beginner as well. If one cannot reach this exalted level of technique, why begin? The
training of musicians with its emphasis on technique is, in some sense, about developing
the professional player rather than the amateur. This dichotomy of attitudes about music
making and learning is described by Peggie (2004). He says: ‘Basically there are two
attitudes: everyone can do it – let’s all join in; and make a commitment if you want to
achieve further mastery. In other words, jam today versus no pain, no gain’. Paynter’s
28
assertion, above, about the role of music in schools is supported by other writers like
Burmeister (1979) who argue that the emphasis on skill development derives from the
academic nature of the school curriculum, of which music is a part. Learning must have
some plan and structure with goals and the need to progress or improve in some measurable
way.
Other writers, such as Schafer and Fletcher, nearly 20 years apart, make a similar
point when they discuss the ‘cult of virtuosity’ that affects most music education. Schafer
says that ‘the fantastic demands made to achieve virtuosity in any of the art forms have
resulted in abstract accomplishments to which we can rightly apply the label “unnatural”
(Schafer 1972, p.5). Fletcher goes further from the social perspective claiming that
‘performing virtuosity has played an increasingly important part in shaping the musical
culture of the twentieth century’ (1991, p.64). It is this shaping of the socio/musical
landscape that may well have an effect on attitudes towards adult instrumental beginners,
particularly for instruments seen as being ‘difficult’ to play ‘well.’
Wright (1998, p.75), in discussion of a holistic view of music education says:

‘Music has always been a thing to be made and enjoyed with others. It was not originally
the province of only a few but a source of enjoyment and fulfillment to all whatever their
ability’. The inference can be made that, as the focus has become more on technical
development and achievement, music making has become the province of a smaller number
of people performing at a high level of competence, trained from a very young age.
Sloboda (1999, p.459) discusses the idea of people passively consuming music and says
there has been:
a significant reduction (in comparison to many earlier periods) of the societal scaffolding
that allowed people to progressively occupy intermediate rungs on a ladder of skill
progression.
These missing rungs of the scaffolding have the effect of making the gap between
amateur and professional wider. Section Two of this thesis will show how and when the
focus of violin instructional materials became more on technique, and Section Three will
highlight some social developments which may have been influential in steering music
education in this direction.
Groups such as the Music Educators National Conference [MENC], whose origins
will be discussed further in Section Three of the thesis, have a strong history of advocacy
for music in school (Mark, 2002). More recently, the MENC has also included a
29
commitment to the adult learner with the establishment of an Adult and Community
Education Special Research Interest Group (www.acmesrig.org) which is dedicated to
‘research that fosters active involvement in the making, creating, and studying of music in
the diverse and complex communities in which we live and across the lifespan through the
understanding of the unique learning characteristics of adults’.
This development notwithstanding, it is clear that music education is not yet

accomplishing the goal of substantially increasing adult engagement. The percentage of
adults engaged in music making remains quite small. West (2007) using statistics from the
National Endowment of the Arts in the United States indicates that only 1.8 % of the adult
population was involved with classical music in 2002. That percentage of engagement can
hardly be considered a success. West also notes that there are other statistics which give
different results about the percentage of engagement for adults, but the more positive
figures are also from commercial organizations, such as the National Association of Music
Merchants, who may be less objective.
Adults beginning or returning to music making are unlikely to have a professional

career as a central goal. They are equally unlikely to be pursuing virtuosic achievement as
their principal reason for playing an instrument. Yet by and large, adults learning music,
with the exception, perhaps, of those learning the piano, are using materials designed for
children, with its technical achievement focus. One teacher summarizes the problem
coherently for even those teachers who realize that perhaps this virtuosic obsession is not
ideal for all students:
I don’t like pushing people into exams because then you’re going to kill what they like
doing about music. The trouble with children is that you don’t know which ones are
going to turn into total “I’m going into the music business” people or those who are
not…so you’ve got to teach them all according to the proper syllabus, in case they turn
around at fifteen and say “I want to go to music colleges”. If you’ve got someone who
doesn’t work at all at ten, you don’t know what to do (Davidson & Scutt 1999, p.84).
Adults using materials designed for children, or being taught by teachers who do
not modify their approach, may gain the impression that they too must aim for the same
goals of accomplishment and technical prowess, regardless of their reason for playing.
Neither the different cognitive status of the adult nor the different reasons for learning are
represented in materials for adults (again, with the exception of some piano materials
discussed below). The statistics above imply that these materials, and the style of learning
they espouse, are not resulting in continued engagement in music making for most of the
30
children using them. That being the case, should a different result be expected when using
the same approach and materials with adults?
Some writers agree that the current music education paradigm is not necessarily the
most suitable for all children, never mind adults (Schafer 1973; Covell 1977; Davidson and
Scutt, 1999). One relatively rare collection of essays on the subject, Questioning the Music
Education Paradigm (Bartel 2004) discusses the perceived problems with music education
as it currently stands. Yet while Bartel and the other writers included in his book are
questioning the current paradigm for music education, they focus on the concerns of
children and classroom music and do not mention either adult learning or lifelong learning.
This omission helps to reinforce the idea that music education relates specifically to the
school years.
West (2007), as others above, believes that the system as it currently exists
contributes to the lack of ongoing music making. She also makes the point that, while the
problems in the system are recognized, few alternative solutions are offered. She has
proposed a solution in the form of a completely different paradigm. The focus of this new
paradigm is not technical development or expertise but rather continued engagement and
involvement with music making. She currently uses this paradigm in the Music Education
Program at the Australian National University. This alternative paradigm has some
application to this thesis and provides a structural background on which the models
developed here have been mapped.
This new paradigm is ‘more focused on the holistic development of the individual
through music, rather than the musical development of the individual through achievement’
(p.156). West, as Wright (1998) above, is concerned with people being engaged with music
rather than with the level of ability they attain. West describes her new paradigm in relation
to ‘three I’s’ which are Identity, Involvement, and Intent.
Intent is described as being of ‘central importance’ in this new paradigm:
The central idea of Intent both encourages individualized engagement yet prevents the
self-focused judgments about ability and skills that can discourage engagement and
promote anxiety (p.136).
The intent of the teacher in this new paradigm is very important. West (2007)
describes the role of the teacher as follows:
31
The teacher’s role is to offer her knowledge and experience to the student as a resource
for the student to take on his own musical journey. She gives him vistas to explore; she
does not control his direction (p.156).
In the current dominant paradigm the teacher is the one who leads the students,
guiding them in a direction that promotes technical development and achievement so the
students continually improve and play at a higher standard. The idea of the teacher leading
the study is embedded in the concept of pedagogy. [see below] While the teacher referred
to above is a person, it is possible, and indeed necessary, to apply the idea of intent to
instructional texts as well. Violin instructional texts are, for the most part, written by violin
teachers. The text will inevitably reflect the intent of that teacher and therefore influence
how the students view learning the violin and their level of engagement. This concept will
be discussed in detail in Section Two.
Identity is described by West (2007) as ‘the development of an individual musical

persona’ (p.170):
Each unique musical voice is equally valued and nourished according to the interests and
needs of its owner. The teacher makes every effort to engage the interest and enthusiasm
of each student as a means of showing each individual the musical pathways they may
wish to tread (p.170).
In West’s paradigm the aim is for each student, whatever his/her age, to exercise
personal choice. The student’s choices can include what instrument they wish to play, what
repertoire they wish to play, and what they wish to do in the lesson. The idea of the student
being in charge can be seen in the concept of student centered learning, a precept of
andragogy [see below].
Involvement is the third ‘I’ in the new paradigm. Continued involvement in making
music is the goal of this approach to teaching. West (2007) describes it as follows:
The intent behind the Music Education Program includes assisting each individual to
exercise personal musical identity as a way of maximizing continued, enthusiastic
involvement in music-making. This continuing, voluntarily and personally rewarding
musical engagement is seen as fundamental to our basic intent to share music with others
in a way that encourages their engagement (p.204).
One of the major influences on the attitudes of adults is, she suggests, the judgment
that is applied to the music the student is making. Students who have been judged and
found wanting at some point in their lives can see themselves as being unmusical or not
‘good’ at music. For adults, this idea can be seen in many anecdotal instances of adults
deprecating their musical skills or believing that it is ‘too late’ for them to play an
instrument. Often this belief may also be traced to the idea that they are too old to learn
32
because they won’t become ‘good’ enough. Given the lack of teachers working with adult
students it may well be that teachers believe the same thing. If teachers are locked into the
traditional paradigm, with its emphasis on technique, achievement and virtuosity, they may
believe that adults, who won’t become good enough to play classical music at a high
standard, are not worth teaching. This particular judgment has the effect of discouraging
engagement before it has even begun. In West’s new paradigm, it is not the standard of the
music making that is of importance; it is the act of making music which is central.
West’s paradigm is designed to build on the enthusiasm of the learner to encourage

people to engage in music making throughout their lives. While West discusses the new
paradigm more in relation to singing, its precepts can be easily applied to instrumental
teaching. This paradigm is particularly appropriate to adults who are more likely to be
learning the violin as a recreational pastime.
This section has considered some of the research and issues involved with the
musical education of children, has shown how these issues relate to the teaching of adults,
and discussed a new approach that would be appropriate for both children and adults.
Research on music learning and the adult population will be discussed next.
3.3 Music Learning and Adults

As discussed above, music education and how it is delivered is concerned mostly
with children. Music education is seen largely as something that is done in a school setting
and stops after that time. For some, there is the clear sense that adults, and their needs and
interests in music are neglected. Prickett (1998) sums it up thus:
Musicians, particularly educators and therapists, share a conviction that our art meets
many human needs on many levels. Still, it seems that most of our focus has been on
developing music skills and sensibilities in the pre-adult population (p.25).
Over the course of the twentieth century there have been repeated calls for research
in this area. In discussing the need for ‘adults learning in music’, in 1938 Hendrickson
writes:
Thorndike has said, “In general, nobody under forty-five should restrain himself from
trying to learn anything because of a belief or fear that he is too old to be able to learn.”
He cites studies of adult learning in many fields, but not in music. Many adults are
turning to musical activity as a resource for increased leisure time and more should be.
What special problems confront the adult learner in this field? What are his prospects
and what are his limitations (p.673).
33
Adult learning in Hendrickson’s time is clearly a growing concern; however on the
whole, it does not appear to have embraced music. Over twenty five years later, it appears
that we could make the same statement that ‘more adults are turning to musical activity’ yet
it also appears that Hendrickson’s call has not been answered. Forrester (1975) says:
We need to examine carefully the ways in which music can be included in adult
education programs. Many of us in the teaching profession are frequently heard to
express some interest in helping members of our communities learn about music, but all
we do is sit them down in front of our performance groups and bombard their ears with
whatever it is we have decided they should hear (p.57).
These calls for research, suggesting a dearth of information in the area, continue
periodically to the present day. Boyle (1991) says that music education as a discipline must
go ‘beyond traditional K-12 music education, and include newly developing areas such as
music in early childhood, music in continuing education, and music of world cultures’
(p.19). Darrough and Boswell (1992) say ‘there is little research on the involvement of
older adults in choral, general, or instrumental music’ (p.25). Mark (1996) writes that adults
learning music has been ‘largely overlooked by music education researchers’ (p.119).
Nazareth (1999) says that music educators need to ‘look beyond the school level’ and
points out that there is a ‘lack of quantity and quality in music education for adults,
particularly those between thirty and fifty years old’ (p.17). Ernst (2001) indicates that
‘Many opportunities exist for research and development in music education for adults’
(p.51). While some research has been done over the course of the years discussed here,
clearly there are many writers who see the need for more. This lack of information
regarding adults and music in general was substantiated in this study by the lack of
literature found on the subject in general and on violin playing specifically.
While more research may be wanted and needed, Silvey (2002) feels that there has
been a change in attitude from music educators towards adult students. He opines that ‘the
educational community has come to embrace the concept of lifelong learning as central to
its mission’ (p.199) While this positive outlook may be true in general, given the paucity of
violin instructional material, it is clear that certain areas of music education have not
‘embraced lifelong learning’. On the other hand, some areas such as piano instruction have
embraced it most enthusiastically. [see below]
For some writers awareness clearly exists that there is a largely untapped audience
for music educators to serve, and that this adult audience is growing. Kellmann (1986) says:
34
Not only is the population of the United States getting older, but individuals reaching
retirement age are healthier, better educated, and more politically active than older
people in past years. They will, in short, demand and deserve increased services,
including education. Music educators should seize this opportunity to broaden the scope
of the profession by offering music programs to our aging population (p.30).
It is clear that adults are interested in music education. Some years after Kellmann,
Axlerod (1992) says: ‘Adults in ever-increasing numbers are taking up musical instruments,
often banishing their nightmarish recollections of required childhood lessons and now
proudly tooting their own horns’ (p.45). Schatz (2002) says ‘The Music Teacher’s National
Assn., a trade group, reports that 25- to 55-year-olds are the fastest-growing group of new
students’ (p.120).
At the same time, the literature also conveys the sense that many adults are
choosing not to engage in music making. Chung (2000) says:
Each day, hundreds, perhaps thousands, of people choose to do something else with their
time other than playing music. When they do, our lives, our professions, our businesses
and our culture all suffer a potentially irreparable loss (p.25).
It is clear that Chung believes that the music education community has not
embraced the full potential of adult participants.
Two contrasting messages are conveyed by these different writers’ opinions.

Teachers know that there is interest on the part of adults to learn instruments and participate
in music, but there is still a large portion of the adult population which is not engaged. Is
this a lack on the part of music educators? The implication is that while some good work
has been done, there is still more to do if adults are going to choose music making over
other recreational activities. In order to see what needs to be done, one must look at what
has already been done in the way of research in this area.
The research involving music and adults is varied. Some work has been done in the
area of music preferences. Lathom, Peterson & Havlicek (1982), Zill & Robinson (1994),
Fisher (1951), and Geringer (1982) have all researched the music preferences of different
groups of adults. Some work, such as that by Silvey (2002) has been done in the area of
choral singing. Machover (1990) discusses making the community music school a center
for lifelong learning. Secrest (1982) has studied successful adult music education practices,
innovative strategies, and current trends. Atkinson (1986) and Burger, Netshitangani &
Tshifhango (2000) are interested in community music education. Mark (1996) has explored
informal learning and music activities. Bowles (1991), and Gilbert & Beal (1982) have
35
researched adult music education interests and music experiences. Myer (1992) discusses
how learners of all ages can be served better. Some research focuses on the older adult
learner such as that of Flowers and Murphy (2001). Flowers and Murphy interviewed older
adults in order to find out their music education, their preferences, what activities they
participated in and reflections. They said:
Music was ubiquitous in the lives of the older adults. It provided a source of activity,
comfort, and stimulation. Listening and dancing were the most popular forms of musical
activity, while playing the piano was the most desired opportunity (p.31).
There is a dichotomy between child and adult learning which can be described with
the opposing ideas of pedagogy and andragogy, a discussion of which is generated by those
in the field of lifelong learning. Adult learning is of long standing and over the course of
history has occurred in any numbers of ways. The Greeks and Romans had many
educational opportunities including schools, libraries, debates, theater and public recitals.
In the British Empire, schools in the modern sense were established for adults as early as
1811 (Hiemstra, 1998). Adult educational opportunities in the United States through the
nineteenth century included subscription libraries, and the Lyceum lectures (Stubblefield
and Keane, 1994). Currently, adult education goes under many names including:
literacy programs, vocational training, rural education, cooperative extension, university

extension, community education, military education, religious education, and training or
human resource development (Hiemstra 1998, p.5-6).
However, it is possible to see by the above description that much of this adult
learning is classroom based. There is research done into leisure activities (Harap 1934,
Marsden & Reed 1982, and MacNeil 1998), but the field of adult education includes little
about music education, presumably leaving that to music specialists. What is has done,
however, is to provide us with a range of views about adult learning, and language with
which to discuss it. The idea of andragogy is central to much of their discussion and is
useful here to provide a contrast to the idea of pedagogy, the word used exclusively when
referring to the teaching of music.
The Oxford English Dictionary Online defines pedagogy as ‘the art, occupation, or
practice of teaching’. However, the word can be defined differently. Many that work in the
fields of adult and lifelong learning see pedagogy as referring to the teaching of children.
Meyer (1977) looks to the roots of the word to define it in this deeper manner. He indicates
that pedagogy is derived from the Greek words paid (meaning child) and agogos (meaning
the act of leading). Pedagogy viewed from this perspective is the teacher leading the child
36
in the learning process. Combining this view with the common definition above would then
present pedagogy as the ‘art or occupation of teaching’ children. If this definition of the
word is accepted, then when people are speaking of violin pedagogy they are speaking of
teaching children the violin. This is apt, considering the lack of materials for adult
beginning violinists. While some music educators do indeed teach adults, they may be
practicing pedagogy with those adult students. This would mean that they, the teachers, are
in charge of the lesson and dictate to the student what they should learn and when and how
they learn it. There is however, an alternative to pedagogy.
Adult learning theorists consider adult learning to be andragogy. Knowles (1977,

p.206) describes the origins of andragogy as follows:
In Europe in the early sixties, adult educators began to feel a need for subsuming this
growing body of theory and knowledge about adult learning under a label that would
differentiate it from the conventional body of theory called pedagogy, and so they
discovered that in 1833 a German adult educator had coined the word “Andragogy”
derived from the Greek word “aner” which in ancient Greek meant “man not boy.
Andragogy, then, is the ‘art and occupation of teaching’ adults. Clearly, adult
learning theorists feel that adults have different needs from those of children. However,
while the term andragogy has existed for over a century it is not generally used in
discussions about instrumental or music teaching. If adult learning theorists are correct and
adults need a different approach when learning non-musical skills, shouldn’t they also need
a different approach when learning musical skills? Uszler (1990a) is a musician who is
aware of the concept of andragogy and its possible applications to music teaching. She is
however a pianist, and as will be shown below, pianists have been catering to the adult
learner for a substantial period.
The question then is if pianists have embraced adult learners and to some extent are
aware of the concept of andragogy, why has this not happened with the violin or indeed
other instruments?
3.4 Adult Piano Instruction

While adult piano instruction is not the central topic of this thesis, it provides a
useful comparison as an area of music education that has embraced adult beginners and
caters to them in a variety of ways. This is in direct contrast to the situation for adult
beginners of violin. Not only is there a wealth of piano instructional material specifically
published for the adult beginning student, but journals and magazines published for piano
37
teachers regularly carry articles about adult piano study. The discussion of this topic is
focused more on professional dialogue rather than academic research, not because there is a
lack of academic articles, but because it is considered less likely that the academic research
will reach teachers who work with adult piano beginners on a regular basis.
Much of the research into adults and music is general, but when it comes to
researching instrument study, the piano is the instrument most often used and discussed.
The research in this area includes that of Cooper (2001) who examined adult perception of
piano study, and Kim (2001) who studied undergraduate students beginning the piano.
Maris (2000a) has written a book devoted entirely to learning strategies for adults studying
the piano. Additional research includes that of Marciano (1990), who studied the attitudes
of piano teachers towards adult students and Iritani (2002), who gave a personal perspective
on learning to play piano in later adulthood. In addition to the academic research there is
also a body of articles and anecdotal writing from teachers and adult students of the piano.
Piano instructional materials are quite varied in their sources and manner of
instruction. Some courses are one of a kind such as the McClintock Piano Course (1992).
Some materials are published by those known for their children’s methods such as
Thompson (1962) and Alfred (1983). There are texts which are meant to be used for
individual instruction and others for learning in a group. There is also variety in how the
student begins to play. One can begin with chords, one hand at a time, by reading music or
by ear. The method of learning the student chooses will most likely depend on what he
wants to learn.
For example, David Sudnow offers courses for groups in New York City. Sudnow’s
way of teaching is designed for the student who wishes to play popular music rather than
classical. His approach is described as follows:
No one, he contends, needs to read music to pick out a melody, and no adult amateur
needs an overseer. People can hear their own bad notes. Bach, Mozart and Ives may
demand years of guided practice, but your hands can learn a few paths across the
keyboard in a matter of months, Mr. Sudnow insists. Popular songs can then be yours
(Miller, 1993, p.99).
For those who are learning using a text, there is some doubt as to whether or not the
texts for adults are any different from those for children. An article about group classes at a
college says the following:
38
Sister Miriam uses various versions of a book called “Adult at the Piano.” “It’s the same
book you teach children with, but with a different cover,” the nun said. “It helps the
adults’ self-esteem (Ketcham, 1994, p.L12).
This raises the question of whether or not these adult piano texts are actually
representing andragogy or pedagogy. There is the perception of andragogy in that the text
states it is for the adult learner; however if the content is indeed the same as that of the
children’s text then it is really pedagogy. As will be discussed in Section Two, this problem
is not exclusive to piano texts.
Some piano texts, however, are written more andragogically. Lorena McClintock’s
(1992) text was written specifically for adults and there is no version for children. Rather
than adapting a child’s text she has considered the needs of the adult student and written her
text accordingly. While the andragogy of some piano texts is in doubt, the existence of texts
that purport to be for adults is important. It is recognition by the market of interest by adults
wishing to learn the piano and shows understanding by some that adults need texts that are
somehow different from those used by children.
It is clear that some piano teachers understand that adult learning is different from
childhood learning and use materials that are appropriate for their adult student. One
teacher says:
With adult piano students, it is best to stay away from pieces that have illustrations and
titles designed for children. No matter how high the artistic content or teaching value, a
piece titled “Cindy’s Sandbox” that has pictures of shovels and trucks is not going to
appeal to a 40-year-old student (Petrocchi, 1994, p.18).
This quote is interesting from a number of points of view, not the least being that a
writer feels that it is necessary to say it at all. Clearly, she believes that many pieces do
appear as she states and that many teachers would make use of them. Some evidence
certainly suggests that there are teachers who do not recognize a difference between their
adult and child students and choose materials indiscriminately. Witness the story of a man
who changed teachers. With the original teacher he was playing pieces by Bach but when
he changed teachers so did his repertoire. He says:
A few months after beginning piano lessons as an adult, I changed teachers. Thus I
became again as a little child, addressing myself to such compositions as “Going to the
Circus,” “Skipping Rope,” and the traditional scale exercises in Hanon’s venerable
primer, The Virtuoso Pianist (Bell, 1986, p.82).
While some teachers may choose not to utilize the texts written for adults, they do
exist and can be used if the teacher wishes. If a teacher has not worked with an adult
39
student before, or needs advice on how to help an adult student, he/she may find what
he/she needs in one of their industry journals or magazines. Maris (2000a) notes that one
called Keyboard Companion even had a department devoted entirely to adult students. The
information concerned with adult students in these magazines and journals is quite varied.
There are reviews of the latest adult texts and anecdotes from both students and teachers
about learning experiences.
Much of what is said in the articles by piano teachers about their adult students
could be said by violin teachers who work with adults. Advice given in such articles is not
always piano specific but applicable to adult learners of the violin or any other instrument.
The important point to note is that violinists do not discuss adult learners and their
problems regularly in their publications whereas pianists do.
There is abundant information from piano teachers who work with adults offering
advice about this different group. Moreover, the advice is coming from those who enjoy
working with adults and make comments like the following.
Because many adults are fulfilling a lifelong dream, they are highly motivated,
responsive, and often ask perceptive questions. They willingly accept guidance and
suggestions, never pose discipline problems, and, when taught properly, make excellent
progress (Arrau, 1983, p.31).
Much of the advice shows awareness on the part of the teachers that adults are
different from younger students and therefore have different needs, strengths and
weaknesses. One teacher says:
It wasn’t that learning is more difficult for “tall students” as [Rosenberger] describes her
adult pupils. It’s that they have more to unlearn – expectations and inhibitions, to be
precise. “We grownups want everything to sound like a classical pianist who plays with
perfection,” she says. “We can’t just fool around with music like kids do. We don’t
trust ourselves (Patoski, 1999, p.56).
This quote summarizes a number of characteristics to do with music learning. It
shows how the focus on excellence in children affects adult attitudes and yet recognizes
that the attitudes imbibed might be something that requires unlearning. At the same time, it
paints a contradiction in suggesting that children ‘just fool around’ with music, which is
often not the case in the structured approaches that create the very ‘expectations and
inhibitions’ mentioned.
While Orlofsky & Smith (1997) list the many virtues of working with adult students
– they are ‘willing and eager to work’, they can keep ‘on task’, they are ‘physically
40
coordinated’, they ‘work well with instructors and can set goals’, they ‘have long attention
spans’ (p.22) – one teacher notes difficulties related to the quote above. He says:
On the negative side, perfectionism renders many adults severely unforgiving of

themselves. They worry about never getting a phrase right, complain about not enough
practice, and are far more punishing than I could ever be (Dumm, 2003, p.20).
Some of the information has to do with the type of instruction adults prefer –
individual or class – and why. One teacher noted the following:
Although some teachers offer both private and class lessons for older adults, the social
aspects of sharing musical experiences and making new friends in a class appeals to
many (Hilali, 1994, p.26).
Hilali is speaking particularly of older adult learners, but her statement could apply
to adult learners of any age. Indeed, this idea should not be exclusive to adult learners but
might well include children as well. Surely the ‘sharing [of] musical experiences and
making new friends’ would appeal to many children as well as adults. This is one of the
benefits of programs such as New Horizons which provides the adult learner with a social
outlet as well as instruction. Certainly ensemble opportunities exist for young
instrumentalists in the form of school band programs, but the school engagement doesn't
always translate into adult engagement, programs like New Horizons notwithstanding.
The importance of the social aspect of music making for learners of all ages has
been recognized by researchers such as Small (1998), Cope (2002), and Peters (2004). For
pianists, class learning would provide that social outlet. For other instruments group
lessons or chamber groups provide shared musical experiences, but community orchestras
and bands are additional avenues if one can play at the required standard. One might argue
that it is more important for adults because children have many more options. Not only do
they learn in groups in school, but they also have opportunities in the form of youth
orchestra programs that take place outside of school. However, the choosing of the social
outlet for the child is very often done by the parent – not the child – and the engagement
within that social context may be just as regimented and goal oriented as that in the
classroom.
Adults, as a general rule, do not seek to learn an instrument as a profession. Neither

do children, yet they have the potential to become professionals which leads to a dilemma
in teaching which is described by Davidson & Scutt (1999). While some adults may want
to learn a particular piece of music or reach a certain level of proficiency, they wish to play
for pleasure, not have a second career. One piano teacher put it beautifully when she said:
41
Although adults will never major in music in college, will never go to a contest, or
perhaps never even play in a recital, there is still a goal they do want to accomplish:
playing the piano for personal enjoyment (Johnson, 1986, p.21).
Additional observations and advice in the literature have to do with the repertoire,
and the awareness that adults have particular likes and dislikes – some of which they have
held for many years. One teacher advocates working with the repertoire in which the
student is interested.
Adults, like children, may prefer some styles of music – pop, folk, classical, jazz,
improvisation – over others. Unlike children, adults have held these preferences for long
periods of time. It is a losing battle to coerce a student who has disliked Baroque
keyboard music for 20 years into playing Bach to meet a goal of playing contrapuntal
music (Petrocchi, 1994, p.18).
This idea of student-centered learning is one espoused by the adult learning
community (Knowles, 1977; Nuckles, 2000; Merriam, 2001a). In music learning student-
centered learning includes accommodating the student’s choice in repertoire. However,
while it seems accepted that adults expect and should be given some choice in the
repertoire they play, it seems less accepted when it comes to children. Why should children
be denied choice? Research done by Rudduck (2002) suggests that children do indeed want
choice and that the lack of choice is one of the problems with the current model of music
education. The idea of choice is an important element of the new paradigm suggested by
West (2007) which is used with both child and adult learners.
It is clear that the community of piano teachers are not only teaching adults, but that
some make an effort to accommodate the needs and preferences of their adult students both
through the provision of texts and other materials and through professional discussion.
Indeed, the very provision made for adult amateur piano players highlights the lack of
materials for or discussion about adult beginning violinists, as will be seen in the next
section.
3.5 Adults and the Violin

While the amount of research about adults learning the violin is limited, there has
been some interest on the part of academics to develop materials and/or curricula for adult
beginning violinists. This literature indicates that there are teachers who believe the
existing materials are not suitable for adult beginners, and they need an approach and
materials suited to them.
42
Such teachers show awareness of the need for violin andragogy even if they do not
specifically use the term. Kuutti (1979) became interested in working with adults while
developing a community orchestra. He says:
it became evident that adults in a community were a great untapped resource, and many
could learn to play string instruments for their own enjoyment and also contribute to the
growth of orchestras… (p.1).
Kuutti, in describing his initial foray into this area in the early 1960s, goes on to say
that:
A search of music and educational periodicals and books of that time…provided little
evidence of teachers working with adults who were beginning students, or conductors
providing opportunities for the very amateur musician (p.14).
Kuutti provides an early example of the repeated calls for more research to be done
in the area of adults and music echoed later by some researchers including Forrester (1975),
Boyle (1991), Darrough and Boswell (1992), Mark (1996), Nazareth (1999), and Ernst
(2001).
Kuutti in speaking of the need for teaching materials for adults goes on to say:
The need for a book suited to adults became apparent as materials were tried in the
workshop. Adult beginners have varied goals, as well as backgrounds. Available adult
level books had been designed for college string education classes, and assumed musical
knowledge which many adults did not have. Adults needed a book with rational step by
step explanations, organized in a referential, or self-help, manner allowing review and
learning progress at home. Books arranged for elementary school use depend heavily on
teacher explanations, and the musical content in many of these did not appeal to adults
(p.28).
Kuutti went on to develop a program that he felt was suitable for adults, and
according to his research it was successful. However, his method was not published. Only
the table of contents is extant and it indicates that the main organizing feature was key
signatures which he introduced in a particular order. From his comments, it is clear that in
each key he had his students begin with the scale and then introduced exercises and pieces.
He also indicates that there was ‘constant preparation for playing in ensembles and
orchestras’ (p.40).
The description of the content makes Kuutti’s approach very similar to the class
methods currently used in schools today, which is unsurprising given his background as a
music educator in those schools. Presumably he did write the material using the features in
the quote above, making the texts more suited to the adult beginner. He did not list the
musical content included in the method, but he did include a variety of music from different
43
genres on his concert programs. Since, for reasons unknown, Kuutti's method was not
published, comparisons cannot be made between Kuutti’s method and others in the thesis.
While Kuutti’s approach may be seen as fairly typical in organization of the

material and the goal of mainly orchestral playing, Stowe (1985) has gone a different route,
and developed a course using sentic principles as the basis for her approach. These
principles are the work of Dr Manfred Clynes. He pioneered the idea of sentic cycles which
involve using expressive finger pressure on a finger rest to express seven different
emotions. Clynes’ idea is that through experiencing this cycle of emotions on a regular
basis one will be able to be in touch with one’s emotions but not be overwhelmed by one.
The desired effect is to produce a balanced emotional state.
Stowe (1985) has applied this way of expressing emotion to the violin in order to
provide ‘an alternative to traditional elementary violin instruction, which normally stresses
technical exercises’ (p.iii). For Stowe, the goal of music and musicians is ‘the
communication of the joy and ecstasy in music, the enrichment of emotional life’ (p.8).
Stowe believes that using sentic cycles in violin instruction will enable the student to play
more expressively, thus fulfilling the basic goal of making music.
Rather than presenting the student with the entire sentic cycle, Stowe concentrates
on the emotional states of grief, love, and joy. Her course consists of eight lessons which
are to take place over an eight week period. Within the lessons, when playing the violin, the
student uses only the bow, expressing the emotions through particular bow movements
which Stowe describes in detail. In this course, the student never plays a melody or uses the
left hand. Stowe’s idea is certainly interesting, and different from any other approach
discussed here. For those who use or are interested in sentic cycles, it may be a useful
course and support their ongoing development. For others, the appeal would likely depend
on their goals, as the course does not include the playing of melodies. Stowe’s method was
not published and as such will not be involved in the textual analysis in Section Two of the
thesis.
Kuutti (1979) and Stowe (1985) designed their courses for the adult who has never
played the violin before. Deverich (1998) and Rosenthal (1986) are concerned with adult
violinists, but their courses are not for the absolute beginner. They are interested in those
adults who have already learned the basics. However, a brief description of both Deverich’s
44
and Rosenthal’s work helps to gives an idea of what some researchers think might be useful
for an adult audience.
Deverich (1990) chose to develop a framework of distance education for adult

amateurs. She acknowledges that there is a need for material for adult beginners, and says:
‘Most violin method books are designed to help pupils develop professional skills and
violin technique, or are geared for young students in a school setting’ (p.1). However, this
was not the main concern of her thesis. Her main area of interest was those adults who had
begun to play the violin, but who were currently located in a place where instruction was
limited or unavailable. Her solution was to design a way to keep these adults playing and
learning through the auspices of distance education.
Rosenthal (1986) developed a comprehensive curriculum for adult amateur string

players, with the goal of ‘achievement of greater instrumental facility, and heightened
musical satisfaction through greater musical understanding’ (p.ii). Rosenthal teaches adults
on a regular basis, mostly in a university setting, and her research reflects her understanding
of their needs. In describing her course she says:
It is essential that a curriculum for this group of adults include not only an opportunity
for them to improve their playing skills but also an opportunity for them to broaden their
knowledge in such areas as music history, music theory, formal musical analysis and
music literature. And it is essential that these opportunities be available in one class –
not a whole range of classes (p.4).
It is clear that Rosenthal was working with adults who had already achieved some
facility. Her goal was to help them achieve more technical facility while also broadening
their scope of knowledge about music generally. Rather than writing new material herself,
she chose to draw on already existing books. The books she chose are mostly standard scale
and etude books of European origin such as Hrimaly, Wohlfahrt, Kreutzer, Laoureaux, and
Dont. These and other European materials are commonly used today and the musical
precepts of these materials have had a profound influence on other violin instructional
material.
The students in Rosenthal’s course are not aiming to become professionals, but it is
clear from her choice of books that the main thrust of her instruction is technical
development. The end goal of that technical development is the ability to play European
chamber and orchestral music. Students taking Rosenthal’s course may be interested in
playing in a community orchestra, but they may have additional or different goals as the
45
outcome of their learning. Rosenthal’s curriculum may suggest andragogy as it is designed
for adults, but it also reflects pedagogy in that she has designed it with what she thinks the
students need in order to reach the particular goal of playing classical music. It does not
allow for other goals.
While it is clear that there is some interest in developing materials or curricula for
adult violinists, those materials have not become available to the general public, with the
possible exception of Deverich whose website offers basic violin instruction to any who
can access it. Generally, however, this academic interest has not translated into any
practical adult texts currently available for adults who wish to learn the violin. One text by
Rhoda (2000), states it is for adults and children both, an anomaly in itself, which will be
discussed in more detail below. This lack of violin texts for adults is in sharp contrast to
materials for adult beginning pianists as illustrated above.
While there are currently no violin instructional texts which state they are
exclusively for adults, there are a number of contemporary self-instructing texts available
for violin. Self-instructing texts have been identified in the previous chapter as more
appropriate for adults than children as the student needs to be able to read, comprehend and
follow detailed instructions. Some of these contemporary texts teach fiddling such as
Martin (1998) and Duncan (1990). Others, including Duncan (2002), Stosur (2006),
Silverman (2001) and Rapoport (2008) do not specify a particular style of playing but offer
repertoire from a variety of genres. Not all of the texts above fit the parameters of the study:
Rapoport (2008) because of its Canadian publication, and Martin (1998) and Duncan
(1990) which only focus on one style of playing. Texts concerned with teaching one style
of playing have been eliminated as it is felt that adults may wish to learn a variety of styles.
The other texts above which fit the parameters of the study will be discussed in Section
Two.
The forthcoming in-depth analysis notwithstanding, one major impression one

draws from these modern self-instructing texts is their similarity to texts written for
children. While the vehicle for content delivery is more adult directed (i.e. self-instructing)
the actual content is not. One possible explanation is that the text is actually intended to be
used by a teacher and is directed at the teacher who helps the child, rather than at the child.
Or possibly this similarity of instruction implies that no matter the age of the student the
violin should be taught in a particular way. This begs a number of questions including: why
46
are there self-instructing texts if the manner of instruction isn’t different from those to be
used with a teacher, and if the implication is that violin can be learned from a self-
instructing text that parallels a teacher assisted text, should one infer that the teacher is not
really necessary?
The idea of learning the violin via self-instruction is not a new phenomenon. Self-
instructing texts have a long history, back to England’s Playford (1697) and earlier. The
continued existence of self-instructing texts to the present day would seem to speak for the
efficacy of the approach. However, there is some discussion among teachers and adult
players of various instruments as to whether or not self-instruction is a viable way of
learning. Allison (2002, p.51) describes the difficulty in answering this question as follows:
‘Many professionals say that it is impossible to learn to play an instrument without self-
instruction. Some say that you end up being your own best teacher’. She goes on to
paraphrase a professional musician and teacher: ‘self-instruction is certainly a good
addition to studying privately, but you can’t replace someone who has experience sitting
beside you’. However, Clement (2005, p.52) acknowledges: ‘There has always been a
group of musicians who have never studied with private teachers but acquired their skill by
being self-taught’. The attitude seems to be that self-instruction can work for some but not
for others.
Clement’s remark aside, there is a wide-spread feeling that self-instruction is not the
best approach. For example, some members of Beginning Adult Violin Study [see below]
state their intentions to self-instruct, and invariably the majority of the replies urge the
person to get a teacher so they learn properly. The implication is that you can learn via self-
instruction, but you may not have ‘proper’ technique, may not progress, and/or play ‘well’.
One reason that self-instruction has less support is because formal learning with a teacher,
as discussed above, is the more widely accepted mode of learning today. Some adults may
also view self-instruction as a less viable way to learn because their perspective is informed
by past experiences with music instruction which involved a teacher.
For those adult beginning violinists who choose to study with a teacher, the attitude
of the teacher can have some impact on the student’s learning experience. However, the
attitude of the teacher towards the beginning adult student is not widely discussed, either by
academics or among practitioners. There are many articles about learning instruments from
the adult’s perspective, usually in the form of anecdotes such as Barbieri (1998), Fine
47
(2002) and Bell (1986). While these articles sometimes give an indication of the attitude of
the teacher, they are usually stories about their learning experiences and expressions of
enthusiasm about their instruments rather than an analysis of the learning experience itself
or the teacher’s attitude. Holt (1978) wrote a book about his journey of learning the cello as
an adult which has served as inspiration to many. Some articles, such as those by Cutler
(2000), and Fantozzi and Sanders (2003), discuss forming adult string groups but do not
discuss the feelings of the instructors in any great detail. Inglis (2000) gives more of an
indication of one teacher’s feelings – that of a Norwegian violinist who himself was an
adult beginner and now teaches adults himself. His attitude was clearly supportive, but he
spoke more of what he thought adult students needed rather than how he felt about them.
Mary Hoffman, a past president of the Music Educators National Conference,

[MENC] made it a mission of her presidency to encourage adult beginning musicians.
However, she was aware that some teachers did not enjoy working with adults. She says:
Rarely did I find notices of music classes of any kind being formed with the adult learner
in mind. I asked my private music teacher friends if they had any adult students, and, if
so, how they taught them; if the methods they used were different from the systems they
used with their younger students. Most of the teachers complained bitterly about their
students “over eighteen” (1981, p.27).
The issues those teachers had with their ‘over eighteen’ students are remarkably
similar to those that will be discussed below. They were: ‘they often drop out after a few
lessons, I guess they are too old to learn’; ‘they don’t have the patience to learn technique’;
and ‘they keep telling me what they want to learn. I can’t teach that way. After all I know
what they need. I’m the musician’ (p.27). Many of these issues are the same as those
expressed by the students in the BAVS group which will be discussed next.
It is difficult to find any formal literature that addresses the issue of teacher attitude
towards adult students, an area that is of great significance for this study. One modern
source of information is the web. There is a chat group on Yahoo called Beginning Adult
Violin Study [BAVS] (www.groups.yahoo.com, first accessed 13 October 2004) which is
dedicated to adults who have begun violin study. BAVS was founded 23 December 1998
and currently has approximately 3,700 members worldwide. Membership is required to
access the discussion. Members can view the various threads either on the web or by
receiving emails, sometimes twenty or more a day. While this cannot be considered
‘formal’ literature in the traditional sense, it is one source of information directly from adult
students themselves. This is important particularly as this information is not readily
48
available elsewhere. BAVS is one of the only places where the issue of adults learning the
violin is discussed with any regularity, if at all.
BAVS is open to both students and teachers and therefore provides information
from both ‘sides’ of the teaching dynamic. One adult student began a thread titled ‘Why
teachers won’t/don’t teach adult students.’ Teachers involved with the BAVS group, it is
assumed, enjoy working with adult students because they participate in the group.
However, it was clear from the discussion raised by the above question that there are
teachers who feel the opposite. The reasons for not teaching adult beginning students were
numerous and varied and some will be discussed in detail below. It is assumed that these
reasons are ones that have been heard by the students themselves, or that teachers have
heard from other teachers.
This is where the divide between the practitioner and the academic becomes
evident. Practical concerns from those ‘in the trenches’ do not always rate inquiry by
academics, and the philosophical inquiries of academics do not always make it into the day-
to-day work of teachers. This dislocation is commented on by many writers including
Young, Burwell & Pickup (2003), Warren (2001) and Tripp (1993). Many of the issues
raised by this thread illustrate the differences between pedagogy and andragogy [see
above]. Practitioners, specifically violin teachers, largely work with children and their
concerns are likely to center on that audience. Research into adult learning is extensive [see
above], and there is growing interest in research about adults and music [see above].
However, it is possible to see the divide between the research and the practitioner in that so
many practitioners are not aware of concepts such as andragogy.
Some issues raised in this discussion relate directly to the idea of the teacher being
in charge, an expression of pedagogy rather than of andragogy which allows for, and even
expects, the student to have some input into the lessons. For some teachers, these issues
translated into the student wants to run the process rather than the teacher running it; the
student wanting to learn style ___ vs. the one I [the teacher] feel should be taught first; and
the feeling that the student had their own agenda. Adults expect some choice in what they
are learning. Student centered learning, a precept of andragogy, uses a plan for instruction
which is devised by and agreed upon by both the student and teacher. While some teachers
like Uszler (1990a) are aware of andragogy many are not, which may be one source of the
difficulties expressed here.
49
Other issues arising from being taught pedagogically were that the adults didn’t
have any patience with the method books they [the teachers] taught from; and the fact that
adults just quit showing up for lessons. Since it has been discussed that the majority of
violin instructional material has been written for children, it is hardly surprising that adults
‘don’t have patience’ with those materials. Adults might quit lessons for a variety of
reasons including economic ones, but also, adults can ‘vote with their feet’. If they are
unsatisfied with the quality or manner of instruction, they have no compunction about
stopping lessons and/or going elsewhere. Unlike children, who have to convince their
parents that they want to quit, adults can do so whenever they decide.
Other issues that were raised in relation to adult students can be applied to both
child and adult learners. These issues were adults have no real future as musicians; adults
practice irregularly; adults forget things and each lesson was a repeat of the first lesson;
and that adults ask too many questions. The issue of having no future as a musician really
means that there will be no future as a professional musician. Most violin students, child or
adult, will not become professionals nor do they desire to do so. However, children have
the potential to become professionals. Music education [see above] is concerned with
achievement, in particular creating an ‘exceptional product’ (Cameron & Carlisle 2004)
which means one must begin with a child, not an adult.
For the teacher, producing the exceptional player may also be connected with the
issue of teacher self-esteem. Bruenger (2004) in discussing teaching the masses or coaching
the elite suggests that teachers ‘achieve status’ through the ‘external validation’ of
performing groups that achieve high ratings at competitions. Both these issues can be
related to what Schafer (1972) and Fletcher (1991) term the ‘cult of virtuosity’. The desire
to create the next virtuoso helps to focus the attention of teachers on children rather than
adults. Regular practice and remembering learned information can be viewed as necessary
for that progress. Answering student questions may be considered difficult by teachers who
are not accustomed to reflecting on teaching practices in general and their own specifically
[see Chapter Two].
The above issues have important underlying meanings and implications in relation
to violin study. These include the idea that adults are unsuited to the violin because, for a
variety of reasons, they will never become ‘good’ players and that one must always practice
regularly to improve their standard of playing. There is also the sense that playing for
50
recreational enjoyment and being an amateur is somehow inferior to aiming for
professional status. These and other issues have an effect on how adult beginning violin
students are perceived and taught.
The second section of this thesis will analyze violin instructional texts from the
nineteenth century to the present. This analysis will help to illustrate changes that occurred
in the texts over this span of time. The analysis will also help to clarify for whom the texts
were intended, and if there are differences among the texts that will help show why there is
a paucity of material for beginning adult violinists today.
51
Section Two: Analysis of the Texts
This section of the thesis is comprised of a close analysis of violin instructional
material published in America from 1800 to the present. The analysis was performed using
two models as a framework for the discussion [see Chapter Two, 2.8]. This section will
offer a detailed description of the models, followed by three chapters of textual analysis.
Each chapter will discuss the texts in relation to the models and will show how each group
of texts reflects a different proportion of elements from the models.
CHAPTER 4: Description of the Models

The two models used in the textual analysis were developed through multiple
examinations of the selected violin instructional texts [see Chapter Two, 2.8]. Through
those repeated examinations it was possible to identify a number of recurring features of, or
ideas about, violin instruction. Further examinations of the texts allowed for the
identification of archetypal characteristics of two opposing philosophies of violin
instruction. The models were named the Achievement Model and the Recreational Model,
to reflect the general tenor of the instruction [see Appendix III for model chart]. The
models were designed with the characteristics presented as pairs of opposites at the extreme
ends of the spectrum. While few texts exhibit all the characteristics of one model, most
clearly ‘lean’ towards one model or the other. Those texts which do not clearly ‘lean’ are
labeled as Hybrid. The woodcut of the Virtuosic Mountain [see Appendix II] will be used
throughout this analysis as an example of the ultimate Achievement focus.
While the models were applied to texts published in America, it is important to

recognize that the antecedents of both models originated in Europe. The Achievement
Model text derives from works that focused on the development of high-level technical and
musical skills suitable for the playing of orchestral and virtuosic art music. Precursors to
the Achievement Model texts are those by musicians such as Geminiani, L. Mozart, Spohr,
Baillot, Kreutzer, Rode, etc., many which are still used today. These texts were designed to
create a professional or professional quality player, and used with children and perhaps
some adults.
The nineteenth century American Recreational Model texts are derived from and are
extensions of texts from England such as Playford (1697) and Prelleur (1731). These texts
52
included almost exclusively popular music of the day, including music that was actively
played for entertainment purposes, such as dancing. These texts were designed to give
amateurs a ‘short course’ in violin playing, and to provide them with a variety of music
they could use in social situations.
The idea of the models is to allow for comparison between texts that derive from
different socio/cultural situations across two hundred years. Through the close examination
of the texts, it became clear that the texts from different eras reflect two very different
views of what music learning is supposed to be.
The features of the text were organized into four categories, within which there are
a number of paired characteristics. The categories and characteristics are described in more
detail below.
4.1 Categories
The texts were examined in light of particular categories suggested in part by
various aspects of violin instruction.
• General First Impressions

• Attitudes of Author/Publisher
• Approach to Technique
• Nature of the Repertoire
These particular categories were chosen as they represent broad areas common to all
violin instructional material. Each category was considered to have relevance because all
are areas that one might examine and/or take into consideration when choosing an
instructional text to use with students or for self-instruction.
General First Impressions are formed from considering cover advertising, reading
prefaces or introductions, and flipping through the body of the text. This category is the
most subjective because the impressions received from a text will depend on the point of
view of the person examining it. Yet the first impression is very often enough to determine
whether or not a text is purchased for use. A teacher buying for a student may receive a
particular impression from a text that will differ from the student; an adult’s impression of a
text will differ from that of a child. Every individual has the potential to receive a different
impression from the same text.
53
The impression received from a text may, in part, be a reaction to the underlying
sensibility of the instruction. These impressions are important because how a student
perceives the text, and by extension violin study, can impact on further study of the violin
or other instruments, and the purpose and goals of study. While the judgment applied in this
category is that of the individual researcher only, the aim has been to consider the initial
impact of the text from a range of points of views based on wide educational and musical
experience, honed by the close examination of the instructional material for this thesis.
Attitudes of the Author/Publisher are related to General First Impressions but

consider how the attitudes of the author are presented both explicitly and implicitly in the
texts. To determine the attitudes of the author, introductions or prefaces are examined in
closer detail. These often brief statements do not generally contain a complete expression of
the authors’ views; indeed, the lack of clear statements about the intent of each author’s
approach is one of the hallmarks of all these texts. Views need to be elucidated also from
how the instruction is presented. Presentation and organization of the material, as well as
discussion of various issues offer clues about how the author views violin instruction, the
audience to which that instruction is aimed, and how the student might view music making
and music learning in the future.
Approach to Technique considers how the author presents various aspects of

technical development. It considers whether or not there is technical work included in the
text, whether or not that technical work is presented as compulsory to the playing of
repertoire, and how the author introduces such items as holding the violin and bow, tuning,
the left hand and intonation. This category discusses both what techniques the author
chooses to teach and how he teaches them. It examines what elements the author finds
particularly important, and how he presents that importance to the student.
Nature of the Repertoire considers what types of repertoire the author has included
in the text. It considers whether or not the repertoire gives an indication of the purpose to
which the student might aspire. It also considers the author’s intent behind the choices of
repertoire and how that reflects the overall aim of the text.
The four categories above were used when examining each text, and for the
purposes of analysis they provide the overarching organizational structure for both the
discussion of each text within the section of analysis and for the organization of the model
54
characteristics themselves [see below]. In order to achieve greater clarity, each model – the
Achievement, the Recreational and the Hybrid variant of these two basic types – are
examined through one particular text that seems to offer the most complete form of that
model. Each chapter will begin with the analysis of this archetype text and will discuss each
characteristic in relation to that text only. An analysis of the other texts reflective of the
model will follow and be discussed in relation to, and compared with, the relevant
archetype.
4.2 Discussion of Characteristics

The table below presents eighteen characteristics under each of the four categories
described above. It is followed by further discussion of each characteristic. The purpose is
to clarify the meanings of the pairs and to discuss any issues that are relevant to the analysis
that arise from those particular characteristics.
55
ACHIEVEMENT MODEL RECREATIONAL MODEL
General First Impressions
Focus on accuracy and skill
Focus on enjoyment and ease
1 development
2 Prescriptive Optional
3 ‘Work’ based Enjoyment based
Attitudes of Author/Publisher
Linking inexperience with cognitive

Assuming cognitive maturity
immaturity
4
5 Music for technique Music for playing
Stresses practice Does not stress practice

7
Importance of teacher Teacher not considered essential
8
Sequenced and progressive No sequence or progression
9
Skill development through teacher or Skill development through different

‘correct’ approach pathways
10
Approach to Technique
11 Technique leads Music leads
Emphasis on improvement No emphasis on improvement
12
Descriptions detailed and/or
Descriptions simple and concise
13 sophisticated
‘Chunking’ of skills to aid
No ‘chunking’
14 progression
More technical work than music More music than technical work
15
Technical work prerequisite to No technical prerequisite to playing

playing music music
16
Nature of the Repertoire
Emphasis on elite art music Mixed repertoire
17
Repertoire related to skill
Repertoire less sequential and more
development with little room for
room for choice
18 choice
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The characteristics in each category relate to and follow on from each other. For
example, a focus on accuracy is likely to correlate with prescriptive and work-based
approaches to learning. Likewise, a focus on ease is likely to correlate with optional
learning and approaches which stress enjoyment. This chapter describes and discusses the
pairs and any relevant issues that may help clarify their meaning and aid in understanding
their significance. The discussion begins with the category of General First Impressions.
General First Impressions (AM/RM 1- 3):
AM1 Focus on accuracy and skill RM1 Focus on enjoyment and

development ease
Texts in the Achievement Model tend to focus on the development of the skills that
allow for accurate playing of elite art repertoire like the earlier European models from
which they most probably derive. Texts in the Recreational Model focus more on the social
aspects of playing for entertainment and to support other recreational activity, particularly
dance. Various features need to be taken into account to make decisions about the basic
orientation of the text, since the text itself may offer a mixed message. For example, a text,
even if mentioning fun and/or enjoyment, which contains abundant technical work and
other hallmarks of skill development may give a stronger impression that accuracy and skill
development are the primary concerns of the text. A text, with or without overt mentions of
ease, which contains an abundance of familiar tunes and minimal technical work may give
a stronger impression that enjoyment and ease are the primary focus of study.
AM2 Prescribed RM2 Optional
The basic impression of either skill development or social enjoyment tends to

correlate with the level of prescription in the text. Prescribed learning offers a particular
path that is designed to be followed step-by-step in order to learn the violin. The single path
appears to be leading upward, like the picture given in the Virtuosic Mountain woodcut
[see Appendix II] allowing for little student choice. Optional learning gives the student a
choice of pathways and order of learning, which may include the idea of moving upwards
to higher levels of skill, or not, as the student desires.
Price (2008) has expressed some ideas in a modern context which have relevance to
the models and this pair of characteristics in particular. He discusses the idea that people
57
share information through social networking and providing services such as online lessons
on the web. One of the implications of this online networking is that the internet allows for
an immediacy of learning. The idea is that the person is gaining knowledge ‘just in time’
rather than ‘just in case’.
The Achievement Model with its prescribed, step-by-step progressive nature

presents students with knowledge ‘just in case’ they need it in the future, based on the
opinions and experience of the author/teacher. The Recreational Model texts with their less
prescriptive, more optional outlook and different structure (discussed in more detail below),
allow the student to choose his/her learning in a similar way to the internet, allowing the
development of skills ‘just in time’ to play a favorite piece. It might be possible to use the
internet to reproduce elements of learning that reflect the nineteenth century sensibility, so
different from our own.
Comparing the approaches is not to say that one is better than the other. However,
with the expansion and popularity of the internet as a source of information, it is possible to
envision a return towards the less formal approach of the texts of the nineteenth century,
with their ‘just in time’ attitude. The development of the internet, and its relationship with
the texts analyzed will be discussed in more detail after the analysis in Chapter Ten.
AM3 ‘Work’ based RM3 Enjoyment based
This particular pair, expressed as opposites, may appear, in some ways, to be the
most controversial for they contrast the idea of ‘work’ on the Achievement side with the
idea of enjoyment on the Recreational side. The aim is to highlight the extent to which the
text encompasses the idea of delayed gratification: that effort must precede reward. This
pair also relates to the idea developed by Price, above, of ‘just in case’ learning (i.e. ‘work’
or effort developed for the possible uses it may be put to in future repertoire) as opposed to
‘just in time’ learning (i.e. learning the necessary skill to play the repertoire that the
individual wants to play immediately).
Texts which contain abundant technical work, expect practice and offer drilling to
perfect techniques, or are geared towards professional teaching and/or playing, highlight
the work involved in becoming competent at violin playing. That is, the emphasis matches
that described in the Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [see Appendix II]: involving some
58
struggle and serious dedication to reach the desired goal. While the word ‘work’ may not be
used by the author, the way in which practice and other elements are described encourages
the stress on effort before pleasure. Texts which contain minimal technical work, provide
abundant repertoire, and offer possible recreational outlets for playing highlight a less
rigorous, speedier route to enjoyable playing of often simple, well known music with and
for others. Often such texts are less inclined to focus on drill and practice as well.
Perhaps it is no accident that technical development is generally labeled ‘technical

work’. Indeed, as will be seen, it is hard to see certain texts as anything other than work,
both in the sense of ‘drill’ and struggle, as well as in the sense of its professional purpose.
Obviously the idea of ‘work’ conceptualized here does not preclude enjoyment nor
does a focus on enjoyment exclude the idea of achievement. In musical terms, the
perception of work or enjoyment can often be reduced to the difference between ‘practice’
and ‘playing’. Practice, particularly of technical work such as scales and exercises, is often
viewed as the necessary ‘work’ to be done in order to improve. When practicing, the
student is actively trying to fix particular problems in their playing. Playing, however, is
viewed as making music for recreation or enjoyment, alone or with others, without the
specific aim of fixing flaws.
There are various instances in articles and scholarly publications that suggest that
practice is generally not viewed as an enjoyable activity. Nigel Kennedy, the celebrated
concert violinist, for example, expresses his view as follows:
Time has to be spent doing it, so I do it. You don’t have to use a lot of grey cells to do
most of that [technical] work, so I usually put a quiz show or hockey game on the TV
and just hack at my violin (Hallam 1995, p.9).
Kennedy’s remark epitomizes the view of practice as drudgery.
Contrarily, work can also be viewed as vocation or a way of expressing one’s

aspirational devotion to something, in this case, playing the violin. Writers such as Lehman
(2002) are proposing this view of the ‘work’ involved in learning music when they write
the following:
Music exalts the human spirit. It transforms the human experience… It brings joy,
beauty and satisfaction into people’s lives…Any child whose educational program does
not include the systematic study of music has been cheated just as surely as if his or her
program had not included the study of science or history…In many schools, the music
curriculum should be revised to reflect better the balance and comprehensiveness called
for in the National Standards for Music Education (p.49).
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This view is the modern equivalent of the Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [see
Appendix II] which suggests mechanical effort is necessary to reach sublime heights.
Davidson et al. (2001) also support the idea of practice as a means to an end, without any
intrinsic pleasure. West (2007) claims in her doctoral dissertation that there is much writing
to suggest that practice is rarely equated with enjoyment.
‘Playing’ is a contrast to ‘practice’, and has the connotation of enjoyment or

recreation. Hallam (1995) is one writer who acknowledges the importance of playing and
suggests that perhaps achievement can be developed through playing rather than practice.
Sloboda et al (1996) discussed what they called ‘informal’ music activities or ‘messing
about’ which did not take the form of systematic drilling of technical issues. They found
that this ‘messing about’, which equates more with the enjoyment side of our pairs, was
more conducive of the development of expressive playing, whereas formal practice,
equating with the ‘work’ side of our pairs, was more likely to develop mechanical skill.
This division, as will be seen, is supported in the texts by other aspects that either suggest
prescription and drill or a more random approach based on the choice of the student and
his/her social inclinations.
How the texts present the ideas of practice and playing determine whether or not the
texts are work based, or enjoyment based. Achievement may well be possible, although
different, through both agents. It is certainly unlikely that the writers of the texts
specifically wrote to preclude advancement.
Attitudes of the Author/Publisher (AM/RM 4-10):
AM4 Linking inexperience with cognitive

RM4 Assuming cognitive maturity
immaturity
This characteristic relates to the assumption the authors make regarding the basic
audience for the text. A text directed at adult learners may be expected to show recognition
of the difference between the technical/musical competency of the individual, and his/her
cognitive maturity. That is, a mature adult might understand what is physically and
musically required more readily than a child, even if the adult finds it more difficult to do
what is required. Some texts appear to link physical and musical inexperience with
cognitive immaturity through a patronizing approach. Such an approach could include
presenting the student with overly detailed, step-by-step learning, addressing remarks to
60
children, addressing adults as children, using children’s pieces and/or showing
consideration of children’s needs. Texts which appear to assume cognitive maturity in their
audience allow the student to order their own learning, use adult sophisticated language,
and do not mention children or use children’s pieces.
AM5 Music for technique RM5 Music for playing
This characteristic relates to the idea of ‘work’ and ‘enjoyment’ discussed in

AM/RM3 above. The term ‘music for technique’ describes texts which present the student
with music that is designed to focus on the teaching of particular skills. Musical selections,
whether original to the author or pre-existing tunes, are linked to particular technical skills
and have been included because they are what the student needs in order to foster technical
development. In texts which present the student with ‘music for playing’, musical
selections appear to be chosen with the student’s enjoyment in mind. There is little link to
the development of skills, or sequencing of material from easy to more difficult.
AM6 Accuracy defined RM6 Accuracy undefined
Texts which define accuracy usually provide significant description of exactly how
a skill should be performed and use language that promotes the ‘single path’ approach that
characterizes the Achievement Model. Words that are indicative of this model include
‘must’ ‘proper’, ‘correct’, and ‘perfect’. Texts which view accuracy as less important,
generally leave it undefined except perhaps when it has relevance for a particular social
purpose.
AM7 Stresses practice RM7 Does not stress practice
The stress or otherwise on practice is likely to correlate with the degree to which the
text appears to be either work based or enjoyment based (AM/RM 4). Texts which have a
more regimented view of violin instruction stress practice through the repeated use of the
word, items as ‘practice points’, and/or recommended amounts of daily practice. Practice
exhortations can appear in relation to particular skills that the author believes are
significant, or can include a general reminder that regular practice is important for progress.
The focus on practice parallels a focus on on-going improvement to higher levels of
competency. Texts which do not stress practice have a less regimented view of learning and
61
appear to make the assumption that playing will render improvement; or, possibly, that
improvement is not such a necessary component of playing the instrument.
AM8 Importance of teacher RM8 Teacher not considered essential
The necessity and/or the role of the teacher are viewed differently depending on
whether the text leans to the Recreational side or the Achievement side. Texts which can be
seen as following on from the earlier European achievement based texts view the teacher as
a necessity, assuming that the student either cannot learn properly or at all without one. The
implication is that without the teacher the student will not become ‘good’. Texts which
follow the tradition of Playford and other more recreationally based texts do not consider a
teacher essential, assuming that the student can learn on his/her own and/or through social
enculturation processes.
For texts designed to be used with a teacher, the attitude of the teacher adds another
element to the instruction which will have an impact on the student’s learning experience.
These texts present the student with a formal, guided learning situation. How the teacher
views learning the violin will influence what text he/she chooses to use with a student, and
can also reinforce the attitude presented by the text or can counter it.
Other texts analyzed in this thesis are self-instructing; that is, they are designed to
be used AS the teacher. This type of instruction is less formal, since the ‘guide’ is not
responding to the individual needs of the student and the student carries more responsibility
for his/her own learning. He/she also can have more choice about that learning.
There is some discussion in the literature about whether or not self-instruction is

possible, [see Chapter Three, 3.5] but the general attitude today seems to be that having a
teacher is better. In the nineteenth century, however, self-instruction was considered a
viable way of learning. The prevalence of self-instructing texts from this period may relate
to a variety of factors, including the more diverse ways in which social enculturation
allowed for the development of musical skills in less formal settings, which is less common
today.
Indeed, a recent author, Turino, makes a distinction in music making that also has
relevance for the texts analyzed here. While today performance is expected and usual,
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much of music in the nineteenth century was what Turino (2008) calls ‘participatory’ as
opposed to ‘presentational’. He describes the distinction as follows:
Briefly defined, participatory performance is a special type of artistic practice in which

there are no artist-audience distinctions, only participants and potential participants
performing different roles, and the primary goal is to involve the maximum number of
people in some performance role. Presentational performance, in contrast, refers to
situations where one group of people, the artists, prepare and provide music for another
group, the audience, who do not participate in making the music or dancing (p.26).
Participatory music has the idea of enculturation embedded in it. Everyone has a
chance to participate, observe and gain information from watching others. For example,
nineteenth century violin students might engage in ‘participatory performance’ at a social
gathering where there is dancing. They could participate both as players for the dancers and
as dancers, thus giving them a chance both to play and observe other players and learn from
them. Participatory performance is more problematical today in our society because of
music’s different delineated social role, which will be discussed in more detail in Section
Three.
AM9 Sequenced and progressive RM9 No sequence or progression
While AM/RM2 above discussed whether or not a text offered prescriptive learning,
this characteristic examines in detail the nature and degree of the prescription: how the
instruction is organized, whether or not it is sequenced and/or progressive and what that
might mean to the student. The idea of ‘progression’, in the modern sense, refers to the
concept of gradual improvement, represented in the Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [see
Appendix II] as an upward direction leading to higher technical and, ultimately, musical (if
not spiritual) rewards. This modern idea of progression is not necessarily central to all the
texts analyzed. Some do not use the idea of progression at all and others use the term but
with a very different meaning from what might be expected today. Texts which deliver
their content sequentially in a step-by-step progression suggest that there is only one
‘correct path’ to learning even though that path may differ from text to text. Texts which do
not present their content either sequentially or progressively suggest that there are a variety
of pathways to learning.
AM10 Skill development through teacher RM10 Skill development through different
or ‘correct’ approach pathways
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Texts which are concerned with accuracy will often either leave explanations of
skills entirely to the teacher, or only present them in the ‘correct’ way in the text. The
authors assume that either that the skills are too difficult for students to learn on their own,
requiring the teacher to explain, or that it is necessary for them to learn the skill in one
particular way. Texts which are less concerned with accuracy provide alternate pathways
for the development of skills. The authors assume that students can learn skills
independently and that there are a variety of pathways through which to develop skills.
Approach to Technique (AM/RM 11-16):
AM11 Technique leads RM11 Music leads
This characteristic refers to the degree to which the focus on the text is on the
development of technical facility itself, as opposed to whether the focus is on the actual
playing of ‘real’ music. Texts concerned with achievement place the focus more or less
strongly on the development of technique. The Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [see Appendix
II] again proposes the model for this idea of the importance of technique with what is
labeled, the ‘mechanical foundation’. Various writers point to the importance placed on the
development of technique. Barenboim, for example, writes, ‘first come the fingers’ (1977,
p.41) and other writers concur with this view (Schafer, 1973; Leonhard, 1999; Davidson et
al., 2001). Technique may ‘lead’ in all aspects of the texts from the format, to the choice
and placement of repertoire. Playing music is secondary to technique.
The modern focus on this technical preoccupation is recognized today, (Schafer,

1973; Davidson et al., 2001; Handford & Watson, 2003) although that recognition is less
obvious in the modern analyzed texts as will be seen. Texts concerned with recreation
place the focus on the playing of melodies first and foremost. Music leads, and the
assumption is that technique will develop through the playing of repertoire, at least insofar
as the student needs for his/her purposes.
AM12 Emphasis on improvement RM12 No emphasis on improvement
Some texts expect and place an emphasis on improvement in technical skill and
overall standard of playing. These texts present the idea that the student must not only have
an attitude something akin to that expressed in the Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [see
Appendix II], but that they should continually move in an upward direction. Other texts do
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not have an expectation of or emphasis on improvement either in technical development or
standard of playing. These texts present the idea that the student may harbor a different
attitude towards playing that does not involve moving ever onward and upward.
AM13 Descriptions detailed or

RM13 Descriptions simple and concise
sophisticated
This characteristic relates to AM10 above but focuses particularly on the degree of
detail given in any explanations of skills. When describing skills, some texts include
descriptions which are highly detailed and/or sophisticated. While the detail is meant to
ensure the student does the skill correctly, it implies that there is only one ‘right’ way to do
the skill. The degree of detail can be overwhelming and ultimately discouraging to the
student.
Other texts include descriptions that are simple and concise, often implying that
there is more than one way to do skills and that some variation from player to player is
acceptable, which may be more encouraging to the student.
AM14 ‘Chunking’ of skills to aid

RM14 No ‘chunking’
progression
The term ‘chunking’ is used in a variety of fields. In cognitive psychology,

chunking refers to a strategy for making more efficient use of short-term memory by
recoding information; in computer terms it means the breaking up of a block of data into
two or more smaller pieces, usually to accommodate memory limitations or to avoid
hardware dependencies; in music it means absorbing large segments of music at a glance.
In this thesis, ‘chunking’ is used to describe the division of instruction into what the
author/publisher consider manageable segments.
This characteristic relates to AM2 and AM9 but, again, with a slightly different
focus. A prescriptive approach, in which there is sequenced or progressive learning, often
also includes the ‘chunking’ of skills, or parceling out the information to the student in
manageable ‘bites’. The assumption is that the student can only absorb a certain amount of
information at a time, and additionally, the parceling out of the information ensures that the
progression set out by the author will be followed.
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Other texts do not ‘chunk’ skills, assuming that students can decide how much
information they can absorb at one time and order their own learning. The implication is
that there is no set progression to learning the violin or that the student has the cognitive
ability to assist in designing his/her own learning.
AM15 More technical work than music RM15 More music than technical work
Texts which are representative of the Achievement Model tend to contain more
technical work than music which supports their focus on technical development and
improvement. Sometimes the technical work masquerades as ‘real’ music in various ways
but its technical purpose is still often clearly discernible. Texts which are representative of
the Recreational Model tend to contain more music than technical work which supports
their focus on playing for recreational enjoyment.
AM16 Technical work a prerequisite for RM 16 No technical prerequisite to play

playing music music
This category relates to AM/RM 11 with its focus on the ‘leading’ element in the
text, but discusses if and how technical work manifests in the text. Some texts precede
‘real’ music with exercises designed to practice the skills needed for the playing of the
piece. Texts which present technical work as a prerequisite for playing music include the
idea that the student must be competent at skills before playing the actual music. The
technical work is used to introduce and hone those skills so as to improve the accurate
playing of the music. Texts which do not require a technical prerequisite to playing music
express the idea that the student can play music regardless of skill and use the music itself,
rather than the technical work, to develop and hone skills.
Nature of the Repertoire (AM/RM 17-18):
AM17 Emphasis on elite art music RM17 Mixed repertoire
This pair discusses the assumptions that the authors make about the types of
repertoire the student will play. It involves considering the music presented throughout the
text, as well as the types of technical skills the author attempts to develop.
Texts which focus on technical development and achievement may do so in part

because the assumed goal is that of elite art music which requires a high level of technique.
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The writers may focus on technical development first because the playing of the proposed
repertoire is deemed to require a concentration on and development of particular skills to
make the playing of ‘real’ music possible.
Texts which focus on recreation and enjoyment and are less concerned with
technique assume the playing of mixed repertoire for social purposes which requires no
upper or lower limits of technical facility. There is often no attempt to present the music in
‘order’ of its technical difficulty and, indeed, there may be no ‘order’ in the mind of the
author as to which techniques should be acquired at which stage. Mixed repertoire is given
because the author may expect that the social avenues open to students will vary and
require different music and different skills, depending on the situation.
AM18 Repertoire related to skill RM18 Repertoire less sequential and more
development with little room for choice room for choice
This pair relates to AM/RM5 above but is a more specific discussion of the types of
repertoire that are included and how that relates to skill development and student choice.
Texts which are prescriptive and concerned with achievement not only precede the
playing of pieces with practice of technical skills (as in AM/RM16); they also link the
repertoire to the development of particular skills. This necessitates playing the tunes in the
prescribed order, thus giving the student little choice. Repertoire is chosen more for its
potential to develop skills considered important by the author, rather than for its potential to
interest and amuse the student. Texts which have more optional features and are more
concerned with recreational types of playing do not link repertoire to skills and therefore do
not place the repertoire in a particular sequence, thus allowing students choice in what they
play. Repertoire is chosen primarily in consideration of what the student may want to play
rather than what is needed to improve.
The models described above were applied to each text, and the results are described
in the next three chapters of analysis. The analysis will begin with texts which are reflective
of the Achievement Model. The reader should note that the full chart of the model
characteristics is contained in Appendix III, and charts indicating where each text falls in
relation to the models can be viewed in the Appendices under the text name.
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CHAPTER 5: Achievement Model Texts
5.1 Introduction: The Archetype: Julius Stulberg’s A Violin Course
for Adult Beginners (1938) and Albert Lazan’s Basic Violin for
Adults (1968)
Each of the three chapters which examine the proposed models will begin with a
discussion of the text which exemplifies the characteristics of that model. This archetypal
text will be analyzed in detail in order to show how it reflects the characteristics of a
particular model and also to serve as a point of comparison for other texts both within this
chapter and the entire section dedicated to analysis.
While an archetype normally denotes one prime example of something, clearly there
are two texts listed above. Stulberg [see Appendix IV] and Lazan [see Appendix V] have a
number of similarities which makes it difficult to separate them and name just one as the
archetype of the Achievement Model. These texts are the only two reviewed for this thesis
which label themselves as specifically for an adult audience. However, they are not for
adults generally, but are written specifically for university music education majors who are
already musically trained. As will be shown below, not only do Stulberg and Lazan have
the same audience, but there are also strong similarities in both content and attitude.
These texts are written for professional purposes. They have been designed to be
used as part of college courses which give the students a limited amount of time in which to
complete the text. Stulberg and Lazan are aware that they must write a text that will give
the students the foundation they need but will do so within the limited time allotted for the
course. In doing so, they have provided a clear, if austere approach to the violin,
concentrating on the development of technique.
While one could suggest that the fact these texts were written for professional
purposes makes them unsuitable to be the archetype, it is argued here that their
unambiguous approach makes them a perfect example of Achievement. Despite its more
particular purpose and its dryness, the manner of instruction and attitude espoused by
Stulberg and Lazan is strikingly similar to those texts written for more general use. Their
clarity provides a useful background against which other texts can be viewed and
compared. It is suggested that the reader keep Appendix XXXII, inside the back cover,
open beside them while they read for easy reference throughout this section of analysis.
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5.2 General First Impressions
The covers of both Stulberg and Lazan are very plain [see Appendices IV.II and
V.II respectively], containing only the title of the text and the proposed audience. The fact
that both Stulberg and Lazan specify any audience is unusual because most violin
instructional texts do not name a particular audience [see Chapter Three], and they are the
only two, among all those reviewed for this study, that name only adults as the audience for
their texts. Stulberg’s and Lazan’s consideration for the adult learner, albeit college music
education majors, makes their texts significant because so few others make such a
distinction.
Texts associated with the Achievement Model generally do not include description
on their covers. The reasons for this lack of description are unclear but may include cost
saving, an assumption that content is understood, or a desire to have the buyer look further.
Whatever the reason, the lack of cover content in the texts reflective of the Achievement
Model is in opposition to the abundant cover advertising of texts reflective of the
Recreational Model [see Chapter Six].
5.2.1 AM1 Focus on Skill Development and Accuracy

The lack of cover advertising makes it necessary to look inside to gain information.
In looking through the text and reading the prefaces and introductory remarks, it becomes
apparent that there is abundant technical work, few pieces, and that the text is focused on
skill development and accuracy.
5.2.2 AM2 Prescriptive

Since both Stulberg and Lazan have written their texts for aspiring music educators
it is not surprising that they have written their texts in a prescriptive manner based on
systematic achievement. A glance through the texts shows a pattern of instruction which
introduces the student to skills one at a time, presents him/her with exercises in order to
hone that skill, then introduces the next skill. This prescriptive learning can be related to the
Virtuosic Mountain [see Appendix II] as discussed in Chapter Three, but here the lack of
repertoire means that the journey stops before the summit and the higher goals to be
attained there.
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Stulberg and Lazan do not include pieces in their texts; perhaps with the idea that
these musical students will be able to find their own repertoire or that the teacher of the
course would supply it. Regardless, the impression one gets is that the mission of learning
the violin involves learning technique in order to teach younger students.
5.2.3 AM3 ‘Work’ Based

Since these texts were written for work, it is not surprising that they give the
impression that they are ‘work’ based. Stulberg is one of the few writers to mention ‘work’
specifically, although he is referring to career rather than an antonym to ‘recreation.’ He
explains his purpose thus:
In general practice, public school music students [i.e. those training to be music
teachers] are required to study some stringed instrument, as partial preparation for work
with instrumental classes, string ensembles, and orchestras (p.iii).
Lazan, similarly, writes: ‘It is geared for the non-string major in music who may be
required to teach elementary strings’ (p.iii). Stulberg and Lazan have addressed their texts
to all adult music students who may need to know the rudiments of violin for teaching
purposes. Stulberg highlights the point by writing that: ‘there is a need for teaching material
that will cope with the specific problems encountered in adequately preparing these pupils’
(i.e. students wishing to become teachers) (p.iii).
While Stulberg addresses his texts only to those seeking to become professional
teachers, Lazan includes an additional audience for his text. He says: ‘Adults with a
musical background who wish to play the violin will also find this book effective’ (p.iii).
Unlike Stulberg, Lazan is indicating that his book may be useful for other adults with some
musical training who are interested in learning violin. While the inclusion of this larger
audience may be an afterthought for marketing purposes, it may provide a more precise
guide to the nature of the thinking of the author. Even if there are arguments in favor of the
work based approach of these texts for potential teachers it is harder to see the value of
such a text for the musically literate, interested adult amateur, particularly as there are no
pieces for them to play. Lazan gives the impression that he believes that a prescribed,
technique based method and no repertoire is appropriate for all students no matter what
their purpose in learning the violin.
The adult students for whom these texts are intended are already musically trained,
though not in violin. Today there are no extant twentieth and twenty-first century texts that
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are addressed specifically to adults who are musical beginners as well as violin beginners.
Yet, as was shown in Chapter Three, there are certainly twentieth and twenty-first century
texts designed for piano beginners who are also musical beginners. To find such texts for
violin, one must look much further back. The lack of texts for musical and violin beginners
today when compared with the availability of such texts in the nineteenth century points to
changes in attitudes about violin instruction in the intervening years.
Stulberg and Lazan are also ‘work’ based in the language that they use. Words such
as ‘effective’, ‘practical’, and ‘challenging’, are used to describe their texts. They
emphasize the work aspect, perhaps understandably given their primary audience, but not
the possible enjoyable aspects of playing, which surely could and/or should matter for these
potential educators of children. More tellingly, both texts make it clear that they are not
recreation based since they only include technical work. There is no obvious consideration
of applying the technique to repertoire for either recreational purposes or even further
technical development through music.
5.3 Attitudes of the Author/Publisher

The seven characteristics included in this section offer a chance to discuss the
attitudes these authors hold towards learning the violin. Stulberg and Lazan have written
their texts for future music educators. The attitudes these future teachers gain about
learning the violin may not only affect how they themselves view learning the violin, but
also have the potential to influence young students these future teachers will then teach.
The attitudes expressed here have more wide-ranging consequences to a larger number of
people than those expressed by some of the other texts below simply because of their
purpose.
Important in the discussion of these characteristics is the serious discrepancies in

teaching content of the two texts in certain areas, despite the similar purpose of the texts.
Stulberg and Lazan not only have differences in methodology but also both differ from the
way in which most children’s class methods approach violin instruction.
These differences, coupled with the prescriptive nature of the texts points to an
interesting paradox of Achievement Model texts. They insist on their ‘rightness’ but their
‘rightness’ may be unique to that writer or involve more traditionally accepted practice.
Either way, the rationale behind the ‘rightness’ is rarely discussed.
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5.3.1 RM4 Assuming Cognitive Maturity
One feature of Achievement model texts is the lack of distinction between the stated
or implied audience, whether adult or child. This ambiguity of audience can extend into the
text in various ways, including the language used, addressing children directly and/or
including considerations of children’s needs and repertoire. Stulberg and Lazan, however,
are not ambiguous. They have stated very definitely that their texts are for the adult learner
who is already an accomplished musician. Both Stulberg and Lazan, therefore, address their
adult beginners as adults. Even though these future music educators will go on to work
with children, children are not mentioned or addressed specifically. Nor do Stulberg and
Lazan include repertoire that is associated with a young audience. The fact that they assume
cognitive maturity does not change their Achievement focus nor does it negate their place
as the archetype text because in all other ways these texts are so obviously Achievement
focused.
Stulberg goes further than Lazan in his commitment to the adult learner. Not only
has he used adult language, he also says: ‘All the students are adults and should have
material that is suited to the adult mind from the standpoint of interest, difficulty, and rate
of advancement’ (p.iii). Given the lack of actual music in his text, his mention of ‘interest’
is surprising and questionable. His mention of ‘difficulty’ is less so, presumably drawing a
connection between interest and the challenge that ‘difficulty’ entails. As is demonstrated
in much modern literature with regard to children, music education draws connections
between achievement, level of difficulty, self-efficacy and the sense of ‘flow’, all seen to be
important in maintaining engagement and performing adequately.
The focus on fast improvement similarly implies that his audience would expect to
move quickly, possibly because they are accustomed to higher level achievement on their
main instruments. Another consideration is that the time the students have to learn the
material might be only a term or a semester. The limited time would necessitate a quick
pace in order for the students to learn the required material by the end of the course.
5.3.2 AM5 Music for Technique

The goal Stulberg and Lazan have in writing their texts, as discussed above, is to
give their students a solid technical foundation in a limited time for future vocational
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reasons. Unsurprisingly, therefore, these texts are strong examples of ‘music for
technique’.
Both texts contain technical work which has been purpose-composed by the authors,
and organized with the student’s technical development in mind. Stulberg’s approach is
quite straightforward. He introduces a skill and gives the student a number of exercises
before introducing the next skill. Lazan, while still presenting music for technique, does so
with more variety than Stulberg. Like Stulberg, he provides the student with scales and
exercises in a straightforward manner. However, Lazan gives some of his exercises titles.
Pieces with titles are usually considered to be repertoire, and might give students the
impression that the text includes music for playing. However, in examining the pieces
closely it is clear that these pieces are actually exercises. They are purpose-composed as
aids to developing the student’s skills rather than for any other musical purpose. For
example, when Lazan introduces the first finger, he presents the student with a ‘piece’
called Waltz which, as it uses only the first finger and open strings, is clearly to develop the
student’s skill in placing the first finger rather than a piece for recreation.
Of course, labeling a piece an exercise does not mean that it cannot also be a
performance piece. For example, the Etudes of Chopin for piano and the Caprices of
Paganini for violin are considered great musical works. However the utilitarian form of
writing exhibited by Lazan’s ‘pieces’ does not represent such a form of writing.
Lazan also uses duets, which at first glance, like the ‘pieces’ above, might appear to
be designed for playing rather than skill development. However, they too are purpose-
composed and Lazan specifically reminds the players to concentrate on the technique rather
than any other aspect of playing. He writes:
PRACTICE POINTS: (a) In the duets, practice each part separately, observing the style
and expression indicated. (b) When you combine the parts, be mindful of good
ensemble, always listening to the other player (p.66).
In accordance with the purpose of his text, even this more recreational activity is
linked to technical development. Along with music for technical development comes a
concern with accuracy in that technique.
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5.3.3 AM6 Accuracy Defined
Both authors’ concern with accuracy is expressed in their texts in various ways,
either directly (Lazan) or more indirectly (Stulberg). Lazan is particularly concerned that
the student be taught correctly and says that his text presents these skills in the correct way.
There are correct ways to achieve technical results, not because someone says they are
correct but because the best instrumentalists have proved them so. Basic Violin for
Adults, successfully tested at Indiana University, will help students achieve these results
(p.iii).
Lazan bolsters his own view by citing that ‘the best instrumentalists’ and successful
testing at Indiana University say so. As noted above, the insistence on ‘correctness’ is
problematic given the differences of opinion on what constitutes ‘correctness’ and his less-
than-convincing rationale that includes the unnamed ‘best instrumentalists.’
Accuracy in both texts is defined by particular qualifiers such as ‘perfect’, ‘precise’,

‘properly’, and ‘correct’. Another word that can be considered in a definition of accuracy is
the word ‘must’. While not the same kind of qualifier as those listed above, the word ‘must’
implies one correct way with no possible variation. This is in opposition to the word
‘should’ which implies that some leeway is possible and permissible.
All the qualifiers above appear mostly in relation to technical skills such as stance,
the positions of holding the violin and bow, intonation and bowing. For example, Stulberg
is concerned with good body posture and says:
Stand in an upright and relaxed position. Place the weight of the body on the left foot,
and advance the right foot forward to the right. The body must be in a natural
comfortable position, with the weight on the left foot. (Figure 1, page v) This will insure
freedom for the right arm, allowing it to move without communicating its motion to the
rest of the body (p.1).
Lazan has a similar concern with posture and says:
A good body posture is of the utmost importance. For the present playing in a standing
position will increase your alertness and projection. Stand with your body well
balanced, feet properly spaced, knees relaxed. Leaning forward or backward will throw
your body out of line and prevent ease of playing (p.3).
He does not use ‘must’, like Stulberg, but stresses that good posture is of ‘the
utmost importance’ requiring the ‘proper’ spacing of the feet.
It needs to be considered that the differences in the ‘musts’ between these two
writers, and indeed among all the texts, may be due to a change in ‘fashion’ rather than any
absolute of violin technique. The difference in the ‘musts’ points to changes in beliefs
about how certain skills were done at different times.
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Correctness in posture and holding the violin and bow are emphasized throughout
the two texts, as illustrated when Stulberg describes how to hold the violin. He says:
With the right hand, place the violin on the left collar-bone, with the jaw – not the chin –
placed on the chin-rest, which is on the left side of the tailpiece. The violin must not be
pushed against the neck, but should rest lightly on the collar-bone. Avoid raising the
shoulders, a habit which tends to stiffen the entire body and hampers smooth bowing and
fingering (p.1).
Lazan also gives instructions reminding the student to hold the instrument and bow
correctly. Speaking of holding the bow he says:
3. In holding the bow, remember that closely bunched fingers or fingers that are spread
too far apart will tend to tighten your hand. Furthermore, good finger spacing on the
stick induces a better grip for controlling a variety of bow strokes (p.4-5).
In accordance with the goal of developing technique, the reason for accuracy is
related not just to the comfort of the player, but to the development of skills. There is the
clear expectation that the student will be learning a variety of bow strokes during his/her
training, and he/she needs to get the bow hold correct in order to have more control later.
Definitions of accuracy also occur when the authors describe bowing technique.
Stulberg views bowing as ‘the first essential in violin playing’ (p.iii), and consequently
spends a great deal of time developing that skill by giving the student large numbers of
exercises on the open strings. He says:
In the following exercises, the student will become acquainted with the rudiments of
bowing. By giving exercises only on the open strings, it is intended to concentrate
attention upon the correct use of the bow (p.2).
The student is expected to play the exercises in a particular way, and Stulberg gives
specific instructions prior to each. For example:
In skipping strings, be sure to hold each tone its full value. Use all the bow, then raise or
lower the right arm speedily, but relaxed. Do not remove the bow from the strings. When
the right arm works correctly the skipped strings will not sound (p.6).
Stulberg repeatedly makes mention of achieving skills correctly.
Both Stulberg and Lazan introduce one hand before the other. This focus on one
hand at a time is typical in texts that reflect the Achievement Model [see below]. Stulberg
and Lazan begin with the bow, but some texts elect to begin with the left hand instead [see
Appendix VI for more detail]. While the rationale is never stated, the implication is that
students cannot simultaneously learn both hands accurately.
Lazan spends much less time on the open strings than Stulberg, but shows, if
possible, more concern with accuracy. In order to accomplish correct bowing, he puts
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abbreviations in the music which indicate how much bow to use for each kind of note. In a
set of Practice Points he says the following:
(a) Utilize the bow like a yardstick, measuring out the amount needed for each note. Use
a whole bow (WB) for half notes, a half bow (HB) for quarter notes, a quarter of the bow
for eighth notes.
(b) Observe bow speed and rhythm (p.13).
It’s interesting to consider to what extent the beginner violinist, for all their
supposed expertise on another instrument, will be able to follow these instructions. Given
the number of things to consider while attempting to play the violin, using the bow ‘like a
yardstick’ may not limit the student’s difficulties, but compound them. If the beginner is
expected to think of all these things when just learning how to bow, it becomes apparent
why the student is taught only one hand at a time and is given extensive technical work in
order to develop that skill before the introduction of the left hand.
Accuracy is also expected and defined in relation to bowing direction. Both texts
include numerous down and up bow markings, sometimes appearing over every note. In
addition, Stulberg exhorts the student to ‘Watch carefully for all signs and directions’ (p.3).
Stulberg’s comment can be compared with following directions or a map when driving to
an unfamiliar destination. The student needs to look carefully at street signs and for
landmarks so he/she does not make a wrong turn. The implication is that there is one
correct route to the destination and if the student does not follow the directions properly
then he/she will get lost and/or not reach his/her destination – in musical terms playing the
piece correctly.
While making clear markings as to bow direction, neither author gives any general
guidelines as to making decisions about bowing direction in different or new pieces. The
focus on correct playing does not extend to the development of independence, or the ability
to pass skills on to younger students, the supposed point of the learning. How does the
student learn to bow for him/herself?
This attitude is also evident in the introduction of the left hand. Both authors
introduce the left hand in a way that will assist in accuracy. Stulberg describes his method
as follows:
Fingering is also introduced in a manner different than the usual one. Rather than
employing the four fingers on a single string, using whole-tones and half-tones, the
method of playing on all four strings, directly across the fingerboard, using and drilling
one finger at a time is preferred. The fingers will progress by half-tones. In this way, it
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is believed the student will more clearly see the relationship between the fingers and
tones on the different strings, and thus aid him to play more accurately in tune (p.iii).
Stulberg has introduced the left hand in this way not so the student can play
melodies quickly, but in order for him/her ‘to play more accurately in tune’. One concern
with this approach is that while it is interesting from a theoretical standpoint, it seriously
delays the student’s ability to play tunes. Stulberg’s intent, of course, is not to teach
melodies but technique. His approach, however, severely limits both enterprising students
and the teacher who might decide to seek out repertoire with which to supplement the text.
It would be difficult to find even simple tunes the student could play until late in the course
because the way Stulberg has introduced the left hand makes it impossible.
A further difficulty with Stulberg’s approach is that it is completely divorced from

the way that modern class methods introduce the left hand. Of all the class methods
examined for this thesis Stulberg is the only one to introduce the left hand in this way. Most
class methods begin in the ‘usual’ way, which introduces the student to multiple fingers on
one or two strings in rapid succession so the student has the ability to play simple tunes
early on. Stulberg’s approach for reasons of accuracy bears no resemblance to the way the
future teachers are likely to teach their students.
Lazan’s approach is similar, though it is severely truncated when compared to that

of Stulberg. His primary concern, like Stulberg’s above, is accuracy. He introduces one
finger at a time on all the strings, but only in one position, in contrast to Stulberg who
introduced one finger in three positions before introducing the next finger. Lazan uses the
fingers in a particular pattern for a period of time before changing it. In this way his
approach is more related to the class methods for children, which the future teachers will
likely use, though they only use the pattern on one string rather than all. In some ways,
class methods written for children are less rigid than those of Stulberg and Lazan because
while they want the child to be accurate, they also want the child to play tunes reasonably
early. While Lazan’s approach would allow the student to play tunes sooner than
Stulberg’s, it is worth noting again that he has chosen not to include tunes but instead uses
exercises to hone the student’s left hand skills.
Accuracy in intonation is extremely important to both authors. Stulberg refers to it

as ‘the greatest problem a violinist faces’. His text contains multiple reminders of left hand
accuracy. For example:
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Extreme care should be given to the correct movement of the first finger. In moving the
finger forward or backward, be sure that the tones are perfectly in tune. Listen carefully,
and make all finger movements precise. Carelessness in this respect inevitably results in
faulty intonation. There must be no question about the accuracy of the movements of
the first finger, before attempting the exercises for the other fingers (p.18).
The idea that there must be ‘no question’ about the accuracy gives a strong sense of
the importance of intonation to Stulberg. In order to hone the left hand accuracy of the
students further, he presents them with extensive exercises in double stops. It is interesting
to think about the issue of accuracy in relation to pianists, for example, who do not need to
listen for pitch on their main instrument.
Intonation – the greatest problem to the violinist – is further stressed by frequent playing
of double-stops. The value of double-stopping to the beginner is usually not sufficiently
recognized. It necessitates a correct violin position, fosters greater accuracy of
fingering, strengthens the fingers, demands careful listening to what is being played, and
eliminates the fear of playing more than one tone at a time (p.iii).
Stulberg’s quote above about double stops, highlights a broader theme in both texts
of the presentation of technique divorced from practical application. Like Stulberg’s
introduction of the left hand, his introduction of double stops is unrelated to either teaching
purpose or repertoire. Stulberg has neglected to mention that double stops occur in violin
repertoire of all musical styles. He is more concerned with the development of the
technique rather than its practical application.
Without practical purpose for the technique, these authors have presented technique
in the abstract. The students will understand technique to a certain extent, but will gain no
experience in its practical application. Transferring the technique to young students may
prove to be an additional problem; given the suggestion by some authors [see Chapter
Three] that over-reliance on abstract concepts contributes to lack of engagement by
younger players (Clinch, 1990).
Lazan is similarly concerned with accuracy in intonation and says the following:
1. This book purposely avoids indicating whole and half steps. As musical adults, you
must rely on your ears to judge the distance between intervals. No two hands are built
alike; consequently you must adjust your finger placement according to your own left
hand.
2. Hear the pitch mentally before you play. Let your ear be your guide.
3. Don’t grope for notes. Train your left-hand fingers to come down with authority.
4. If the intonation is faulty, correct it at once. Ears and fingers must learn to work as a
team (p.7-8).
Stulberg and Lazan are similar in many ways, including their commitment to
accuracy in intonation. There are, however, noticeable differences one of which occurs in
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relation to intonation. Lazan’s idea, for example, of not prescribing exact positions on the
basis that each individual is different argues for a somewhat freer approach. At the same
time, Lazan expects the student to be continually vigilant regarding intonation, and to
‘correct it at once’ if it isn’t accurate. That such immediate correction might lead to a
distortion of musical flow has seemingly not been considered.
Lazan places reminders about pitch accuracy throughout his text in his Practice
Points. For example when introducing the first finger he says:
(b) The distance from the nut to the first finger is about an inch. Train yourself to hear
the correct pitch before playing, adjusting the finger immediately, if necessary. Your ear
must be your guide (p.16).
Other such reminders appear when he introduces the fourth finger, ‘(b) The distance
between third and fourth fingers (in a whole step) is about an inch. Check your fourth-
finger pitch against adjacent open strings’ [Lazan’s italics] (p.31) and with the introduction
of flat keys, ‘(a) The first finger, playing B flat and F natural, is close to the nut. Again,
listen to the pitch’ (p.39).
Stulberg’s concern with accuracy leads him to write: ‘Each exercise must be
mastered before the next is undertaken’ (p.2). Lazan does not insist, as Stulberg does, that
the student masters the exercise before progressing to the next, but there is an expectation
of accuracy. Accuracy, through technique, is the message of both texts.
5.3.4 AM7 Stresses Practice

However forthright Stulberg and Lazan are about practice, the constant emphasis on
accuracy suggests that they both see practice as the necessary ‘work’ that needs to be done
in order to improve. Students using their texts would not be strangers to practice, having
reached a high level of competency on at least one instrument. This may be why neither
Stulberg nor Lazan discuss directly the need for the students to practice or recommend
minimum amounts of daily practice. In order to meet the goals set by the texts and teachers,
this group of students, being musicians, would understand the need to practice to achieve.
Stulberg does not address practice very much in his text, relying either on student
habit or class teacher reminders. He does sprinkle mentions of practice throughout the text.
Phrases such as ‘practice each measure carefully, (p.32), and ‘practice slowly at first’ (p.14)
are specific reminders. Stulberg also includes some more oblique reminders in such phrases
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as ‘special effort should be placed on the following exercises’ (p.11) and ‘repeat the
exercise’ (p.2).
Lazan addresses the idea of practice by including ‘Practice Points’ before many of
his exercises and ‘pieces’. Lazan assumes the student will practice and the inclusion of the
practice points is meant to remind the student of particular items on which they are to
concentrate while practicing.
5.3.5 AM8 Importance of Teacher

An on-going issue in analyzing the instructional texts, with the exception of those
that are specifically designated as ‘self-instructors’ [see Chapter Six], is the position of the
teacher. The formal learning process, standard in modern times, views a teacher as a
necessity. This was particularly evident, in the Beginning Adult Violin Study group
[BAVS; see Chapter Three]. People who indicated they were going to self-instruct were
urged by almost all who replied to their post to get a teacher so that they learned ‘properly’
both in terms of accuracy but also in terms of ‘proper’ positioning.
With the Recreational Model self-instructing texts, the assumption of the necessity
of the teacher is less clear. It is not just that a teacher may be considered completely
unnecessary, but rather that some of the learning may occur in other ways: for example, in a
social situation where there may be other, more experienced players, who can offer help or
who can be observed and copied; or that improvement may occur through the very act of
playing. The self-instructing texts have embedded in them the idea of learning to make
music through making music rather than practicing making music.
Both Stulberg and Lazan designed their texts for a college class situation with a
teacher to facilitate the learning process. Their texts certainly present a particular attitude
towards learning that is strongly Achievement driven. However it is possible for a teacher
using that text either to reinforce or counter that orientation. The teacher may use the text as
only part of the course content, supplying a more rounded view through the presentation of
other material, and so on. Indeed, possibly Stulberg himself did so.
Unfortunately, there is nothing in the text to indicate whether this might be the case.
Both the Stulberg and the Lazan texts are clearly oriented towards technical achievement
and it may well be that a teacher who chose such a text to use with a class would feel that
technical achievement is the primary aim for study. Even if the teacher did redress the
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balance somewhat in the Recreational direction, the very strong ‘work’ mandate prevalent
in both these texts would have influence. Of course, ‘work’ does not have to be seen as
something negative. Work can also be aspirational in nature [see Chapter Four]. Such an
attitude does not appear in these texts. Neither author relates his approach to the potential
young students of these trainee teachers nor considers the impact of the approach on the
future teachers’ approach to these students.
5.3.6 AM9 Sequenced and Progressive

Both Stulberg and Lazan present their ideas in a sequenced and progressive way,
presenting students with new skills in a step-by-step manner. In both texts, though
particularly in Stulberg, the student is expected to master one skill before progressing on to
the next.
Step-by-step progressive learning implies that there is a particular path to playing

that must be followed, albeit somewhat differently laid out by these two authors. The idea
of the Virtuosic Mountain has the path ascending as students learn more and improve. This
achievement driven model is very much the Stulberg/Lazan approach. Here again is the
incongruity of each author (and those to follow below) offering one supposedly ‘correct’
pathway but with significant differences between their pathways. No such differences are
seen in the Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [see Appendix II]: there is but one ‘correct’
pathway to the top. Either way, the path goes up, the student cannot stay at one level and
enjoy the view; and, most particularly in the case of Stulberg and Lazan, their respective
pathways only take the student partway up the mountain. Technique is developed, but never
applied to melodies. In terms of music making, the pathway is a dead end.
5.3.7 AM10 Skill Development through Teacher or Correct Approach

Both texts are designed to be used with a teacher, resulting in less detailed
descriptions in the text. When the authors do present instructions, the student is given only
one way in which to accomplish the skill rather than being supplied with an alternative.
This suggests that there is one ‘right’ way – to be explained by the teacher. This is
particularly evident in relation to tuning.
Stulberg leaves the teaching of tuning the violin entirely to the teacher. He says: ‘At
all times, be sure that the violin is accurately tuned before beginning to play’ (p.11). The
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lack of detail about tuning is surprising given Stulberg’s view that intonation is ‘the
greatest difficulty a violinist faces’, and that he gives so much detail in describing skills
such as holding the violin and bow which the teacher would also demonstrate. Stulberg’s
attitude suggests that tuning is so difficult that it can’t be taught properly in any other way
than through a teacher.
Lazan addresses tuning, but only presents the student with one way to tune. He
says:
1. The strings must be tuned precisely in perfect fifths.

2. Learn to tune at once.
3. At the sound of A, match it carefully by turning the A peg backward, then forward,
lightly plucking the string. When the pitch is right, push the peg into the peg box to
prevent slippage.
4. As soon as possible, learn to tune with the bow. A bowed note is easier to hear than a
plucked one. It will take practice, but the effort will be rewarding (p.8).
He tells the student how to tune the A, but does not give any instruction on how to
tune the other strings. As Lazan’s audience is primarily music majors in college, after being
told how to tune the A, they might well be able to tune the other strings by hearing the
interval of the fifth. Lazan may not explain tuning fully because he knows there will be a
teacher to do so, or perhaps it is simply an oversight on his part. Music education has quite
a bit of presumption in it, and what one teacher presumes may not match the presumptions
of another. Lazan may presume that the only way to tune the violin is by hearing the fifths
and therefore not consider an alternative.
This lack of alternative highlights a prevalent attitude expressed by texts reflective

of the Achievement Model. The attitude reflects the idea that there is only one ‘proper’ way
to do skills such as tuning, and/or that such skills are too difficult to learn without a teacher.
Only through the auspices of a teacher can the student learn to do the skill ‘properly’. The
formal view of learning presented here does not allow for the possibility of self-instruction,
or more informal learning in social groups. The underlying attitude presented here is that
without a teacher the student cannot learn correctly.
5.4 Approach to Technique

Stulberg and Lazan both state that the primary aim of their texts is to teach violin
technique. This section, therefore, offers a chance to look at what they consider the most
important aspect of their text in more detail.
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5.4.1 AM11 Technique Leads
These archetype Achievement Model texts are excellent examples of this
characteristic. In fact, technique can’t be said to ‘lead’ in these texts because there is
nothing following it. Stulberg states plainly that he only needs to present the students with
the mechanics of the instrument because his audience is already well trained:
The so-called “beginners” under the…course are, for the most part, well trained
performers on some other instrument. To these, learning to play the violin involves
primarily the acquisition of the technical manipulations necessary to play the particular
instrument, rather than any repetition of primary training in general musicianship (p.iii).
Stulberg is assuming that other skills, such as musicianship, which were learned on
the students’ primary instrument, are transferrable to the violin, which may or may not be
the case. He also misses opportunities to lighten the drilling.
Lazan’s comments reinforce a similar attitude. In his preface he lists what he

considers to be the fundamentals of violin playing that he seeks to convey in his text.
1. Correct position for both left and right hands
2. The mechanics of producing a good string sound
3. String crossing
4. A few basic bowings
5. Principles of shifting, utilizing several positions (p.iii).
Again, the focus is on the development of technique only. Lazan’s practice points
urge the student to concentrate on technique, even while playing duets which offers a
recreational form of musical activity.
Stulberg says the following about his text:

It was the purpose of these studies to give students a fundamental knowledge of the
scope and use of the first position, and to acquaint and drill them in the basic bowings.
This was attempted by introducing each difficulty encountered in learning to play the
violin, by stressing correct playing postures, accurate intonation, and good tone quality.
It has not dealt with the problems of advancing into the positions, difficult double-
stopping, vibrato, intricate bowings, and harmonics, because it is believed that these
problems are entirely beyond the scope of the beginning violinist (p.46).
While the concern of both authors is to equip future teachers with basic technique,
the language they use indicates some difference in attitude. For example, Lazan states that
‘a few basic bowings’ are a fundamental of learning, which offers a contrast to Stulberg’s
more stringent language to ‘acquaint and drill them in basic bowings’. Lazan is just as
much concerned with achievement, but he does offer a somewhat less severe view.
The adult student, both authors seem to say, is not learning the technique in order to
enjoy playing or keep playing after the course is over, but for the purpose of teaching and
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overcoming ‘each difficulty encountered’. The playing of the violin involves, as one writer
said overcoming a series of hurdles (Clinch, 1990). Neither text mentions in words or
content, the student continuing to play for enjoyment after the course is done. Neither
Stulberg nor Lazan has addressed the idea that the method of learning may well affect the
attitude towards the instrument, not to mention the attitude towards teaching it. Even the
musical recommendations Stulberg makes at the end of his text are in the form of studies
and other technical work rather than repertoire. The books carry the idea of delayed
gratification to its ultimate conclusion where no gratification is ever suggested or, it
appears, imagined.
5.4.2 AM12 Emphasis on Improvement

Acquiring and improving skills is the point of both these texts. For example, as
discussed above, Stulberg gives the student many double stop exercises. The reason for the
student playing double stops is to improve the student’s intonation rather than to assist with
repertoire. Bowing is treated similarly. The section on open strings encompasses double
stops, slurs, and string crossings which indicate that the student is expected to upgrade
his/her skills from simply moving the bow back and forth on one string to slurring notes
together and playing on more than one string at once.
Lazan’s view is similar. In his practice points, he gives the student particular items
to think about while playing the exercises that follow. Reminders like ‘don’t grope for
notes’, and ‘correct faulty intonation at once’ are designed to help the student improve
his/her left hand accuracy and intonation. The emphasis is not just on intonation, but also
on bowing technique. Reminders to ‘utilize the bow like a yardstick’ and ‘observe bow
speed’ are calculated to improve the bow strokes, and through them tone production.
The lack of a musical focus builds a picture of playing that follows the Virtuosic
Mountain woodcut [See Appendix II]. ‘Higher’ musical skills such as phrasing, as
represented by the illustration, are not presented, only the technique that is represented at
the lower levels.
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5.4.3 AM13 Descriptions Detailed and/or Sophisticated
While Stulberg and Lazan offer only one way of achieving a skill or leave it entirely
to a teacher, they do give detailed descriptions of skills that are presented. For example,
Stulberg, describing the position of the left hand when first holding the violin says:
The neck of the violin should rest lightly between the thumb and the forefinger of the
left hand, above the first joint of the thumb and beside the third joint of the forefinger. It
should be sufficiently firm to prevent the neck of the violin from descending into the
hollow between thumb and forefinger. The little finger should be brought as near as
possible to the fingerboard to allow this finger also to have a curved position (p.1).
Stulberg provides this degree of detail for the left hand when its function at this
point is to support the violin to practice bowing on the open strings. While some might
believe this necessary, the amount of detail seems excessive because the left hand is not
being used at this point.
Stulberg is similarly detailed when describing actions. For example, when

describing how the student is to bow he says the following:
Place the bow on the E string, at about the middle of the bow. Relax the fingers, wrist,
elbow, and shoulder of the right arm. Move the bow down about an inch or two, then
rest for three counts. Move it up the same distance and rest. All movements should be
quick, but relaxed, using only the forearm and wrist. Count the rhythm while playing
(p.2).
Detail is designed to encourage precision and ensure accuracy.
Lazan’s concern with detail is similar, providing almost too much information to the
student. He describes the motion of the bow arm as follows:
When starting a down bow at the frog, use your whole arm until you reach a point in the
middle of the bow where the elbow is lined up with your shoulder. From here on, use
your forearm until you reach the tip. Be sure not to overextend the forearm, since doing
so will tend to stiffen your elbow. With an up bow the process is reversed. Your teacher
will demonstrate, also showing you the natural flexing of the wrist and the changing
weight and role of the elbow in playing up and down strokes (p.6).
Lazan offers a great amount of detail, but also refers the student to the teacher who
will demonstrate the proper way to move the bow. Even with the detail he has given, the
impression is that it will not be enough, that only through the teacher can the student see,
and learn, the proper motion of the bow arm.
It is questionable how helpful this detail may be for the student. Too much detail
may give the student the impression that he/she will never be able to accomplish the skill in
the proper manner or that overload will occur just trying to keep the detail in mind while
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playing. Rather than the abundance of detail contributing to ease, it may well contribute to
discouragement.
5.4.4 AM14 ‘Chunking’ of Skills to Aid Progression

Both Stulberg and Lazan introduce skills and techniques in small ‘chunks’ which
are linked to exercises. The rationale for ‘chunking’ is that it allows for the development of
skills in a particular progression. The order in which the skills are introduced is set by the
author, as well as how much information is given to the student at any one time. This
prescribed approach would be what Price (2008) refers to as learning ‘just in case’ [see
Chapter Four]. Stulberg and Lazan are, through the ‘chunking’ of skills, making sure the
student learns all the proper technique without skipping over something important. They do
this ‘just in case’ the future teacher needs to teach it to his/her young students. Other texts
discussed later in this chapter do the same, but they are doing so ‘just in case’ the student
needs to use that technique in a piece rather than teaching it to others.
5.4.5 AM15 More Technical Work than Music

These texts contain more technical work than music since technical work, or pieces
specifically designed to function as, is all they contain. Even taking the special purposes of
the texts into consideration, the technical nature of the texts is marked and clearly intended
by the writers. However the Achievement focus of these texts parallels that of the other
texts in this group discussed below. Furthermore, the importance placed on focusing on
technique in early music study is seen by some more modern researchers to be problematic
[see Chapter Three]. Stulberg and Lazan represent a view shared, more or less overtly, by
others past and present that skill development is the first priority in learning the violin.
They simply show that priority more starkly.
5.4.6 AM16 Technical work Prerequisite for Playing Music

Far from using technique as a prerequisite for ‘real’ music, Stulberg does not
present the student with any pieces within the body of his text. Even if the teacher of the
course chooses to add repertoire, technical work would still be a prerequisite because the
way Stulberg introduces the left hand does not allow for the early playing of melodies [see
above]. The student would need to play a substantial amount of technical work before
he/she had enough notes to play a tune.
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Lazan, presents the student with some duets, and makes the following remark:
‘COMMENT: The etudes are preparatory studies for the duets’ (p.66). While Lazan’s
duets are, like his ‘pieces’, purpose-composed to help the student develop technique, he
presents them as being more recreational perhaps because the students are playing together.
Whatever Lazan’s purpose in including them in his text, he still presents technical work as
a prerequisite.
It is interesting to contemplate this idea that in learning music one needs to ‘work’
before one can ‘play’ [see Chapter Four]. The student is introduced to a new skill or note,
and rather than learn how to use that new item by playing a piece he/she is presented first
with scales and/or exercises, and then a piece. The technical work is given so that the
student can hone the skill and be accurate before he/she applies it to a piece. As will be
seen, this more modern attitude is in contrast to Recreational Model texts that are
principally about playing real music in real situations.
5.5 Nature of the Repertoire
5.5.1 AM17 Emphasis on Playing Elite Art Music

Neither the Stulberg nor the Lazan place any emphasis on playing music other than
technical work. The stated purpose of their texts is not to create performers, but to help
create professional music educators who have the ability to teach basic violin technique to
young students. Stulberg makes this point very clearly in his preface, writing:
most of the students do not study the violin to become performers upon the instrument,
but rather to acquire a general knowledge of the technic of the violin to aid them in their
future work. These students must have material which will combine thoroughness and
speed of advancement as the double objective, and be challenging to adult beginners
(p.iii).
Stulberg seems to be drawing a connection between the playing of ‘real’ music, as
opposed to technical work, and performance. Without performance as a goal, ‘real’ music is
not required.
The Achievement Model as conceptualized here relates strong technical

development to the more or less obviously stated aim of producing performers playing
principally European art music. The study of violin, as conceptualized by Stulberg in this
quote, supports this concept and carries it to an extreme conclusion. Furthermore, Stulberg
is saying, in effect, that if one plays violin for a work-related purpose, no actual music is
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necessary. Yet, many texts, as will be seen below, use repertoire for teaching purposes, as
well as for the simple enjoyment of playing.
Again, Stulberg demonstrates a very one-sided view of instrumental learning but

one that is not totally divorced from the attitudes operating in the entire set of Achievement
Model texts. Since most students, of any age, who take up violin, do not become
performers or play at an elite level, most teaching built around an Achievement Model may
be said to contain some aspects of a Stulberg within them even today. Lazan makes a good
partner for Stulberg precisely because he shows a slightly less rigid view, with ‘pieces’
which are specifically designed to develop technique. The underlying intent is identical and
both relate strongly to the attitudes underlying the other texts placed in this model below.
5.5.2 AM18 Repertoire for Improvement

As shown above, Stulberg does not offer repertoire either for pleasure or
improvement and Lazan provides pieces that are technical exercises only. In the final
analysis, it is disturbing that the authors, presumably expert violin players, have made no
attempt to introduce these students to violin repertoire, whatever their underlying rationale
for this lack. Their utilitarian view of teaching, which involves learning technique, does not
allow for the possibility of recreation, an odd starting point for future music teachers. The
extreme position taken by these writers will now be considered in light of other texts
labeled Achievement Model in this study to see to what extent these archetypes can be said
to be representative of the set as a whole.
5.6 Other Achievement Model Texts

As discussed previously, Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1968) are particularly strong
examples of the Achievement Model, but they also had a purpose that was unique.
European texts are also very strong Achievement Model texts, though their purpose was
different, primarily being concerned with developing children into accomplished players
with the possible outcome of being professional. The unique purpose of Stulberg and Lazan
notwithstanding, the other eight texts analyzed here all significantly reflect the
Achievement Model and all bear comparison with those two archetype texts.
It is a not insignificant fact that six of the eight texts are from the twenty and
twenty-first centuries, the exceptions being Brainard (1863) and Bowman (1882). The
chronology [see Appendix XXXII] suggests that the Achievement Model currently reigns
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supreme. As the chart shows, all the texts discussed in this section are published after most
of the Recreational Model texts, the exception being that some are published prior to Allan
(1969), which, as a twentieth century Recreational Model text, is something of an anomaly.
The Achievement focus of these texts indicates the influence of a sensibility that
derives from European texts. With that sensibility comes the belief that a teacher is
necessary to help the student learn and achieve. It is only texts that fit the Achievement
Model that exhibit a requirement for a teacher but, perhaps surprisingly, it is not all the
Achievement Model texts that do so. Some are, in fact, self-instructing. Achievement
Model self-instructing texts display an interesting combination of features, in particular the
belief that self-directed learning (a feature of Recreational Model texts, as will be seen) is
achievable but with a focus on skill development and accuracy rather than recreational
playing.
This group of texts varies in the way in which they display the eighteen
characteristics. In some cases, where all the texts are very similar, a general discussion will
be followed by illustrative examples. Where texts are less homogeneous, they will be
discussed in smaller groups that are similar. More detail can be found in the appendix under
the author’s name. It will be helpful to the reader to have Appendix XXXII open and
beside the thesis for easy reference.
The eight texts to be analyzed in this chapter are:

• Brainard’s Melodic School for the Violin (1863) [Brainard] [see Appendix
VII]
• Bowman’s Excelsior Method and Progressive School for the Violin (1882)
[Bowman] [see Appendix VIII]
• US Home Study Courses (1921, 1964) [US School] [see Appendix IX]
• Yost’s The Yost Violin Method (1946) [Yost] [see Appendix X]
• Rhoda’s The ABC’s of the Violin for the Absolute Beginner (2000) [Rhoda]
[see Appendix XI]
• Duncan’s First Lessons for Violin (2002) [Duncan] [see Appendix XII]
• Stosur’s Play Violin Today! (2006) [Stosur] [see Appendix XIII]
• Seidel’s Picture Yourself Playing Violin (2008) [Seidel] [see Appendix XIV]

As with the archetype, first impressions are formed from cover advertising, a brief
reading of any prefaces or introductions, and a look through the body of the text. While
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generally Achievement Model texts do not contain cover advertising, a few texts in this
group contain a small amount of information on the cover which helps to provide a wide
range of impressions for this group of texts as do the prefaces and introductions. However,
the look through the body of the text gives a more uniform impression.
5.7.1 AM1 Focus on Skill Development and Accuracy

The covers of this group of texts offer a variety of information. Seidel (2008) just
gives the title [see Appendix XIV.II]. The US School (1921, 1964) does not have a cover as
it was produced as separate weekly booklets. Duncan (2002) includes the phrase ‘it doesn’t
get any easier’ which certainly suggests ease [see Appendix XII.II]. Yost (1946) and Rhoda
(2000) advertise that they are for both young and adult beginners [see Appendices X.II and
XI.II respectively]. Stosur (2006) advertises a teacher on the CD [see Appendix XIII.II].
Brainard (1863) presents a Hybrid sensibility advertising both ‘progressive lessons’ and
‘100 amusements’ [see Appendix VII.II]. Bowman (1882) offers the most description,
providing a detailed explanation of each part of his text [see Appendix VIII.II]. For
example, the first part is described as:
Original and Progressive Exercises designed to advance the beginner through every
important study and exercises comprised within the compass of the First Position
including all the Scales, Ornaments and Bowings.
Bowman, in placing emphasis on ‘progressive exercises’ and ‘important study and
exercises’, is obviously focused on skill development and accuracy. While the other texts
are less clear in their cover advertising, their contents are all more-or-less focused on
Achievement objectives, as will become clear below.
5.7.2 AM2 Prescriptive

Cursory inspection shows that all the texts in this group offer prescriptive learning
via a step-by-step progression based on technical development. Of course they do not
necessarily present the steps in exactly the same order, highlighting the issue discussed
above in relation to the archetypes: the paradox of the many ‘right’ ways to learn the violin.
At the simplest level, each text tends to introduce a new skill or idea through
exercises and then a piece or pieces which use the newly learned skill. Some texts such as
Brainard (1863), Duncan (2002) and the US School (1921, 1964) also divide their texts into
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numbered lessons. The US School, which was published as a periodical, has one lesson as
one week’s worth of work, rather as would apply with a teacher.
All the texts begin with the student learning to hold the violin and bow, and some
elements of the rudiments of music reading, and then progress to playing on the open
strings. However, they do not all approach the open strings in the same manner, starting on
different strings or, in two cases, with pizzicato and no bow. Likewise, the prescription for
introducing the left hand is different among the texts. These differences in prescription
continue in both smaller and larger ways throughout the texts. [See Appendix VI for more
detail]
5.7.3 AM3 ‘Work’ Based

All of these texts fit a mode of learning that this study argues is ‘work’ based
because Achievement is prioritized in a range of ways over simply enjoying playing. Where
pleasure is mentioned at all, there is a relationship implicitly or explicitly drawn between
improvement and pleasure. One way Achievement is prioritized is through the inclusion of
varying amounts of technical work. Some of the texts also suggest the possibility of a
career in music, showing echoes of Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1968). For example,
Bowman (1882) echoes Lazan in suggesting the same approach can serve two disparate
purposes:
I hope and believe that I have constructed this method in such a progressive, complete
and elaborate manner as to fully meet the requirements of all who take up the Violin as a
pastime or a profession (p.1).
Of course, the commercial aspect of these texts should be considered. Like Lazan,
Bowman’s idea of a text for both amateurs and professionals may be more of an
afterthought than a genuine part of his design.
The US School also discusses the idea of music as a career and reiterates this idea
repeatedly throughout the limited number of lessons available for analysis. Between the
sections on how to read music and how to tune, the 1921 course says: ‘You want to be sure
that you study this part so carefully and understand it so thoroughly that you can teach
others just this same way’ (Lesson 1, p.2). In addition to teaching, they advocate playing
professionally.
There are hundreds and thousands of players who are making a life work of Music. It is
none too early for you to begin considering this very course. Do you take to Music
enthusiastically? Are you enjoying your lessons? Do you feel a glow of satisfaction as
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each piece is mastered? If you do, you may very well think seriously of the possibilities
of making money from your Music. The Violin lends itself to this better than any other
instrument. No orchestra is complete without the Violin. And it is hard to find a town
of any size at all which doesn’t boast at least one orchestra. Of course you must be able
to read music readily. You must be able to play in strict time because orchestra work
means playing with others. But all of these things are being taught you as fast as you are
able to learn them (Lesson 14, p.1).
Bowman and the US School are two of the Achievement Model self-instructing
texts displaying the belief that a person can self-instruct and become a professional, a view
not shared by Stulberg and Lazan, the Achievement Model archetypes, who both believe
even musically experienced students need a teacher.
The US School (1921, 1964) quote above indicates the Achievement Model
sensibility in a subtle but important way. Juxtaposed are the following two sentences: ‘Are
you enjoying your lessons?’ and ‘Do you feel a glow of satisfaction as each piece is
mastered?’ The US School certainly mentions the idea of enjoyment and it has been argued
here that a focus on enjoyment relates to the Recreational Model. But, first, he asks if the
student is enjoying lessons rather than playing; and, secondly, the next sentence relates the
idea of satisfaction to the idea of mastery. This juxtaposition is very characteristic of the
Achievement approach, where it is thought that the act of improvement is what provides the
satisfaction. It is not unfair to suggest that nearly all modern music instruction is based on
this belief. Bowman shows us the possible start of this attitude. Section Three will consider
this attitude in relation to other influences of the period.
5.8.1 AM4 Linking Inexperience with Cognitive Immaturity

Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1968) do not link inexperience with cognitive
immaturity because they are clearly addressing a very specific adult audience. The eight
texts in this section are all more equivocal, often linking inexperience in playing the
instrument with cognitive immaturity. Confusion about this issue is apparent: the texts not
only vary in the maturity level at which they ‘pitch’ information, but also some texts
include children as an audience, show consideration of children’s needs, and many include
repertoire associated with children.
In the first instance, the step-by-step learning featured in all these texts suggests that
the reader needs to be carefully led, rather than control his/her own learning. The use of
modern media provides another example of cognitive confusion. For example, Stosur
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(2006) provides a CD with her text, containing not just recordings of the included music,
but also a person reading the written text. Seidel (2008) acts similarly on her DVD, reciting
the written words as she demonstrates particular actions. Leaving aside the issue of adult
illiteracy, the reading of text is more suitable for children. Additionally, the tone of Seidel's
voice while she is reciting and demonstrating sounds as if she is addressing a young child.
The issue of intended audience is problematic in a number of ways. While generally

most texts do not state their audience [see Chapter Three], two authors address their texts to
both young and adult students: Yost (1946) and Rhoda (2000). It is questionable whether
one text can serve both purposes, and both Yost and Rhoda, over fifty years apart, approach
the issue differently.
Yost and Rhoda are not self-instructing texts. Rhoda (2000) addresses statements to
the adult learner and the teacher in her preface, but within the body of the text includes
remarkably little written material, relying on a teacher to fill in the gaps. Yost (1946)
addresses remarks to the teacher but includes other remarks that one must assume are to the
student. However, he is not clear about the age of the student he is addressing. The
sophisticated language he uses suggests he is addressing an adult, but he indicates his text
is also for children. Perhaps he expects the teacher to mediate, although he does not say so
explicitly.
This contradiction is exhibited in other texts, which do not advertise children as an

audience, like Yost and Rhoda, but who include them through remarks made within the
texts. Brainard (1863) for example, but mentions ‘young Amateurs’ and speaks of young
learners multiple times, saying that ‘the scholar should commence at as early an age as
possible’ (p.3). Bowman’s (1882) text is designed to be self-instructing, thus indicating a
more mature audience, but one remark includes reference to ‘young persons’. The US
School (1921, 1964), also a self-instructing text, addresses children multiple times within
the lessons. Like Yost (1946) above, the language in all these texts is sophisticated and
adult which contradicts the indications that children will be using the texts. While it is not
possible to make a generalization about all texts, within this group of texts there does seem
to be a correlation between the time of publication and the language. Language used in the
older texts addresses the student in a mature way and the more modern texts address the
student in a more patronizing manner.
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There is a range of other contradictions and ambiguity around audience. For
example, while Brainard (1863) believes students should begin young, he admits that
‘many who have not commenced until the age of manhood, have attained a great degree of
perfection’ (p.3). This statement both gives us an idea of the intent behind his text, the
achievement of perfection, as well as indicating his belief that an adult can achieve such
perfection, surely different from the general attitude today.
The US School (1921, 1964) addresses a number of remarks to young students

which is unusual in a self-instructing text. For example, it says:
If you are a boy or girl in school, it will give you great social prestige if you will form a
school orchestra, or if there is one already formed, by all means prepare yourself to get
into it at the earliest possible time. If it is necessary to start one, are there enough of
your friends who play instruments to make up an orchestra? If not, why not get them
started studying with the U.S. School right away so that you will be ready together.
There should be a Piano, another Violin, a Cornet, a Flute and a Trap Drummer at least
(Lesson 14, p.1).
Interestingly, there is no corresponding statement addressed to the adult student.
These remarks do not preclude adults as an audience, but they certainly do point to the
author envisioning children using the text.
Seidel’s (2008) text is designed to be self-instructing, which suggests an adult

audience, but she takes children’s needs into consideration. For example, she includes a
section titled Choosing the Right Violin Size. She says:
Violins come in many different sizes, ranging from toy size to full adult size, to fit the
arm length of any violinist. When choosing a violin size, you want to measure your
arm’s length from the middle of your left palm to the side of your neck, while your left
arm and hand are fully extended out perpendicular to your body. The measuring system,
of extending the arm out will translate perfectly to a correct fit. Sometimes your
measurement might fall between violin sizes, in which case it is best to choose the
smaller violin until your arm and hand size can fully accommodate a larger violin. The
violin sizing guide in Table 1.1 provides the correspondence between your arm length
and the standard violin sizes (p.9).
The table presents the student with sizes of violins from 1/16th (to be used with 4-5
year olds) up to a full size violin for use with adults. It is hard to imagine a player of a
1/16th size violin reading these instructions for him/herself.
When discussing amounts of daily practice Seidel equates advanced players with
high school students. Some of her repertoire is songs associated with children such as Ba
Ba Black Sheep and Lightly Row. In accordance with the title of the book, Seidel has
included numerous pictures. While many are of Seidel (2008) demonstrating particular
positions and exercises, many are of Seidel’s students. Other than Seidel herself there are
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no photographs of adults, just groups of children. Moreover, the anecdotes that are included
in the text as inspiration are attributed to children.
Stosur and Duncan are contradictory in that they both combine a more adult attitude
with repertoire associated with children even though they are texts ostensibly for adults.
The first two tunes Duncan (2002) gives the student are Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star, and
Mary Had a Little Lamb, and Stosur (2006) uses children’s tunes such as Mary’s Lamb
(Mary Had a Little Lamb) and Hot Cross Buns.
Rhoda (2000), who ostensibly is writing for both adults and children, also uses
tunes that are more child directed, such as Mary Had a Little Lamb and Twinkle, Twinkle
Little Star. Moreover, some titles of her original melodies, such as Back to School, Child’s
Play, and Playing Soccer seem calculated to appeal to the young rather than the adult.
There appears to be a relationship drawn not only between inexperience and cognitive
immaturity, but also between the simplicity of music for the beginner and the mental age of
the learner.
5.8.2 AM5 Music for Technique

All eight texts in this group focus on technical development and therefore include
music for technique. ‘Music for Technique’ does not imply that there is no ‘real’ music
included in the text; what is important is the message embedded in how the ‘real’ music is
presented. Most of the texts follow the same pattern in that they use repertoire largely for
skill development in a systematic way, rather than offering repertoire for the pleasure of
playing. It can sometimes be a fine but crucial distinction. A writer could, for example,
provide a range of simple pieces that are generally within the abilities of a new player
without specifically relating those pieces to particular skills. Achievement Model texts,
unlike those to come in the Recreational Model, do not do so, and the difference can be
seen most clearly when the two models are compared.
For example, Duncan’s (2002) Lesson Nineteen introduces the hooked bow stroke.
The student plays a scale using that bow stroke, then is given two pieces which incorporate
that stroke. The US School devotes each lesson to a particular skill or concept. For
example, Lesson Two is Time, Lesson Three is Slurred Notes. Within each lesson, the
music is linked to the concept. For example in Lesson Three, the student is given an
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exercise which incorporates slurs, and then a piece called Waltztime which is included to
give the student experience in slurring.
Another way in which ‘Music for Technique’ manifests in the texts is through
purpose-composed music. Many of the texts in this group contain purpose-composed
exercises and pieces. This music is presented in a variety of ways by the texts. For example,
Bowman (1882) describes his repertoire as ‘chiefly original to the author’. Yost’s entire
repertoire is original and he calls it ‘melodic technical material’ (p.2). He makes the
purpose plain but attempts to describe it in a less utilitarian way, at the same time giving the
impression that there may be much ‘technical material’ that is not melodic. Rhoda says: ‘I
composed thirteen of the thirty-four melodies which fit in with the development of left-
hand and bowing techniques’ (p.1).
There is nothing intrinsically wrong with the writer composing his/her own
melodies for his/her book. They may choose to do so for a range of reasons: Yost, for
example, regularly composed while others, particularly more recent writers like Rhoda,
may have a dual motive of providing material they think is technically suitable and
avoiding copyright issues. However, all the exercises and pieces in this group are utilitarian
in nature and have been written only for the purpose of being included in the instructional
text with the aim of honing and developing particular skills.
5.8.3 AM6 Accuracy Defined

Achievement Model texts tend to emphasize accuracy in general, but particularly
with regard to intonation and bowing. While bowing, along with rhythm, is sometimes
stressed in Recreational Model texts, the focus on intonation is specific to Achievement
Model texts.
Like the Achievement Model archetypes Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1968), these
texts use vocabulary that emphasize a ‘right’ way, even though the ‘right’ way can vary:
students are told what they ‘must’ do and words such as ‘correct’, ‘proper’, and ‘perfection’
abound. For example, Bowman (1882) uses phrases such as ‘the wrist must not be bent’
and ‘the palm of the hand must be neither too close nor too far off’. Brainard (1863),
similarly, says, ‘it must be played’, or it ‘must be employed’, and includes phrases like
‘proper division of the bow’, ‘good tone’, ‘purity of intonation’, ‘perfection in producing a
fine tone’, etc. Rhoda (2000) discusses ‘impeccable intonation’, ‘correct posture’, ‘steady
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rhythm’, ‘precise shifting’ etc. In Seidel’s (2008) text the word ‘perfect’ appears regularly
in phrases such as ‘perfect technique and posture’, ‘work up to perfection’, ‘perfect singing
spot’, and ‘perform it perfectly’. This pervasive concern with accuracy seems to be a
feature of the Achievement Model texts no matter what their date of publication.
The insistence on accuracy is not just limited to a few phrases. While all these texts
remind the student of the need to be accurate, some texts discuss accuracy at greater length,
particularly regarding intonation. The US School (1921, 1964) provides a good example.
One lesson gives the student three familiar tunes designed to help develop accurate
intonation. It says:
One of the most important things in the study of these familiar melodies is for you to
check yourself on your playing. They serve as a sort of self examination. You have
been learning to play by note. Each note on the staff pictures to you a particular position
on the Violin. Are you sure that you get your fingers exactly in the correct spot to play
each note? When you are practicing a composer whose tunes are unfamiliar to you, you
might possibly make a mistake and never know it. When you come to these favorite
airs, you must play them very carefully by note, putting the fingers of your left hand in
just the same place for each note that you have been using for your exercises. Then,
since you are familiar with the tune you are playing, your ear will tell you at once if you
strike a false note. In that case, you must review the finger positions that have been
explained in the earlier lessons. Find out where you are making your mistake. Then
drill yourself until you are perfectly sure of the exact location of the notes on the
fingerboard. When you have become accustomed to putting the fingers in the proper
places, depend upon it, the good, old songs will sound just as your ear knows they
should as you follow the notes (Lesson 18, p.1).
This lengthy quote gives a very good summary of how music is used for constant
self-examination (indeed, the term is actually used) in order to improve.
The idea of drill to ensure accuracy is found in Achievement Model texts like
Stulberg (1938) and Yost (1946). Yost has ‘founded his method on the principles of ‘pure’
intonation’, and, in order to help the student understand the principles includes a diagram of
the fingerboard ‘to be studied for better intonation’. He believes that the student ‘should be
drilled, from time to time, in an understanding of this diagram’ (p.7). Yost shares Stulberg's
view of the difficulty of ‘pure’ intonation:
The problem of pure intonation on string instruments is one of the most difficult of all,
therefore, it is of the utmost importance that correct concepts be taught to the pupil in the
beginning but, singularly enough, not one beginners method or any book of advanced
study material gives the basic concepts of good intonation. The student is told to “play
in tune” but the laws of good intonation are entirely ignored (p.6).
Yost manages to include here the idea of intonation as a problem to overcome and
the message that he is ‘right’ where other authors are ‘wrong’. Clearly there is an attitude
that says that playing the violin is a difficult accomplishment. Whether this idea is true or
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not is not really the point: the next chapter will show that some texts do not include this
attitude.
Bowing is another area of technique where accuracy is stressed. Like Stulberg

(1938) and Lazan (1968), this group of texts includes numerous bowing directional
markings and numerous reminders about bowing. For example, before one tune Stosur
(2006) says: ‘Notice that each measure begins down bow. In measure 4, lift your bow
during the half rest so you can begin measure 5 down bow’ (p.16), and before another
‘Don’t forget to begin the piece with an up bow on the first note’ (p.26). These remarks are
not isolated incidents but appear often in Stosur’s text and similar reminders appear in other
texts in this group.
Concern with accuracy in bowing is not limited to direction, but encompasses the
motion of bowing as well even when the student is using the bow for the very first time on
the string. Duncan (2002) says:
Place the bow on the E string midway between the bridge and the fingerboard. Pull the
bow across the string in a downward motion toward the floor. This is called ‘down bow’.
The opposite direction is called ‘up bow’. Practice going down and up bow several times
on each string using short bow strokes. Try to keep the bow moving in a straight
direction. It should stay at a ninety degree angle to the string. The right wrist should
bend as the bow moves across the string. The right shoulder should be relaxed and the
right elbow should stay level with the bow as you move from string to string (p.5).
For someone holding up the violin for the first time, these details may be somewhat
difficult to keep in mind. Learning any instrument requires some new sensations and
coordination skills. In some cases, these texts both emphasize the perceived difficulty but
then provide explanations that could be regarded as increasing the difficulty, or at least
increasing concern about the difficulty rather than alleviating it.
Duncan’s (2002) concern for accuracy extends to the different bow strokes.
Sometimes it is necessary to play two notes with the same bow direction but make them
sound as if the bow direction changed. This is done by stopping the bow and then
starting again, continuing the same direction. Try to make the notes sound as if each
were a separate bow stroke (p.23).
Bowman (1882) is also concerned with accuracy in bowing, and he defines
accuracy by making remarks such as ‘the following exercises must be played without
lifting the bow from the strings’ (p.32). He also uses abbreviations such as W.B. (whole
bow), M.B. (middle of the bow), Fr. (frog), and T. (tip) to make sure the student plays the
exercises in the right part of the bow.
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As will be shown, the Achievement Model text’s concern for accuracy is in stark
contrast to texts representative of the Recreational Model.

As noted when discussing the archetypes above the idea of ‘practice’ may be
mentioned in relation to a particular skill – for example ‘Practice holding the violin’ – or as
a general exhortation – for example, ‘Regular practice is necessary’. The latter implies that
drilling is necessary for improvement, the former that learning the skill is somehow
different from playing the instrument. ‘Practice’ implies that something is wrong that
requires fixing.
With such concern for accuracy it is unsurprising that these texts also stress
practice. Stulberg (1938) scatters mentions of practice throughout his text, and Lazan
(1968) includes ‘practice points’, but neither of them stated overtly the necessity of regular
practice, possibly because their audience is already familiar with the need to practice to
achieve.
The only text in this group which does not stress practice unduly is Rhoda (2000)
who indicates adults are good students in part because they are ‘highly motivated to
practice’. Of all the texts discussed in this chapter, Rhoda leaves most to the teacher to
explain, which may be why she does not stress practice as much as other texts.
Other texts address practice differently and contain multiple mentions of practice
when describing skills or positions. For example, Duncan (2002) in describing holding the
violin says:
Practice holding the violin parallel to the floor using only the chin and shoulder for
support. Place your left hand on your right shoulder and practice holding the violin with
‘no hands’ for 30 seconds, then for a minute and then for two minutes (p.4).
For Duncan, practicing the hold of the violin is completely separate from playing it.
Getting the position correct is seen as an important pre-requisite to being able to play
correctly. He makes a similar mention of practicing a skill separate from playing when
describing holding the bow: ‘Practice finding the proper bow grip, releasing it, and finding
it again at least twenty times before attempting to bow the violin’ (p.4). This exhortation
combines the idea of practicing the skill with regular practice to improve. Yost (1946)
treats practice similarly, using phrases such as: ‘This study in eighth notes should be
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practiced with one-fourth of the bow. Practice three ways: at the frog, middle and point of
the bow’ (p.36).
In addition to practice reminders scattered throughout the texts, Stosur (2006)

presents practice more formally; including a ‘practice check list’ which the student is to
remember each time they practice. The items on the list are ‘proper violin position, relaxed
bow hold, bow placed halfway between the bridge and fingerboard, slight arm shift from
string to string, and steady quarter-note beat’ (p.11). She also includes ‘practice tips’ which
are similar to Lazan’s (1946) practice points. For example:
“Caribbean Folk Song” is lively and fun to play. Some practice steps you may find
useful include:
• Look at the music before playing, noticing every mark and symbol
• Tap or clap the rhythm
• Play pizzicato first to become familiar with the notes
• Look ahead for slurs before bowing (p.32).
Stosur (2006) is possibly representative of other authors in the Achievement Model
mode, who are not writing their texts in order to preclude enjoyment. Indeed, her
comments, above, indicate that ‘fun’ is part of the point of playing this tune. There is a
connection being made between achievement and enjoyment. Practice suggestions are
designed to help with accuracy, which it is assumed helps with enjoying the playing of the
pieces. Effort is required to reach an enjoyable standard.
Some texts in this group make recommendations of particular amounts of daily

practice. All the texts agree that practice is necessary and expected, but interestingly
enough, the amounts vary from text to text, showing, again, the differences of opinion on
what is ‘right’. In recent times, studies have attempted to assess the amount of practice
necessary for elite achievement, but this group of texts represents a system largely based on
individual opinion that still affects music education today.
Brainard (1863) makes some general remarks about practice saying: ‘the violin is,
indeed, a difficult instrument to learn, and can only [be] accomplished, with any degree of
perfection, by attentive study, and constant practice’ (p.3). Note the focus on difficulty
again, although Brainard does indicate that ‘attentive study’ and ‘constant practice’ are
designed to reach ‘a degree of perfection’ rather than just provide a necessary backdrop to
any learning of the instrument. He goes on to say that ‘a daily practice between lessons [is]
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very necessary’. Later in his text he becomes very specific about the amount and content of
the daily practice writing:
The scales and exercises should be studied at least one hour every day, though at
different time, a little in the morning and a little in the evening, having constantly in
mind that this practice is, of all others, the most difficult and the most essential to
playing well on the violin (p.28).
The US School (1921, 1964) makes less stringent recommendations which do not
specify the content of the practice. Lesson One of the 1921 series says:
With the importance of this lesson in view, you are to devote TWO weeks to mastering
it. Ordinarily, one week is enough to a lesson, provided you are able to give half an hour
or an hour to practice each day (Lesson 1, p.3).
The impetus for the daily practice is assumed to be the student’s enthusiasm for
learning:
We hope that you will be so enthusiastic about your music that you will practice half an
hour or an hour a day – each day in the week. It is steady consistent practice that counts.
And if you will do this, you certainly will be able to master ALL of each lesson in a
week’s time (Lesson 7, p.1).
For the US School, the recommended thirty minutes a day will get the student
through the course in a certain number of weeks.
Seidel (2008) also makes recommendations for the amount of daily practice, but the
amount depends on the level of the student. In her introduction to Practicing Techniques
she writes:
Good practice techniques are composed of how much time you should practice
everyday, how to warm up, and how to learn your song. Ideally, you should practice at
least 15-20 minutes a day, on up to 30 minutes for beginners, 45-60 minutes for
intermediates, and 1-2 hours for advance players in high school. Music majors in college
and professionals can easily spend over eight hours everyday with their instrument in
hand. The length of practice time should equal the amount of time it takes you to tune,
warm up on finger patterns or scales, and practice your song. As you progress, more and
more technique books can be added to your daily routine and the violin solos eventually
will become longer and longer which can lengthen your practice time (p.114).
Not only is the student to practice every day, he/she must follow a specific practice
regimen. Notice also Seidel’s commitment to technical development in her statement that
progress will allow the student to add more ‘technique books’ to the ‘daily routine’. In the
next chapter, the strong contrast to texts representative of the Recreational Model will be
seen.
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5.8.5 AM8 Importance of Teacher
Both Stulberg (1938) and Lazan wrote their texts to be used with a teacher, the
suggestion being that a teacher was necessary in order to learn the techniques properly.
These eight Achievement Model texts provide differing views on the necessity of a teacher.
Four texts view a teacher as important, three view a teacher as unimportant, and one was
designed to be used both with and without a teacher.
Brainard (1863), Yost (1946), Rhoda (2000), and Duncan (2002) are all designed to
have a teacher facilitating the learning process. Brainard feels that the violin is a difficult
instrument to learn and requires support:
The pupil should be provided with a good master; one who thoroughly understands the
science of music, and is a good performer; and last, though not least, one endowed with
a good share of patience (p.3).
While many texts address the need for a teacher, few address the idea of self-
instruction. However, Brainard, writing at a time when self-instruction was common, says
the following of those who have opted to self-instruct.
There is no such being to be met with as a real self-taught Violinist. Scrapers and
raspers there are, of various degrees of roughness and wretchedness, who have found out
the art of tormenting by themselves; but that is quite another matter (p.28).
Brainard’s (1863) remark lends support to the idea, common today, that a teacher is
necessary in order to improve. It also contrasts markedly with other texts from the same
period that clearly view learning alone as a viable option. Brainard shows an early example
of a focus on ‘standards’ in playing, an idea which has developed greater currency in
modern times.
Yost (1946) likewise considers the teacher of utmost importance. He addresses

many remarks to the teacher when explaining various bow holds and his system of pure
intonation. The teacher, according to Yost, is important for progress. He says:
The teacher must insist upon the strictest discipline in matters pertaining to the basic
principles of playing such as postures, good intonation and good tone. No detail should
be neglected if the pupil is to make rapid progress (p.3).
Yost’s remarks suggest that the teacher needs to be the disciplinarian because the
students will not recognize or fix problems on their own. The idea of ‘rapid’ progress is
also highlighted, though why it is necessary is not explained.
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With her minimalist approach, it is clear that Rhoda (2000) has designed her text for
use with a teacher, which is supported by remarks addressed to the teacher and the fact that
she leaves the majority of the instructional information to the teacher as well.
As noted, only the Achievement Model category includes both self-instructing and
teacher-assisted texts. All Recreational Model texts [see Chapter Six], and Hybrid Model
texts [see Chapter Seven] are self-instructing. Since Achievement Model texts are the only
ones to require a teacher, it can certainly be suggested that the need for a teacher relates
strongly to the idea of achievement. Recreational and Hybrid texts are less concerned with
achievement, and therefore it is unsurprising that they are self-instructing since there is less
concern that the student improve. What, then, is the attitude of the self-instructing texts that
fit the Achievement Model?
While Brainard (1863) above did not see self-instruction as a viable option, the US
School (1921, 1964), Stosur (2006), and Seidel (2008) have all been designed as self-
instructing texts. The US School (1921, 1964), being older, is text only, but Stosur (2006)
and Seidel (2008) include a CD and a DVD respectively to help the student. On the cover
of her text Stosur advertises ‘Teacher on CD – 86 Demo Tracks’. The ‘teacher’ on the CD
speaks the text that is in the book and makes additional comments. Seidel includes a DVD
in which she demonstrates all the exercises and speaks the written instructions. Stosur and
Seidel’s teacher is not interactive but each does provide a real, active, authority figure for
students.
The inclusion of the recordings raises the question of whether or not modern self-
instructing texts are really self-instructing because of the presence of a virtual ‘teacher’.
Either these writers believe some additional help is needed or they are simply making use
of available technology to provide a further service or selling point to students. The US
School is the only Achievement Model self-instructing text that mirrors the self-instructing
texts in the other categories, but with a strong achievement focus.
Bowman (1882) designed his text to be used either as self-instructing or with a

teacher. He says: ‘An accompaniment is added to most of the exercises for the convenience
of the teacher, but the method is complete without it, should it be used without a tutor’.
While some self-instructing texts [see Chapter Six] casually acknowledge the possibility of
the student using them with a teacher, Bowman is the only one in this thesis that has
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actively planned for that and added a second part to the exercises for the teacher. This dual
method of instruction can perhaps be viewed as a way in which he has planned for both the
amateur and the potential professional.
5.8.6 AM9 Sequenced and Progressive

All the texts in this group present sequenced and progressive instruction taking the
student step-by-step along a path which emphasizes technical development not unlike the
Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [see Appendix II]. Some texts such as Brainard’s make a
selling point of the progressive nature while others do not. The texts may differ in how far
they take the student up that path, but they all move in what can be conceived of as an
upward direction from easy to more difficult skills. While modern texts almost always use
progression to mean moving from easy to difficult some nineteenth century texts use
progression in a different way [see Chapter Seven].
5.8.7 AM10 Skill Development through Teacher or Correct Approach

The Achievement Model group of texts provides a variety of views on this
characteristic, some agreeing with the archetypes, Stulberg and Lazan, and some offering a
different view. Yost (1946), Rhoda (2000), and Duncan (2002), whose texts were designed
for use with a teacher, do not give any information on skills such as tuning or left hand
finger placement, leaving the development of those skills entirely up to the teacher. Rhoda
and Yost specifically mention the teacher, but Duncan does not. Brainard (1863) is also
designed for use with a teacher but takes a middle path. He does not include information on
left hand finger placement, but has a little information on tuning, writing that: ‘the four
strings of the violin are tuned by perfect fifths’ which is the ‘correct’ way.
The self-instructing texts the US School (1921, 1964), Stosur (2006), and Seidel
(2008) offer more detail and some alternatives. For example, in the extant lessons from the
US School, tuning is only presented in one way, though they promise an alternate method
later in the course. The student is also given an alternative to help with left hand finger
placement. It gives the student an illustration of the fingerboard drawn to scale. The student
has the choice of either using the diagram for reference, or cutting it out and pasting it on
the fingerboard, thus providing him/herself with temporary frets which will guarantee
‘perfect’ intonation.
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Stosur does not provide an alternative for left hand finger placement, but tells the
student he/she can tune by using an electronic tuner, or find the pitches on a piano. In
addition, the CD provides tuning support.
Seidel provides tuning only in one way which is dependent on the student having a
particular electronic tuner. She also insists on the application of temporary frets in the form
of tapes on the fingerboard. Paradoxically, the application of frets, designed to help
accuracy, is presented as a necessity rather than an alternative. This is in contrast to texts
reflective of the Recreational Model which offer an alternative of temporary frets only if
the student has trouble [see Chapter Six]. Seidel also provides an alternative to reading
conventional notation, and hers is the only text in this chapter to do so. She has devised a
‘measure by measure’ description of each tune in order to help the students if they are
having difficulty reading the conventional notation and to give the students tools they ‘need
to perform each song with confidence’ (p.113). For example, the first measure of Go Tell
Aunt Rhody reads as follows:
Place your bow near the lower half on the A string as you set your 1st finger and High 2
C#. Play a long down bow C#, followed by a short up bow C# at the tip of the bow.
Remove the 2nd finger and play a short down bow B at the upper half of the bow.
Remove the 1st finger, and play two long Open A’s, starting up bow (p.121).
Generally speaking the alternative pathways are meant to make skills easier for the
student. While the above quote supplies an alternative, it is questionable whether it makes
the song easier to play, particularly given the intended age range of the audience.
Bowman, whose text was designed for use with a teacher or as a self-instructing text
does not offer an alternative for left hand finger placement, but provides a detailed
description of tuning, which while ‘correct’ seems needlessly pedantic. He says:
First you tune the A or 2nd String, by means of a Pitch-pipe, Tuning-fork, or from any
Instrument of a fixed tone, such as the Clarinet, Piano &c. When you have tuned the A
String correctly, then tune the 3rd or D String a fifth lower than the A or 2nd String and
you will get D. Then tune the 4th or G String a fifth lower than the D or 3rd String and
you will have G. After you have got the A, D, and G Strings tuned correctly, tune the 1st
or E String a fifth higher than the A String and you will have E. The Strings are tuned at
intervals of a fifth from each other in the above manner. The Pupil must be very
particular about tuning his Instrument (p.24).
While he does advocate using an instrument such as a piano to find the A, he
chooses not to suggest using the same instrument to help the student find the pitches of the
other open strings, insisting that the student learn to tune in the ‘correct’ fashion.
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5.9 Approach to Technique
All eight texts are, like Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1968), technique driven. This
section offers an opportunity to discuss how this group of texts approaches and presents
technique and compares their approaches to the archetypes. These categories under
Technique are particularly stark in showing the basic attitude of texts in the Achievement
model.
5.9.1 AM11 Technique Leads

The texts all follow the archetypes, with technique clearly leading the way,
evidenced not only in the abundant technical work, but also in the progressive format and
the linking of all repertoire to technical skills. On the one hand, this alignment is designed
to provide students with the necessary skills to play the pieces so that they can feel
successful. On the other hand, it encourages the feeling that the pieces are themselves
aligned to the ‘drill’ contained in the exercises and tips for correct playing. The intention of
the writer may be to facilitate learning for the positive benefit of the student but the impact
on the student may not encourage enjoyment and ease of playing.

All eight texts place an emphasis on improvement. The students are not only
expected to improve by aiming for ‘perfect’ or ‘correct’ positions, ‘impeccable’ or ‘perfect’
intonation, or ‘good’ bowing technique and tone, they are expected to improve their overall
standard of playing by learning ever more difficult techniques and pieces. The books are all
graded to ensure an improvement in standard as the student progresses.
5.9.3 AM13 Descriptions Detailed and/or Sophisticated

The texts in this group reflect this characteristic in different ways as do the
archetypes. While Lazan (1968) offers simple concise explanations, Stulberg’s (1938) are
more complex and sophisticated. A few of the texts in this group, like Lazan, offer simple
concise explanations. Rhoda (2000) falls in this category because all such information is
left to the teacher. Other texts which offer simple explanations are Brainard (1863) and
Duncan (2002). Brainard, like Rhoda, does not offer many descriptions because he has also
left much of the ‘nuts and bolts’ of learning the violin to the teacher. However, the few
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descriptions he does include are simple and concise. For example when discussing bow
tension he says:
For solo playing the bow must not be screwed too tightly, but only so that the stick in the
middle, with a moderate pressure, can still be bent to the hair. For orchestra playing, the
bow must be drawn tighter (p.4).
Duncan (2002), also teacher driven, offers more explanations most of which are
uncomplicated. For example, his description of stance is quite plain. It says: ‘Stand in an
erect position with the feet shoulder width apart’ (p.4). Likewise the description of how to
hold the violin is clear. It says:
Place the violin on the left shoulder, pointing outward to the side. Turn the head to the
left and lower the left jaw and chin over the chin rest. The instrument should be
supported entirely by the chin and shoulder, so that the left hand is free to note the
instrument. Many violinists find that a cloth or shoulder rest is helpful in supporting the
instrument. (p.4).
Two of the texts, US School (1921, 1964) and Yost (1946), mix their descriptions,
with some being succinct, while others are detailed and sophisticated. For example, the way
the US School explains holding the bow is quite brief. It says:
The easiest way to learn how to hold the bow, is to lay it on a table, and then place the
thumb through the space between the stick and the bow hair near the frog. Now close
the finger tips against the opposite side of the stick. You can judge from figure 1 how
your hand should look. (Lesson 1, p.2).
However, the description of how students should move the bow is quite detailed,
and the amount of information it provides may be enough to make the students feel
overwhelmed.
Beware of moving the upper arm. It should hang in the most natural manner near the
body. The bow must be managed entirely with the hand and forearm. Only when
drawing the bow at full length over the G string will it be allowed to help a little with the
upper arm, but never draw it outward and backward. About this, you must be especially
careful. Look at every movement you make during these first two weeks. Stand before a
mirror to practice it will help. See that your positions are just like those in the
illustrations. The right hand must be well arched. It is sufficient to use only the outer
edge of the bow hair, and by gentle pressure, enough of the hair will touch the string to
produce a good tone (Lesson 1, p.1).
Yost also provides the reader with mixed descriptions, but in a slightly different
way. For example, his description of how to hold the violin is relatively uncomplicated. It
reads:
The violin should be held on a horizontal plane between the jaw bone and collar bone
(clavicle), the scroll of the violin pointing to the extreme left. The neck of the violin is
placed between the thumb (opposite second finger) and edge of the palm of the hand at
the base of the third joint of the index finger. The thumb must not clutch the neck of the
violin with pressure. The left shoulder not to be raised or pushed forward. The arm held
in a natural position at the left side. See illustrations below (p.5).
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The above description is written for the student. Any descriptions written for the
student are straightforward but when Yost addresses the teacher and explains concepts to
them, his descriptions are complicated. This complexity is most evident when he is
explaining the system of pure intonation which is specifically addressed to the teacher. Pure
intonation is defined as follows:
All fixed key-board or wood-wind or wind instruments have what is known as the
“tempered scale.” The twelve chromatic tones of the octave are divided equally and this
is only an approximation of the true chromatic or diatonic scales. In the string
instrument family we utilize the perfect scale or what Casals calls “expressive
intonation” all of which means that the twelve intervals of the chromatic scale are NOT
equal in distance from each other. By distance, I mean vibrational or mathematical
distance (p.6).
Complexity is not necessarily represented by length of description. In the above
quote, one could consider the nature of the teacher Yost thinks he is addressing. If the
teacher needs to have the difference between tempered and ‘pure’ intonation explained, it is
questionable whether this definition would help make it clearer.
The last three texts in this group, the self-instructing texts, offer complex
descriptions for skills, showing a difference in attitude when a teacher is assumed to be
absent. Stosur (2006) offers lengthy detailed descriptions of how to hold the violin and
bow. Seidel (2008) breaks down skills into many parts which she describes in minute
detail. Bowman (1882) however offers the most byzantine descriptions of any text analyzed
for this thesis. For example, when describing the stance the student should have while
playing he says the following:
An essential point is, to hold the head straight and directly in front of the music-book.
The principle weight of the body is to be thrown on the left side in order that the right
arm may work in perfect freedom without communicating its motion to the rest of the
body; but care must be taken that the left shoulder advances as little as possible. The
Pupil should place himself at the distance of about twenty inches from the desk (or
Music Stand) which ought to stand a little to the right, to enable the performer to
overlook both pages of his music-book without disturbing the position of the instrument.
With regard to the height of the music-stand or desk, the best rule is to let the bottom of
the frame which the book rests on, be in a line with the pit of the stomach, or perhaps
even somewhat lower. The left foot ought to be at a right angle with the stand, and the
right foot in one line with the left, but of course turned outwards. With respect to his
Attitude the Student must be particularly careful not to expose himself to the reproach
either of affectation or negligence (p.22).
The detail is tremendous particularly when compared to Lazan who says: ‘Stand
with your body well balanced, feet properly spaced, knees relaxed. Leaning forward or
backward will throw your body out of line and prevent ease of playing’ (p.3).
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5.9.4 AM14 ‘Chunking’ of Skills to Aid Progression
All the texts in this group use the ‘chunking’ of skills to aid their progression. The
majority of them use the same format which introduces a skill or idea, provides the student
with some technical work to practice the skill and then provides a piece or two in which to
apply it. Seidel is different in that she divides the text into chapters each with a different
focus with many exercises for practice. However, she does not present the student with
pieces until chapter six of her text. Seidel, like the archetypes Stulberg and Lazan, offers
skill development without any place to apply it until later in the learning process.
5.9.5 AM15 More Technical Work than Music

With the exception of the US School (1921, 1964) and Duncan (2002), this group of
texts presents the student with more technical work than music. Both the US School and
Duncan contain approximately equal amounts of technical work and melodies.
Interestingly, both texts make some claim that they are seeking to teach through tunes
rather than technical work. US School says:
In the old days, when music was not so well understood, it was thought necessary for the
student to spend weeks and weeks on the most uninteresting exercises that you can
imagine. Why! A teacher who gave a pupil a simple Hymn Tune before he had studied
at least a year was supposed to be radical! Even the personal teachers have long since
realized the folly of this to a large degree, and the principles of playing are taught
through pretty melodies from the early beginning (Lesson 11, p.1).
Lesson Thirteen of the 1964 course presents the same attitude: ‘It is, by far, more
pleasant to learn new things about the violin, and violin mastery, while playing beautiful
pieces than it is by playing nothing but dull exercises for months and months at a time’
(p.1). Duncan writes: ‘There is an emphasis on using melodies and classical pieces to
instruct each new concept’ (p.2). However, while both texts do contain more tunes than the
other texts in this group, they still contain a significant amount of technical work and
clearly Duncan relates the use of music specifically to skill development. These two texts
do not lessen the amount of technical work or the technical focus but have increased the
number of pieces. Both texts acknowledge a problem in requiring the student to play
substantial amounts of technical work, but neither has presented a real solution. The
underlying attitude of all these texts is that technical work is necessary and that ‘pretty
melodies’ are still there in order to encourage correct playing, rather than for the simple
pleasure of playing.
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5.9.6 AM16 Technical Work Prerequisite for Playing Music
All eight texts present the student with technical work as a prerequisite to playing
music. Of course the amounts of technical work to be done before music vary from text to
text. For example, Stosur (2006) requires the student to play nine exercises before the first
tune, Brainard’s (1863) first ‘amusement’ occurs on page thirty-nine, and Seidel (2008)
doesn’t introduce ‘beginner songs’ until chapter six. This technical prerequisite highlights
the importance of technique in the hierarchy of learning within this group of texts.

In contrast to Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1964), the majority of these texts include
repertoire of some description. The amounts and types of repertoire may vary from text to
text, but melodies are a vital part of their approach to instruction. The assumption that this
group seems to make is that the technique learned should be applied to pieces. The pieces
may be linked to the development of particular technical skills, but they are still melodies
and not just additional technical work. However all the texts to a greater or lesser degree
seem to see melodies as following the acquisition of correct technique (even those that
recognize the problem as noted above in AM15) and, further, often seem to treat melodies
as an additional way of developing technical skills.
5.10.1 AM17 Emphasis on Playing Elite Art Music

The projected outlet for playing suggested by these texts places an emphasis on elite
art music. This supposition is supported by the level of technique taught, the repertoire that
is included, and/or author statements advocating orchestral playing. Some of the texts are
more obvious about this emphasis than others. Brainard (1863) teaches high level technique
and includes mostly European art music; particularly operatic themes [see Appendix
VII.III]. Duncan (2002) includes mostly classical music [see Appendix XIII.III]. Rhoda
(2000) includes many familiar classical melodies [see Appendix XI.III], and her later
books, which are not analyzed here, contain a high proportion of classical repertoire.
When discussing the styles of music the student might play after her text, Stosur
(2006) lists classical music first, indicating her preference for that style [see Appendix
XIII.III]. The US School (1921, 1964) speaks many times of the student participating in
orchestral playing, and includes quite a bit of classical music in its selection of repertoire
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[see Appendix IX.III]. Seidel (2008) insists on a high standard in playing, and in her
chapter titled History of the Violin only discusses classical violinist/composers and
classical music. Yost’s (1946) repertoire is all original compositions but his titles, such as
Mazurka, Gavotte, and Minuet, suggest elite art music based on dance models. Bowman
(1882) includes only original exercises or those composed by European violin masters in
the elite mode, such as Wichtl, David, Henning, Alard, and DeBeriot, also commenting on
orchestral playing. The only social outlet envisioned by the authors is that of playing elite
art music which requires the technical skill they develop throughout their texts.
The focus on art music and orchestral playing in the Achievement Model aligns
these texts with those by European violin masters such as Geminiani and Spohr. These
more modern texts provide instruction with the same attitude and format and focus on
technique as the European texts, which, by extension, make art music the natural outcome
of study.
5.10.2 AM18 Repertoire for Improvement

As has already become apparent through the analysis above, the repertoire in all
eight texts is included for the purposes of technical improvement, whether original
compositions or pre-existing repertoire. The repertoire is sequenced and linked to particular
skills with the aim of improving the students’ proficiency, and improving their general
standard of playing. The independently minded student always has a choice to use the text
differently but the text offers a clear message suggesting conformity for best results.
5.10.3 Conclusion
All the texts in this group represent strong examples of the Achievement Model
with their primary focus on technical development and emphasis on improvement. There is
a clear commitment to skill development and improvement, like the archetype texts, with
the expectation that the student will begin to travel the same path in an upward direction, as
represented by the Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [See Appendix II], whatever his/her
purpose for learning the violin. The fact that the majority of these texts are from recent eras,
suggests that this model represents the current view of instrumental learning which is
supported by the discussion of music education practices [see Chapter Three].
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CHAPTER 6: Recreational Model Texts
6.1 Introduction: The Archetype: Violin Instructer (1828)

In contrast to Chapter Five, with its two very similar texts as joint archetypes, this
Chapter has one text which clearly reflects the highest number of characteristics associated
with the Recreational Model: the Violin Instructer [Instructor][see Appendix XV].
The Instructor offers a complete contrast to the texts by Stulberg and Lazan in both
tone and content. It is designed to be used as a self-instructing text. It offers a style of
instruction that is not prescriptive, sequenced, or progressive, that allows for student choice
and that does not stress practice or emphasize improvement. It provides abundant
repertoire, minimal technical work and assumes the student will develop skills through
playing tunes and social music making.
While the Instructor, like Stulberg and Lazan, is designed for the adult beginner, it
can be used by a broader audience because it caters for both violin and musical beginners,
having both violin instructions and rudiments of music reading. The analysis below will
detail the different sensibility exhibited by the Instructor and how it manifests in the
instructional material.

In many respects, it is much easier to form an immediate opinion of the Instructor
than of the Achievement Model texts because there is extensive cover advertising [see
Appendix XV.II]. Whereas the texts reflective of the Achievement Model generally do not
use cover advertising, the texts reflective of the Recreational Model almost always do.
There are a range of possible reasons for this very obvious difference.
For example, violin instruction in the twenty and twenty-first centuries is largely
homogeneous, based on a more-or-less stringent achievement focus (as described in these
models) and the texts seem to reflect that homogeneity. Generally the modern texts follow
the same format, whether for use with a teacher or self-instructing. They are all
prescriptive; require technical work prior to playing tunes, emphasize accuracy and
improvement, and link repertoire to the development of technical skills [see Chapter Five].
This very homogeneity may be why there is little cover advertising: content is
expected and understood. However, in the nineteenth century, there were two different
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approaches to violin instruction available if using a text to learn. One approach was that of
the European masters whose texts were available in America via import. The approach
offered by the European texts was designed to be facilitated by a teacher and was very
concerned with technical development and achievement. The other approach was that of the
self-instructing texts analyzed here. This approach does not require teacher support and is
generally more concerned with playing for recreational and social enjoyment rather than
with the development of technical virtuosity.
The cover advertising separates the approach of self-instructing texts from that of
the European texts. It highlights specific differences in content and is designed to attract
people to learning the violin. There was a need to market self-instructing, recreational texts
more forcefully since the sale was direct to the learner, rather than mediated through a
teacher. The cover, in essence, was a marketing tool. A person seeking to learn the violin
could infer from the cover whether the text offered what and how he/she wished to learn.
All extant texts on the Recreational side share this feature, making a very obvious different
first impression.
6.2.1 RM1 Focus On Enjoyment and Ease

The cover advertising of the Instructor provides a completely different impression
of the focus of the instruction from the Achievement Model texts:
Violin Instructer, containing a Plain and Easy Introduction to the Rules and Principles of
the Violin together with a Choice and Valuable Selection of Popular Music; Consisting
of a Great Variety of Airs, Waltzes, Duets, Songs, Marches &c., &c. A Large Number of
which Being Arranged in Two Parts for a Second Violin; or for a Flute, Clarionet,
Bassoon, or Violincello.
It describes its approach as ‘plain and easy’, stresses the range and variety of
popular music that is included and highlights the inclusion of a second part suitable for a
variety of instruments, giving a focus on the social aspects of playing. Enjoyment is not
specifically mentioned as a central purpose of playing, but the enthusiastic tone of the cover
advertising certainly does not give an impression of a long struggle necessary to become a
‘good’ player.
6.2.2 RM2 Optional

Unlike the Achievement Model texts which led the student through skills in step-
by-step sequence, the Instructor seems more concerned with allowing the student to make
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his/her own path in the direction of his/her choosing. Rather than parceling out the
information in sequenced and ascending order, the instructional material is placed first in its
own section with the repertoire after. There is no discussion of how the student uses the
instructional material; that is left up to the individual.
6.2.3 RM3 Enjoyment Based

While the Instructor does not specifically make mention of enjoyment, the tone of
the instruction is markedly different. One is immediately and constantly aware of technique
and technical development in an Achievement Model text. The Instructor has very little
technique and technical work, and the section of repertoire is extensive and varied, as
shown in the quote above. The impression is that the student has been given a wide range of
choices. Although the Instructor makes no statement of purpose, its cover and content gives
a ‘lighter’ feel that certainly does not stress effort or work.

The next seven characteristics offer a chance to see if a more detailed reading of the
text supports the general impressions detailed above. The Instructor does not have a preface
or introduction like many Achievement Model texts and the text has no credited author.
Therefore, attitudes must be extrapolated from a detailed reading of the instructional
content rather than gaining them from a direct statement by the author. However, as was
seen above, there is much in all of these texts that appears to be assumed or thought to be
understood. What can be understood from the Instructor is very different from what might
be understood, for example, from Seidel.

Recreational Model texts assume cognitive maturity of their audience, which is
unsurprising given that they are all self-instructing. Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1968)
assumed the cognitive maturity of their respective audiences largely because the audience
was very specific [see above]. Other Achievement Model texts did not appear to make this
assumption, as was shown above.
The Instructor does not confuse being a beginner on the violin with cognitive
immaturity, evidenced by the adult vocabulary used in the text. For example: in a section
describing time signatures, it says: ‘There are also two other sorts of time called Compound
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and Triple, the first containing nine crotchets, the other nine quavers, but are seldom used’
(p.5).
Additionally, unlike some texts reflective of the Achievement Model, there are no
considerations of children’s needs. Unlike the US School (1921, 1964) and Seidel (2008)
for example, the Instructor has no statements addressed directly to children, no child
appropriate repertoire, nor discussion of appropriate sizes of instruments for young
students. It does not directly state that its audience is adults, but it has none of the
ambiguities observable in texts like the US School and Seidel.
6.3.2 RM5 Music for Playing

As argued in the previous chapter, Achievement Model texts tend to present
repertoire as a means of developing various technical skills. The presentation of content in
the Instructor does not support a similar view. There is minimal technical work and a large
section of tunes. As the tunes are separate from the instructional material, they are not
linked to the development of particular techniques. The tunes are not organized by level nor
are they progressive. Yet while the Instructor does not present content to facilitate technical
development specifically, the repertoire is not all at the same level of difficulty. The
impression given is that the student will develop skills through the experience of playing a
variety of tunes with and without the support of other players.
The ensemble pieces in the Instructor are different from the duets in, for example,
Lazan which were clearly composed to foster technical development and before which the
student was reminded to concentrate on various technical concerns. The duets and trios in
the Instructor include no reminders of a technical nature, nor are they linked to any specific
technical skill. There is an assumption of the social purpose.
6.3.3 RM6 Accuracy Undefined

Achievement Model texts use many words that stress accuracy such as ‘proper’, and
‘correct’ as well as words that indicate necessity, like ‘must’. In contrast, the Instructor
uses very few such words, leaving accuracy largely undefined. When it is defined, it is in
relation to particular techniques.
For example, the word ‘must’, which was used multiple times in Stulberg and
Lazan, is only used twice in the Instructor. The text says: ‘N.B. – The pupil must practice
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the scale till he has got all the notes perfectly by heart’ (p.6). This note does not relate to
scales in general but to a particular scale where the student is learning the placement of the
notes on the fingerboard. This use of memorization to help placement is in contrast to
Achievement Model texts that tend to emphasize the importance of intonation, which
requires careful finger placement. The insistence is that the notes are memorized.
The second time the Instructor uses ‘must’ is in regard to time. It says:
In common and Compound Time, the left foot must come down at the first part of every
measure, and rise at the middle. In Triple time the left foot must come down at the first
part of every measure… (p.8).
The purpose of using ‘must’ in relation to time is not just for the sake of the student
playing accurate rhythms, but is directly related to one of the primary social outlets for the
violin in the nineteenth century which was playing for dancing [see Section Three]. A good
sense of time was imperative for the dancers.
The modern texts place such an emphasis on accurate intonation that it is difficult to
imagine a time when it was not such a primary concern. The Instructor does not stress
accuracy in relation to intonation, possibly because it was less important during this period
than accuracy in rhythm for accompanying dance.
Accuracy is less mandated for other technical concerns. In teaching the student how
to hold the violin, the Instructor elects to use the word ‘should’ rather than the word ‘must’
conveying an impression of preference rather than necessity. It says:
The body of the violin should rest against the left collar bone, the neck should rest in the
left hand between the thumb and fingers with the elbow directly under the instrument, so
that you can cover all the strings with your fingers at ease. The violin should be canted a
little to the right (p.5).
Not only are there very few definitions of accuracy in the Instructor, they are generally
used only once rather than repeatedly throughout the text as is more likely in Achievement
Model texts.
The few definitions of accuracy that are included, that differ markedly from other
aspects of the text, may be due to the source of the instructions. Instructions for items such
as holding the violin and bow used in texts such as the Instructor were borrowed from
European publications by master violin teachers (Eddy, 1990). The source for information
on other elements of violin technique, music reading, or the performance of ornaments etc.
is not certain, and may have been written by the publisher, or also borrowed from pre-
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existing European sources. Considering that some texts analyzed in this chapter contain
exactly the same language when describing certain skills, it is likely that they were drawn
from the same source, or copied each other. If the original sources were European texts
with their emphasis on achievement, it is not surprising that these sections sound more
directive than other sections. Nevertheless, while some definitions of accuracy are included
in the Instructor, they are much less frequent and far less insistent than those in the texts
analyzed in Chapter Five.
This very borrowing from European sources, combined with local input, also serves
to highlight the more relaxed attitude obvious in these texts. Considering an earlier point
regarding the detail in the cover advertising, that advertising does not focus on this more
stringent technical detail, even when it does appear in a Recreational Model text. The
‘selling point’ does not appear to relate to matters technical at all.
6.3.4 RM7 Does Not Stress Practice

The idea of practice is, like definitions of accuracy above, treated casually in the
Instructor. The word only appears once, in the same sentence that included the word
‘must’, quoted above: ‘The pupil must practice the scale until he has got all the notes
perfectly by heart’ (p.6). The sentence, possibly sourced from a European text, may reflect
that European sensibility which does not match the overall tone of the book.
This lack of emphasis on practice is in contrast to the majority of the texts analyzed
in Chapter Five. In general, Achievement Model texts which contain technical work also
contain reminders to practice while Recreational Model texts, with their focus on repertoire,
do not. The idea of practice relates to drilling and a ‘work’ oriented regime which does not
match the sensibility apparent in texts like the Instructor.
6.3.5 RM8 Teacher Not Considered Essential

The Instructor is designed as a self-instructing text and includes what are
considered to be complete instructions for violin playing. Modern teachers may or may not
agree that such a text can achieve such a goal, but clearly the idea was common when texts
like the Instructor were published. While a teacher or formal learning situation is not
considered essential, the publisher is aware that some students may elect to have a teacher.
In explaining how to tune the violin, the text says: ‘the pupil who has not the assistance of a
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master may try the following way…’ (p.5). The Instructor has considered that the student
might want a formal learning structure with a teacher, but also has considered that the
student might wish to self-instruct.
6.3.6 RM9 No Sequence or Progression

As noted above, the format of the Instructor places all the instruction in the front of
the text and the repertoire after. Neither section has a sequence or sense of progression.
This format relies on the student making his/her own choices to match differing musical
abilities. For example, a student who is musically literate can go to the violin specific
information and proceed from there. A student who is both a musical and violin beginner
can elect to begin with either the violin instructional section or the section with the
rudiments of music.
In a prescribed text, with a sequenced approach, choice is possible but more

difficult precisely because a progression is offered. An overview is difficult to achieve.
Finding information may be more problematic because the information is spread out rather
than being in one section.
The texts analyzed in Chapter Five used sequence and progression as a way of
promoting achievement in the manner of the Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [See Appendix
II]. Since the Instructor does not use either sequence or progression, it is not offering a
similar pathway. ‘Daily exercises’ and ‘scales’, so prevalent in Stulberg and Lazan, are not
strongly represented in the Instructor. Instead, the Instructor opts to have students play
tunes which will help them on their path to playing for enjoyment.
6.3.7 RM10 Skill Development through Different Pathways

Whereas the majority of the Achievement Model texts explained skills such as
tuning and left hand finger placement in only one way or left those items for the teacher to
explain, the Instructor provides the student with skill development through different
pathways. When teaching the student how to tune the violin, it explains that the violin is
tuned in fifths, gives the note names for each string and then says:
The best method of tuning for a beginner, would be to procure a tuning fork or pitch pipe
and proceed to tune the A string first, agreeable to the letter, and from this, with a little
practice, the learner will be able to obtain the correct tones from the other strings. N.B.
As this method requires a good ear and a little knowledge of music, the pupil who has
not the assistance of a master may try the following way; with a pencil or a little ink,
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draw a line across the finger-board of your Violin at the distance of four inches from the
nut; then, having tuned the second string in unison with A as above directed, press your
little finger on it exactly over the line drawn, and screw up the first string until it sounds
the same open as the second thus stopped; then place your finger on the third string on
the same line, and screw that string till it sounds the same thus stopped as the second
string open; lastly put your finger on the fourth string over the same line, and screw the
string thus stopped till it sounds in unison with the third string open (p.5).
There is awareness that students using the text may have varying levels of musical
experience. Students who are musically knowledgeable or have a ‘master’ can tune by the
first method, but for students who are musical novices or self-instructing, there is an
alternate provided in order to make tuning easier.
The Instructor also gives an alternate way for the student to find the placement of
the fingers of the left hand. It says:
If he cannot readily attain to stop in tune, he may have recourse to the method given for
tuning the Violin and mark on his fingerboard the lines traced on the first scale,
observing that the distances must be as follows: Counting on the treble string, from E
and the nut to F, half an inch, from F to F# half an inch, from F# to G half an inch, from
G to A one inch, and from A to B one inch (p.6).
It is interesting that the text does not assume that all students will have trouble
finding the correct placement for the fingers. In fact it assumes that some students will be
able to find the notes without much difficulty, which may explain why the Instructor does
not insist the student constantly refine his/her intonation. If the student cannot play with
good intonation, it is easily acquired by using temporary frets as described above. The
assumption of the Instructor is opposite to the texts discussed in Chapter Five which
assume the student will play out of tune and therefore needs reminders to adjust his/her
fingers. The Instructor provides an alternate way in order to make finding notes easier for
students with uncertain intonation.
6.4 Approaches to Technique

As has already been made clear, the content in the Instructor is not focused on the
development of technique. The text teaches certain aspects of technique, but in a much less
systemic way than the texts analyzed in Chapter Five. This section will allow a closer look
at some of the differences present in the Recreational Model in how technique is presented
to the student.
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6.4.1 RM11 Music Leads
It is evident through the minimal amount of technical work and the large section of
tunes, that music rather than technique leads the development of playing. The Instructor
has content largely devoted to playing popular music of the day and advertises that it can
help the student do so with ‘ease’. The student is given the minimum amount of technical
work necessary in order to allow him/her to play tunes sooner and there is no emphasis on
drilling. While there is no direct comparison with Achievement Model texts, the
implication is that the student can learn equally well through the playing of melodies as
he/she can through the playing of technical work.
6.4.2 RM12 No Emphasis on Improvement

Unlike Stulberg and Lazan who continually remind the student to correct faults in
order to improve their playing, the Instructor has no reminders about technical concerns in
the text. In fact most Recreational Model texts do not really talk about getting better. How
improvement was viewed in the early nineteenth century cannot be stated exactly, but the
attitude seems to be that improvement is a consequence of playing, and does not need to be
emphasized.
At the same time, the lack of emphasis on improvement also suggests that it is not a
primary concern in learning the violin as far as the Instructor is concerned. The expectation
in the texts analyzed in Chapter Five is that the student will ‘progress’ to play more difficult
pieces. The Instructor simply provides a large amount of repertoire at various levels of
difficulty. Students can choose whether they play pieces just at one level or ‘progress’ to
more difficult pieces.
6.4.3 RM13 Descriptions Simple and Concise

The difference in description complexity can be highlighted by comparing two
paragraphs regarding holding the bow. The Instructor describes holding the bow as
follows:
The bow should be held in the right hand between the thumb and fingers, with the
fingers nearly straight, a small distance from the nut so as to be able to command the
whole length of the bow, with the bow canted a little outwardly. Care should be taken
that the bow is not held too stiff (p.5).
Stulberg, in his archetype Achievement Model is longer, more complex and
somewhat more directive in tone:
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Hold out the right hand, palm upward and fingers extended. The fingers must be close
together but not pressed. Place the heel of the bow, hair up across the fingers, so that the
stick touches the first finger at the second joint, and the little finger at the top. Curve the
right thumb and place its right side against the stick—between the stick and the hair,
touching the frog—at a point between the second and third fingers. Curve all the fingers
naturally. Turn the wrist and bow over so that the thumb is on the bottom. Place the bow
hair on the E string, half way between the bridge and the fingerboard. Slant the stick
slightly toward the fingerboard. (Do not play with the hair flat on the strings.) This will
cause a slight elevation of the wrist. The bow should at all times be parallel to the bridge
of the violin (p.1).
Actions in the Instructor are described simply and concisely compared to
Achievement Model texts. For example, when describing the movement of the bow, the
Instructor writes: ‘The bow should be drawn gently backward and forward across the
strings in a line parallel with the bridge’ (p.5). In contrast, Seidel (2008), an Achievement
Model text, writes:
The movement of the bow arm is designed to draw the bow straight (parallel to the
bridge) from the frog down to the tip of the bow and back up to the frog of the bow, to
create a full rich tone. This movement can be categorized in four arm positions: cross
over, cross back, open elbow, close elbow. To learn each of the four bow arm positions,
and how to transition seamlessly between each position, practice with your bow hold on
a pencil by air bowing (p.39).
Whereas in the Instructor the student simply moves the bow back and forth, in
Seidel’s text, the student needs to know the ‘four arm positions’ and learn to ‘transition
seamlessly’ between them, using a pencil to practice before trying the motion with the bow.
6.4.4 RM14 No ‘Chunking’

The format of the Instructor, with its lack of progression, does not include parceling
out information in ‘chunks’. Examining how the text introduces the left hand offers a good
example as it introduces all the fingers at one time. It says:
Commence on the G string open; then put your first finger on A (see finger board), then
the second on B, then the third on C, next commence on the D string open, and proceed
with the remaining strings as above directed (p.6).
The student now has use of all the notes he/she needs to play a large variety of
tunes. This approach is the exact opposite of the texts reflective of the Achievement Model.
Achievement Model texts all introduce the left hand in structured ways that are
designed to help the student develop accurate intonation, or play a scale. The Instructor
(1828), concerned more with playing tunes rather than technical work or accuracy [see
above], introduces the left hand in a way to facilitate playing tunes as quickly as possible.
From the modern perspective, which is very concerned with accuracy, this approach may
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seem less than ideal. However, accuracy is likely to have been aided by the fact that the
repertoire was popular music with which people were familiar.
No ‘chunking’ allows the student to set the order and pace of learning. It also helps
the student learn ‘just in time’ [see Chapter Four]. Without ‘chunking’, the student has at
his/her disposal a reference section where he/she can easily find information he/she needs
‘just in time’ to play a particular piece.
The lack of chunking also suggests that the adult student will be able to assimilate
large amounts of information at one time, and may also relate to another of the
characteristics in this model – that of RM4 assuming cognitive maturity. An adult has the
ability to set the pace and order of his/her learning and therefore does not need the
information presented in predetermined bits.
6.4.5 RM15 More Music than Technical Work

The Instructor contains an abundance of repertoire [see Appendix XV.III] but of
particular note is the amount of repertoire in comparison with the amount of technical
work. The contrast between the Achievement archetypes, whose texts contained nothing
but technical work, and the Instructor, which contains hardly any, cannot be greater in this
regard. The only technical work in the Instructor is the ‘plain scale’ and a chromatic scale
on each string, all of which appear in the instructional section of the text. The modern
perspective is so firmly based in building technique [see Chapter Three] that these texts can
appear very novel and possibly ineffective. However, texts in the Recreational Model
indicate that, in the early to mid-nineteenth century there was no fixed idea that such
technical work was necessary in order to play the violin.
6.4.6 RM16 No Technical Prerequisite to Play Music

The few scales in the opening section of the Instructor notwithstanding, there is
nothing in the text that follows which indicates the student must play a scale before playing
the repertoire. Most modern texts present students with scales and exercises that must be
learned before they can play a tune. Drill or ‘work’ precede the playing of music, or
‘enjoyment.’ However, the Instructor, and other texts from the early to mid-nineteenth
century [see below] present the student with the idea that he/she can ‘play’ without
‘working’ first. As was noted, the few technical indications in the Recreational Model texts
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may be plagiarized from European texts, which would account for the different tone and
also the somewhat ad hoc nature of their presentation. They often read more as an after-
thought than a considered part of the approach.
6.5.1 RM17 Mixed Repertoire

The Instructor contains mixed repertoire which is advertised prominently on the
cover of the text as noted in section 6.2.1 above. The diverse repertoire includes themes
from European art music, folk music, songs from various sources as well as dance tunes
and ensemble pieces [see Appendix XV.III]. The large number of ensemble pieces allows
the students to play socially with others. Unlike ensemble pieces in many of the
Achievement model texts, the Instructor ensemble repertoire is not linked to any particular
technical skills, nor are there any specific technical directions, as in Lazan. The inclusion
of dance music is another way in which the Instructor provides the students with a social
purpose for their playing [see Section Three].
One of the interesting things about the idea of social playing as presented by the
Instructor and other texts reflective of the Recreational Model is that there does not appear
to be any minimum standard required of the player in order to play socially. One author
states specifically that easy music is better for dancing [see Chapter Seven]. Therefore,
students would not have to reach a high standard before providing music for social
purposes, but could play for the entertainment of others as soon as they could play a simple
dance tune. The lack of concern with accuracy even in possible public playing situations is
in strong contrast to the texts analyzed in Chapter Five.
6.5.2 RM18 Repertoire for Enjoyment

The repertoire in the Instructor has certainly not been chosen with progressive
technical development in mind. It seems designed to appeal to a range of tastes and
audiences, possibly enhancing its marketability. Additionally, including music which has a
built in social purpose such as duets and dance tunes, suggests that the publisher has
thought about not only what the student wants to play but also the circumstances in which
he/she might play it.
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Modern instrumental instruction is largely prescriptive. The idea of students
choosing their own repertoire, the lack of progression and the absence of order of
instruction hardly seems a viable way of learning seen from the point of view of
contemporary mainstream music education. One must remember that these texts were not
as concerned with teaching ‘by the syllabus’ as they are today [see Chapter Three]. The
texts reflective of the Recreational Model were intended for the adult amateur. The purpose
of learning, as will be shown, was different [see Section Three].
Our Virtuosic Mountain woodcut [see Appendix II] postdates the Instructor by
almost a century. The Instructor and other texts like it do not give rise to that type of
imagery at all. The emphasis is on engagement in a simple, straightforward way.
Finally, students using the Instructor, or like texts, were not necessarily musical
novices. The violin novice may already read music and have some understanding of
rhythm, thus rendering difficult pieces easier to play. The variety of repertoire can be
viewed as another way in which the texts reflective of the Recreational Model cater to
students with a variety of musical abilities.
6.6 Other Recreational Model Texts

The Instructor is a very strong example of the Recreational Model, but this group of
eight texts also provides clear examples of this model with some minor variations from the
archetype. More marked, however, than any differences between the archetype and the
eight texts analyzed here are the differences between this set of texts and those analyzed in
the previous chapter.
Seven of the eight texts are from the early nineteenth century, which suggests that
the Recreational Model was most prominent during that time. It cannot be said that it
reigned supreme during the nineteenth century, because it coexisted with European
instructional texts which were in use during that period. However, there seems little doubt,
on the basis of the extant texts, that throughout the early to mid-nineteenth century there
was a strong tradition of texts reflecting Recreational Model characteristics. One text in this
group is from the twentieth century which is an anomaly when compared with the other
twentieth century texts analyzed in Chapter Five, a discrepancy discussed in more detail
below.
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Like Chapter Five, these texts will be analyzed according to each model
characteristic. This group of texts is even more homogeneous than the texts reflective of the
Achievement Model. See appendices for more detail on this group of texts. The eight texts
analyzed in this chapter are:
• The Instrumental Assistant by Samuel Holyoke (1801) [Holyoke] [see

Appendix XVI]
• The Violin Preceptor or Compleat Tutor by James Hewitt (18??) [Hewitt]
[see Appendix XVII]
• Bacon’s New and Complete Preceptor for the Violin (1814) [Bacon] [see
Appendix XVIIII]
• A New and Complete Preceptor for the Violin (1834) [Willig] [see Appendix
XIX]
• The Ethiopian Violin Instructor by Gumbo Chaff (1848) [Ethiopian
Instructor] [see Appendix XX]
• Howe’s School for the Violin (1851) [Howe] [see Appendix XXI]
• Jewett’s National Violin Teacher (1851) [Jewett] [see Appendix XXII]
• Easy Play Violin Method by Joseph Allan (1969) [Allan] [see Appendix
XXIII]

It is quite easy to form strong first impressions of these texts, when compared to the
texts illustrative of the Achievement Model. Like the archetype above, this group of texts
contains extensive cover advertising which allows the viewer to form an immediate
overview of the instruction, a view that is very much in accord with the contents. While
surely a necessity, the agreement between cover and contents does not always occur as
evidenced by Duncan (2002), and Rhoda (2000) [see Chapter Five].
6.7.1 RM1 Focus on Enjoyment and Ease

While the cover advertising differs from text to text, the focus highlights both the
ease of learning the violin and the musical content as selling points. One aspect of
Achievement Model texts, as was discussed previously, is the lack of cover advertising.
The lack of ‘selling’ of melodies in achievement focused texts serves to add weight to the
idea that in such texts the melodies are at the service of the technical development, rather
than seen as a means to enthuse and attract an audience.
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Holyoke’s (1801) cover advertising [see Appendix XVI.II] shows a connection with
European texts, advertising this connection as a selling point:
The Instrumental Assistant containing instructions for the Violin, German-Flute,

Clarionett, Bass-Viol, and Hautboy. Compiled from late European Publications. Also A
Selection of favorite Airs, Marches, &c. Progressively Arranged, and adapted for the use
of Learners.
The mention of ‘late European Publications’ indicates that the writer thought such a
relationship would prove attractive to potential students, but also serves to show the diverse
way in which such material can be used, compared with an Achievement text. At the same
time, the repertoire is considered equally part of the ‘selling’ of the text. The inclusion of
instructions for a range of instruments also indicates a different, less ‘expert’ driven
sensibility.
Hewitt’s (18??) text is violin specific, but what it advertises is similar [see
Appendix XVII.II]. It says:
The Violin Preceptor or Compleat Tutor Being an Introduction to the Art of Playing on
that Instrument, Explained by such easy Rules & Principles as will enable a Scholar to
obtain an Early Proficiency. Selected from the most Celebrated Composers by James
Hewitt To which is added a select Collection of Songs, Airs, Marches, &c. Also
Tartini’s Celebrated Art of Bowing.
Hewitt mentions ease of learning but also highlights ‘early proficiency.’ He believes
this idea is important to mention but relates it to the ease in his instruction, rather than to
the idea of struggle and drill.
Bacon’s (1814) cover is one of the plainest in this group [see Appendix XVIII.II],
but, significantly, it too focuses on selling the musical content, indicating the importance of
the repertoire as a means of playing pleasure for the student:
Bacon’s New and Complete Preceptor for the Violin, with a Collection of Cotillions,
Marches, &c.
Willig’s (1834) cover advertising is almost identical to that of Bacon [see Appendix
XIX.II]. It reads:
A New and Complete Preceptor for the Violin, with a Selection of Airs, Marches,
Cotilions &c.
The Ethiopian Violin Instructor (1848) is the text that advertises the most specific
repertoire [see Appendix XX.II]. It describes itself as:
Containing full and Complete Instructions, with All the Popular Negro Melodies of the
Day Including those of the Christy Minstrels. By Gumbo Chaff, A.M.A. Author of the
Ethiopian Glee Book, Ethiopian Accordeon Instructor, Ethiopian Flute Instructor &c.,
&c.
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Howe’s School for the Violin (1851) advertises its contents on the cover [see
Appendix XXI.II] as follows:
New and Complete Instructions for the Violin, with a Large Collection of Favorite
Marches, Quick-Steps, Waltzes, Hornpipes, Contra Dances, Songs, and Six Setts of
Cotillions, Arranged with Figures, Containing Over 150 Pieces of Music.
In the Ethiopian and Howe, the complete instructions are important, and Howe
makes specific mention of the number of ‘real’ pieces of music that are included.
Jewett’s National Violin Teacher (1851) [see Appendix XXII.II] describes its text
thus:
Comprising Concise and Simple Rules of Instruction, and A Complete and Beautiful
Variety of Popular Airs, Quicksteps, Marches, Waltzes, Quadrilles, &c. &c., and Several
Beautiful Duets. Composed and Newly Arranged by a Distinguished Professor of Music.
Allan (1969) is the only twentieth century text in this group, making it stand apart
from other texts of this later period. It offers an example of a cover half way between the
older Recreational Model texts and the newer Achievement Model texts [see Appendix
XXIII.II]. It has more cover advertising then most Achievement Model texts but does not
advertise repertoire, adding weight to the idea that such advertising is not a selling point in
a modern instructional text. Its cover announcement – ‘Play Without Delay the Magic Chart
Way! No Notes – No Tedious Scales’ – also gives us an indication of how the writer sees
other, more achievement driven texts.
While these texts might not specifically mention ‘fun’ or enjoyment, they certainly
highlight both the simplicity and conciseness of the instructions, giving a clear idea that
they are a full answer to the student’s needs in terms of violin instruction. With the
exception of Allan (1969), they all also highlight the repertoire contained within, using this
as an enthusiastic selling point and reason to pick up the book, rather than emphasizing the
proficiency one would gain.
6.7.2 RM2 Suggestions

Like the archetype Instructor (1828) above, these texts present the student with
suggestions rather than prescribed learning, which is most evident in the format of the text
that separates instruction from repertoire. Moreover, with the exception of Holyoke (1801),
none of the texts mentions progression, which adds to the impression of suggestions rather
than prescription.
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It is not a certainty that these Recreational Model texts are deliberately designed to
promote student choice, because none specifically say so. Likewise, Achievement Model
texts do not have to limit student choice through their progressive structure. However, the
arrangement of content in Recreational Model texts certainly does not lead the student step-
by-step, demanding more interaction and decision making by each individual user. The
later Achievement Model texts were possibly consciously designed as a reaction to the
freedom offered by the Recreational Model in order to promote higher ‘standards’. Texts
such as Saunders, a Hybrid Model text discussed in Chapter Seven, may, in turn, be
responding to Achievement Model texts that have ‘overdone’ the prescription.
Given their period, the Recreational Model texts have two traditions to draw from:
the classically inspired European texts, from which they copy instructions, and English
texts such as Playford (1697), from which they borrow the format. The ordering of content,
whether deliberately designed so or not, gives a strong impression of the nature of the
sensibility current at the time, which certainly appears to place much more confidence in
the ability of individual learners to pace themselves and control their own learning.
6.7.3 RM3 Enjoyment Based

It cannot be stated for certain that these texts were ‘about’ enjoyment. What is
perhaps truer to say, is that the content of the texts fosters the impression that they are
based on the idea of simply learning for pleasure, with the aim of playing for the enjoyment
of oneself and others.
Some of the texts are like the Instructor in that they include ensemble pieces.
Holyoke (1801) presents his repertoire in three parts, two for treble voices and one for bass
[see Appendix XVI.II], and Jewett (1851) includes a section of duets [see Appendix
XXII.II]. The duets and trios give the student the option of playing with others but without
a technical purpose, as was the case with the archetypal Achievement text Lazan (1968).
It is assumed by these writers that social opportunities were there for music making,
either to accompany another activity like dancing or as part of the normal social interaction
between adults. These texts reflect a sensibility that is largely lost to us, given changes in
social conditions and the viewing of these books through a modern lens. The texts feel
‘lighter’ in tone when compared with the Achievement Model texts [see Chapter Five] and
carry the expectation of pleasure as a starting point rather than an end point of hard work.
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As with the Instructor above, there are no prefaces or introductions to these texts.
Aside from instruction specifically regarding violin technique and musical theory, there is
nothing to guide one’s understanding of the writer’s attitudes other than what can be
extrapolated from the instructional content. This more detailed reading offers a chance to
see if the general impressions can be sustained on closer scrutiny.

This group of eight texts is, like the Instructor above, self-instructing. While they
do not specifically say that they are for adults, self-instructing texts, as has been shown, are
more likely to be adult directed, notwithstanding that a junior audience is addressed in
some self-instructing texts [see Chapter Five], nor the fact that a teacher may be suggested.
While not directly stated, this group of texts clearly signals its intended audience,
assuming the cognitive maturity of the student as evidenced by the language used within
the texts which is adult and sophisticated. Moreover, there is no mention of children or
special consideration of their needs. There is no ambiguity in how they address the student
through the other signals given. Like other aspects of Recreational Model texts, the
impression received is that these texts are not setting out to distinguish themselves from
other forms of instruction. They reflect a time in which certain attitudes and expectations
were normal, although they would no longer be considered so today: for example, the very
fact that an adult non-musician could learn to play the violin from a book that is
independent of teacher input.
6.8.2 RM5 Music for Playing

Like the Instructor above, these eight texts are not focused on technical
development. The music, therefore, does not have a technical focus and seems to be
included for playing rather than progress. This attitude is exhibited through the extensive
and varied repertoire and the lack of relationship between repertoire and particular skills.
6.8.3 RM6 Accuracy Undefined

In this group of texts, as in the archetype, accuracy is largely undefined. However,
qualifiers are occasionally used when talking about skills. The word ‘must’, prominent in
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the Achievement Model texts, is not often used in this group of texts. Instead, they use
‘should’, with its less stringent tone. Other qualifiers, such as ‘proper’ are used casually as
in the Instructor, often only appearing once in a text. For example, Howe and the Ethiopian
Instructor use ‘proper’ only once saying: ‘Having learnt the proper manner of holding the
violin and bow’. This is unlike the Achievement model texts which use such words
repeatedly.
Also in contrast to the Achievement Model texts is the lack of concern over
accuracy in intonation. The only text that does exhibit a concern with intonation is Allan
who says:
It is important to put your finger squarely on the number on the violin chart, BETWEEN
the lines. By doing so, you are stopping the notes as they should be stopped. Sloppy
placing of the fingers will result in out of tune playing (p.8).
Allan is the only twentieth century text in this category which might help explain
the mention of intonation, albeit mild when compared to texts in the Achievement Model
category. As has already been noted, intonation is not a primary concern of the nineteenth
century texts, but becomes of concern in twentieth century texts. The way in which Allan
(1969) has included aspects of the sensibility of the earlier period, including much less
stress on intonation, is noteworthy. Whether or not Allan’s inclusion of the nineteenth
century sensibility is deliberate is debatable, it seems likely that he was endeavoring to give
the modern student an alternative to the Achievement Model texts of the twentieth century.
Like the Instructor, some texts show concern for accuracy in rhythm or time,
possibly related to the dance material included and its social importance for the player [see
Section Three]. Indeed some texts like Howe (1851) include the figures, or steps, for the
dances, like several Hybrid Model texts [See Chapter Seven]. Both Bacon (1814) and
Willig (1834) emphasize the importance of time. Bacon says: ‘Time is of the first
importance and should be well understood’ (p.11). Willig also emphasizes accuracy in
rhythm, saying: ‘A knowledge of counting and beating time is absolutely necessary, and
should be well studied as soon as the pupil can play any little piece at sight’(p.12).
The emphasis on rhythmic correctness highlights an important point. Recreational

Model texts are not disinterested in achievement – they clearly indicate how to attain
certain skills and emphasize some aspects of playing. Rather, there is significantly less
emphasis on achievement, compared with signs that point to the importance of repertoire
for social music making. Additionally, the achievement emphasized in texts like Willig
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(1834) and Bacon (1814) often has the specific social, recreational purpose of aiding
dancing. While there is concern for accuracy, the reasons are different from the
Achievement Model texts. The stress on accuracy in rhythm rather than intonation may be a
product of a different time and sensibility rather than any conscious decision on the part of
the publishers. Indeed, one common feature of all these texts is the seeming lack of over-
riding, well articulated, attitudes or approaches.
Bacon (1814) and Willig (1834) also define accuracy in terms of bowing direction.
Their ‘Lessons on Bowing’ contain a few examples which have directional markings over
every note. Their instructions say: ‘These Examples must be bowed as they are marked,
observing the slurs, and always beginning with a down bow when the music begins with
the bar’ (p.17). While they do insist on the correct bowings within the examples, none of
the repertoire in either text has any bowing markings, and there is never any reference back
to these examples, or any other remarks about bowing correctly. This anomaly may be a
result of ‘borrowing’ from the European texts, or the examples may be included to show the
student a range of bowings in case he/she encounters them in other music, or so he/she can
put bowings in the tunes him/herself. Whatever the reason for the bowing examples, within
the repertoire there is no concern expressed about the direction in which the student is
bowing.
6.8.4 RM7 Does Not Stress Practice

Practice in this group of texts is largely not stressed, particularly in comparison to
Achievement Model texts. ‘Practice’ is mentioned, but is used in a casual way, as in the
Instructor archetype, often appearing only once or twice within a text. For example,
Holyoke’s one use of ‘practice’ occurs when discussing bowing and says: ‘this should
generally be practiced upon long or holding notes’.
Howe (1851) and the Ethiopian Instructor (1848) also use practice when discussing
bowing and say: ‘I would recommend the pupil to practice every note thus’. While these
texts do use the word practice, it should be noted that they do not always use practice as a
category, but rather use the word in relation to practicing a skill. Achievement Model texts
do likewise, but also use practice as a category, often recommending amounts of practice to
be done each day.
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The Ethiopian Instructor (1848) uses practice one other time in relation to finding
pitch. It says: ‘and with a little practice learn to stop in tune’ (p.9). Either the texts assume
the student will not need to be reminded, or practice is truly not a concern. If, as will be
suggested in Section Three, there were more social outlets for engaging with playing the
violin, it may well be that these writers did not need to stress practice as a means of
encouraging playing of the instrument.
6.8.5 RM8 Teacher Not Considered Essential

All eight texts are self-instructing. A teacher is not considered essential because the
texts are designed to include all the necessary information a person needs to learn on
his/her own. The lack of mention of a teacher, which often occurs in Recreational Model
texts, may relate to the period of writing, like other features described in this section. If
there were some understanding that playing would naturally occur in a range of social
settings, the need for specific instruction would be balanced against the availability of
informal instruction via more experienced players.
Holyoke (1801), for example, is specifically designed to be used in a social fashion,

with students learning and rehearsing in groups. All the music is presented in three parts
with easier parts for less experienced players and harder parts for more experienced players
who could offer help and set the example.
The twentieth century text by Allan (1969) is interesting in this regard because it is
the only modern Recreational Model text, appearing at time when social practices have
changed. Between Jewett (1851) – the latest of the nineteenth century Recreational Model
texts – and Allan (1969), there is a wide time span during which Achievement goals
became more prominent. In the twentieth century, when Allan’s text was written, the
common view is that a teacher is necessary to learn and that all students should be taught
‘by the syllabus’ [see Chapter Three]. Allan may have written his text in response to this
different sensibility, trying to present the student with an alternative in a text which
embodies the characteristics exhibited by the nineteenth century Recreational Model texts.
However, the assumption of a social network for playing that seems obvious in the early
texts, like Holyoke, is not present in the same way today, thus affecting the possible uses
for and audience for Allan.
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6.8.6 RM9 No Sequence or Progression
These texts are not designed with any sequence or progression as shown by the
format which places the instructional material and the repertoire in different sections. The
only text in this group which mentions progression is Holyoke (1801) which advertises that
its repertoire is ‘progressively arranged and adapted for the use of learners’. In general,
Achievement Model texts interpret the idea of progression to mean moving to more
advanced skills. Some nineteenth century texts, like Saunders, a Hybrid Model text [see
Chapter Seven] use progression to mean moving through the circle of fifths. Holyoke
(1801) is the only Recreational Model text that mentions progression but it is not clear
exactly what sort of progression he intends.
6.8.7 RM10 Skill Development through Different Pathways

Like the archetype, the Instructor (1828), most of the texts offer skill development
through different pathways, providing alternative methods for skills such as tuning and left
hand finger placement. This provision of alternative explanations suggests that the writers
not only recognize a range of different student needs and skill levels, but also that there is
not just one ‘correct’ way of achieving success. As was shown, Achievement Model texts
show by their different methods that there is no one recognized pathway to success, but
each author seems more inclined to mandate his/her own approach.
The only text which does not provide alternate pathways is Holyoke (1801). Since
he meant his text to be used in a group rehearsal/learning situation, he may have assumed
that alternative help would be available from more experienced players, or his underlying
attitude may mirror that of Achievement Mode texts. The impression gained from other
characteristics, however, suggests the former, not the latter.
The rest of this group of texts provides different pathways. For example, Bacon
(1814) provides several possibilities for tuning. He first explains that the violin is tuned in
fifths and that the A string is generally first to be tuned using a tuning fork to give the
correct A. He then provides the following alternative for novices.
But as the Ear at first may not be familiar with the sound or interval of a fifth, the
following method is recommended. Stop the second string with the Thumb precisely in
the situation of the little finger, and draw the first string up in unison with it, the same
with the third, and fourth, observing that the thumb on each string produces the same
sound as the open string above; afterward sound the strings together and the Ear will
easily discover whether the Tune is perfect (p.6).
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This proffered alternative is not particularly simple, which may be due in part to the
arcane nature of the writing. Nevertheless it does offer another way for the student to find
the right pitches if he/she cannot hear the interval of a fifth. Unlike many of the texts
analyzed in Chapter Five that provided no alternative, these Recreational Model texts
assume that the student will be able to accomplish tuning by one means or another.
This same attitude is seen in relation to left hand finger placement. There is the
assumption by most of the texts in this group that some students will be able to play in tune
without trouble. However, they provide the alternative for those who may have difficulty.
Hewitt (18??) addresses the issue as follows:
If you cannot readily attain to stop in tune, you may then have recourse to the ensuing
example wherein the strings of a Violin are represented, and divided into frets and it is to
be done in the following manner. Mark out the lines or frets with a pair of compasses,
either with ink or bits of paper, and paste them on the fingerboard of your Violin, at the
same distance as EX:, thus you will easily discern every note, and with a little practice,
learn how to stop in tune to a very great nicety (p.5).
Hewitt’s remarks suggest that learning to ‘stop in tune’ is not difficult, which, given
the importance of intonation in the texts illustrative of the Achievement Model, presents a
distinctly different point of view.
Bacon (1814) also subscribes to the method of temporary frets and says ‘with a little
practice [you] will learn to stop in Tune without difficulty’ (p.5).
The Ethiopian Instructor (1848) provides the exact same alternative as Hewitt
(18??). However, the Ethiopian also shows a dislocation between the attitude expressed in
the quote above, and the attitude expressed in the section at the beginning of the texts titled
‘Remarks’. While the quote above presents ‘stopping in tune’ as something easily acquired,
in the ‘Remarks’ it says the following:
It is necessary to become familiar with the instrument in all its different points; and to be
careful, in practising the Scales, that you may be able to stop in tune – a quality as rare
as it is necessary, and without which the attempt to play might as well be abandoned
(p.5).
It is not clear who has written the ‘remarks’, but the two quotes certainly present
opposite points of view. The fact that the instructions found in Bacon (1814) and the
Ethiopian Instructor (1848) are identical suggest they have been drawn from the same
source. That source may be from a time when perfection in intonation was not such a
concern. The ‘remarks’ indicate a different attitude which may relate to when the Ethiopian
Instructor was published. In the mid to late nineteenth century, as will be shown in Chapter
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Seven, good intonation became more of a concern in the instructional texts. While Bacon
presents an earlier more relaxed view of intonation within the text, the ‘remarks’ may
reflect a view becoming current at the time of publication. At the same time, these different
attitudes may not reflect any particular attitude that has been considered but rather represent
the gleaning of information from a range of sources, indicating the variety of attitudes
prevalent during this period of change.
Allan (1969) provides, as did Seidel (2008) [see Chapter Five], an alternative to
conventional music notation. However, Allan goes beyond a description in words and gives
the student notation in the form of a ‘magic chart’. Allan says: ‘This chart is the most
important part of this system of playing the violin. It shows you what finger to use and
where to put it to get the various tones’ (p.8). The chart is not meant just to be a reference,
but is meant to be used on the instrument. Allan says: ‘Paste the chart securely on the
fingerboard of your violin, taking care that it is tight up against the nut’ (p.8). The chart
provides an alternative for those who are having trouble reading the conventional notation.
In the songs Allan gives the student both the chart notation and the conventional notation
which allows the student to choose which notation to follow, and may indeed help the
student to learn the conventional notation quicker [see Appendix XXIII.II]. For people who
do not read conventional notation, the alternative allows them to play tunes sooner. Allan
provides an excellent modern example of an attempt to remove any obstacles to playing
‘real’ music as soon as possible.

While technique is not the primary focus of the texts in this group, they all address
basic, and in some cases advanced, violin technique. Like the archetype above, the
approach to technique is less systematic than the texts analyzed in Chapter Five and there is
little stressing of the need for absolute accuracy or systematic development of technique.
6.9.1 RM11 Music Leads

All of the texts in this group contain extensive repertoire and little technical work,
which suggests, as did the Instructor (1828), that it is possible to learn via tunes rather than
scales and exercises. Where there is technique, it is often unrelated to specific pieces of
music and no repertoire is presented in order to practice any particular skill.
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6.9.2 RM12 No Emphasis on Improvement
The majority of these texts do not place particular emphasis on improvement either
in technique or in standard of playing. There are no reminders of a technical nature in the
section of pieces and the pieces themselves are not placed in any order of difficulty.
Holyoke indicates a progression but the manner of progression is unclear and does not
appear to relate to any codification of skills. Since the melodies supplied are of different
levels of technical difficulty, one must assume that the authors of the texts believe that
through the playing of tunes the student will improve. The only text that does place a minor
emphasis on improvement is Allan (1969). He says: ‘REMEMBER, after all is said and
done, just how good you will be able to play depends on YOU’ (p.8). While this
exhortation has more emphasis than the Instructor (1828), it is mild when compared to the
texts analyzed in Chapter Five. For example, Stulberg (1938) expects students to play an
exercise perfectly before moving ahead to the next one, and Yost (1946) expects the teacher
to insist on correct basics of playing and says: ‘No detail should be neglected if the pupil is
to make rapid progress’ (p.3). Improvement is expected and at a quick pace. The fact that
Allan has any such comment may relate to the period in which he was writing, where such
attitudes have become very firmly established.
6.9.3 RM13 Descriptions Simple and Concise

Like the Instructor (1828), the instructions in this group of texts are simple and
concise. Indeed it is one of the selling points on Jewett’s (1851) cover that it contains
‘concise and simple rules of instruction’. For example Jewett describes holding the violin as
follows:
In playing, the violin should be held by the left hand against the collar-bone of the left
shoulder, and confined there by the chin resting on the top of the instrument, on the left
of the tailpiece.
Jewett’s (1851) instruction is still more complex than the description of the same
skill in Allan (1969). Allan does not contain written instructions on how to hold the violin;
he presents the student with an illustration and says: ‘the above shows the correct way to
hold the violin’ (p.6). Even Holyoke (1801), which reflects more Achievement Model
characteristics than any of the other texts, gives simple instruction:
The violin must be held with the left hand, and resting between the root of the thumb and
the first finger, leaning the body of the instrument against the collar bone, with the elbow
immediately underneath, that the fingers may more easily touch the strings (p.3).
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There is the sense with this group of texts that the students do not need a lot of
direction; that a combination of basic instruction and what students ‘pick up’ from other
players will suffice.

The placing of instructions in one section and repertoire in another precludes any
‘chunking’ of information. Like the Instructor (1828), these texts assume students will
order and pace their own learning. Rather than introducing one or two notes at a time, these
texts introduce all the fingers of the left hand on all the strings at the same time, like the
Instructor. For example, Willig (1834) says the following:
Having learnt the proper manner of holding the Violin and bow, the next thing to be
learnt, is the Scale of the Gamut, as it is here subjoin’d; and the names and numbers of
the Notes by heart, then proceed to playing the Gamut up and down, drawing the bow
softly, and the whole length at each Note, stopping the fingers firm upon each stroke
(p.3).
The student now has at his/her disposal the notes he/she needs to play a large
portion of the tunes in the book, rather than have pieces supplied that fit the current level of
skill that the book is expecting the student to achieve. The Recreational Model format also
provides a reference section for the student to find any information he/she might require
while playing a tune, without having to search the book for the appropriate lesson where the
information was presented.
6.9.5 RM15 More Music than Technical Work

All these texts provide significantly more music than technical work and do not
relate the music to technical development in any significant way. The wealth of repertoire
in this group of texts supports the idea that it is music, not technique, which drives the text
and manner of instruction. Some texts do contain more technical work than others, but in
all the texts the amount of technical work is minimal when compared to the texts analyzed
in Chapter Five. Even Allan (1969), the only twentieth century text in this group, contains
very few exercises, and the ones that are included are more for experience in reading the
chart notation rather than for developing perfect intonation or other technical skill.
6.9.6 RM16 No Technical Prerequisite to Play Music

This group of texts offers mixed views for this characteristic. For example, Hewitt
(18??), like the Instructor (1828), does not present technical work as a prerequisite to the
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playing of tunes. Holyoke (1801) includes eight introductory lessons prior to the section of
repertoire, but the lessons look quite similar to the tunes that come after, and there is no
statement to the effect that the student must play the lessons before the tunes. Jewett (1851)
includes a few pages of exercises prior to his section of repertoire, but again there is
nothing to say they are compulsory. Allan (1969) gives the student four exercises prior to
the pieces which are required in order for the student to understand the chart notation.
Bacon’s (1814) approach has echoes of the Achievement Model in that he presents
the student with what he calls ‘preludes’ before the first piece in a different key [see
Appendix XVIII.II]. For example, in the section of pieces the first item is called Prelude in
G Major which is the G major scale and arpeggio, followed by the first piece, Life Let Us
Cherish, which is in G major. Bacon does the same with the next piece which is to present
the student with the Prelude in D Major followed by Air from Rosina which is in D major.
The idea is that the prelude will help the student play the following piece or pieces in that
key more easily. In this way Bacon resembles the format of the modern texts, offering a
more technically oriented piece to precede ‘real’ melodies, although without any pressure
for the student to play these pieces. The student has already learned the notes in the section
of instruction and therefore could elect just to play the tune.

The majority of the texts in this group contain mixed repertoire, generally consisting
of a variety of popular and dance music. The repertoire is one of the selling points of the
text and is, in most cases, advertised on the cover, as was noted above. [see Appendices
under the text name for lists of repertoire included in each text]
In addition to the repertoire being mixed, much of it is in several parts offering the
possibility of shared music making. The idea that the repertoire has a social purpose, rather
than being designed to play with a teacher, is reinforced by the self-instructing style of the
texts. The implication is that the student will have others to play with, and because the
pieces are ‘adapted for learners’, students of all levels can participate in social music
making. Jewett (1851) also contains a section of duets which could be used recreationally.
The other texts may not include ensemble pieces, but they do include a large selection of
dance music which the student could use to play for dances, and Howe (1851) supplies
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figures (the dance steps to be called) with some of his dance music which makes it even
easier for the student.
The only text which does not give the student a similar social outlet for music
making is the twentieth century Allan (1969). The repertoire in Allan is best described as
familiar tunes and includes titles such as Little Brown Jug, Swanee River, and Bicycle Built
for Two [see Appendix XXIII.III]. Allan is somewhat unusual in that he includes the words
below the tune, which suggests that others could sing along with the student if desired.
6.10.2 RM18 Repertoire Less Sequential and More Room for Choice
The entire design of this set of texts supports the idea of repertoire to be chosen by
the student, with no sense of sequencing, except occasionally and in very basic ways.
Ensemble pieces encourage the student to play with others, and dance music allows the
possibility for the beginner violinist to perform a significant social function in an enjoyable
way. The difference between these texts and the Achievement Model texts is strongly
apparent when compared to texts such as Yost (1946) and Bowman (1882) who supply the
student with duets to be played with the teacher, not as social entertainment, and who have
both written pieces to support technical development rather than choose tunes with which
the student is familiar and might desire to play. It is certainly interesting to consider the
extent to which these differences are in fact a consciously considered policy, a subject that
is explored in more detail in Section Three.
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CHAPTER 7: Hybrid Texts
7.1 Introduction: The Archetype: George Saunders’ New and

Scientific Self-Instructing School for the Violin (1847)
Hybrid texts exhibit some characteristics that may fall clearly on the Achievement
side, others on the Recreational side, and some that are in between. While all the texts
analyzed in this chapter are Hybrid, most exhibit a ‘lean’ towards one model or the other.
This mixture of attributes may seem more or less deliberate, depending on the author.
George Saunders’ New and Scientific Self-Instructing School for the Violin [Saunders] [see
Appendix XXIV] is the obvious archetypal Hybrid text because the characteristics are
divided almost equally between the models. It seems obvious in fact, as will be seen, that
Saunders himself had ‘models’ in mind when he wrote his text and deliberately aimed to
provide a hybrid, or ‘something in between’. Saunders’ text offers support for the idea that
when he was writing his text there was a contemporary understanding of specific and
differentiated approaches to learning the violin that align with the models developed in this
study. This awareness was also shown by Allan (1969) whose text deliberately sets out to
offer a different approach to the Achievement Model texts which are so prolific in the
twentieth century.
In addition to the blend of instructional elements, two other factors in the Hybrid
Model texts, represented by Saunders, indicate differences in sensibility that blur the
distinction between a strong Achievement focus and a strong Recreational focus. First, the
credentials of the author and/or source of the music become important and are prominently
advertised, which is not the case in either the Recreational Model texts or in the twentieth
century Achievement Model texts. There appears to be a higher status associated with texts
which are written by violinists or which advertise European sources. Secondly, there is a
broader marketing of the text to more than just the adult amateur. Saunders includes
‘business players’ and ‘teachers’ as audiences for his text which suggests that he feels his
approach has some value to professionals as well as amateurs. This mix was also seen in
Lazan (1968), one of the Achievement Model archetypes, though his broader audience was
not served in a particularly broad way.
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Saunders has divided his text into three parts, each with a different focus, perhaps
with the idea of accommodating the disparate audience. The discussion here of all three
parts will help clarify the Hybrid sensibility.

Like the Recreational Model texts, Saunders includes extensive cover advertising
which makes it easy to form initial impressions [see Appendix XXIV.II]. Like some
Achievement Model texts, but in contrast to all Recreational Model texts, Saunders
includes a preface which details his philosophy and gives a rationale for his approach.
7.2.1 AM1/RM1Focus on Accuracy and Skill Development/Focus on

Enjoyment and Ease
The Hybrid sensibility is readily apparent in the detailed descriptions provided on
the cover. The descriptions give the impression of focusing on both accuracy and skill
development and enjoyment and ease. The first part is described as follows:
PART FIRST. – How the Violin should be kept; how it should be strung; of holding the
Violin and bow; of tuning the Violin; of rosin; of repairing the Violin; rudiments of
Music; major and minor keys; preliminary exercises; varieties of bowing, with their
explanations; on the management of the bow and right arm; between 80 and 90 favorite
pieces, such as Waltzes, Songs, Reels, Gallops, Hornpipes, &c., with the bowing and
fingering all marked, and arranged as progressive lessons. In those lessons, the pupil is
shown the method in which all the major keys are transposed; this is of the utmost
importance to him, as it is one of the most difficult things in music for the scholar to
understand, and without which he might remain for years in ignorance in regard to them.
Items associated with the Achievement Model such as ‘preliminary exercises’ and
‘progressive lessons’ are juxtaposed with ‘favorite pieces’ including ‘waltzes, songs, reels,
gallops, hornpipes’ which are associated with the Recreational Model. The degree of detail
in the cover advertising compares with that of Recreational Model texts as well and may
reflect the ‘plug’ to the proposed adult audience buyers.
Part two of Saunders’ text shows the same blend of ideas [see Appendix XXIV.II].
‘Simple and compound double stops’, ‘arpeggios’, ‘chromatic scales, et al.’, and
progressive lessons that relate to skill development are listed alongside the ‘very rare
collection of Scotch and other Reels, Themes, Hornpipes, Waltzes, Gallops’, which relate
to playing for pleasure.
Part Three, in contrast to the advertising for the first two parts, gives the impression
of being almost exclusively Recreational in tone:
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PART THIRD. – How to set figures to music, and music to figures; method of learning
to call cotillions; how music, for dancing, should be played; what kind of music to select
for dancing; how the sets are formed on the floor; observations on calling figures;
abbreviations necessary to be used in writing figures; thirteen choice sets of cotillions,
with all the different figures written to them that are made use of in this country; a
variety of some of the most popular contra, Spanish, and fancy dances, with the proper
figures set to them.
Saunders clearly indicates what he sees as a purpose for his text and presumably
also a strong selling point: the use of the violin for social dancing. Interestingly, Saunders
does not include any art music in his repertoire advertising, the type of music that is more
normally associated with Achievement objectives. Most of the texts analyzed for this thesis
do not advertise art music, though they do include it, with the exception of Bowman
(1882), who mentions particular European composers whose works he has included and
Rhoda who advertises ‘classical melodies’ on the cover. Brainard (1863), mentions
including works by the ‘best composers’ (by which he means European composers) in his
preface.
7.2.2 AM2/RM2 Prescriptive/Optional

Saunders continues his mix of model characteristics including both prescriptive
learning and optional learning. The optional learning is exhibited in the format which
mirrors Recreational Model texts by placing the instructional section first and the repertoire
afterward. The prescriptive learning, while not strongly reflective of Achievement Model
texts, involves numbering exercises within each section, suggesting the order of
learning/playing.
7.2.3 AM3/RM3 Work Based/Enjoyment Based

Saunders makes it clear that he is offering a ‘mixed’ approach. He makes a
comparison between his text and particular European instructional texts when he writes:
Spohr’s and Campagnoli’s European Schools for the Violin, are excellent works, but
they are altogether too difficult for new beginners, especially Spohr’s; they are intended
for advanced scholars, or for a long scientific course of study under the best of masters –
consequently they are worth but little or nothing here, except to those who have some
considerable knowledge of the instrument (p.3).
Saunders, above is describing what are conceptualized here as Achievement Model
texts, which he sees as too difficult for the beginner. He describes his alternative to these
texts as follows:
It contains every thing that is in any of the European works that are in general use for the
violin, and many things that are not found in them, which I have thought necessary to
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add. Instead of hard, dry exercises, which generally constitute the greater part of all the
foreign works of this kind, and which I think are detrimental to the study of all new
beginners, I have, after the preliminary exercises, introduced pleasing airs of every
description of style, arranged as progressive lessons. This method of studying is far
more pleasing and advantageous to beginners than exercises which should never be
introduced until the pupil has advanced far enough to have an inclination for practising
them (p.3).
Saunders has, in essence, set out to write a Hybrid text. It is possible in the above
quote to see the concurrence of work and enjoyment based elements. There are no ‘hard,
dry exercises’ as in the European texts, but there are ‘preliminary exercises’ which are still
part of work-based learning as conceptualized by the Models. However, the ‘pleasing airs
of every description of style’ and the idea that his method is ‘more pleasing and
advantageous to beginners’ emphasizes enjoyment and recreation.
Saunders’ rationale is in contrast to modern commentators who opine that students

need to be ‘taught by the syllabus’ just in case they decided to become professional
musicians [see Chapter Three]. Unlike the modern ‘syllabus based’ approach, he seems to
place more importance on maintaining student interest which may then result in the will to
undertake more rigorous practice.
Saunders’ mixed approach is also evident in his claim that his text is suitable for
‘beginners, amateurs, business players, and teachers’. In contrast to authors like Lazan,
Saunders really does appear to have thought through the range of adults who may pick up
his text and tried to provide for them.
While the adult student is likely to appreciate Saunders’ more relaxed philosophy, it
seems clear that his message is also meant for the teachers who are included as an audience
for his text. Saunders’ philosophy could give those teachers an alternate view of violin
instruction which they could adopt and use with students of all ages. His message might
also be calculated to sell more books.
Further analysis will help to establish the extent to which Saunders may sit squarely
on the fence or ‘lean’ towards either the Achievement or Recreational Model.

Saunders expresses his views very directly, which makes his attitudes clearer in the
manner of Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1968) rather than the Instructor (1828). This more
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detailed look at Saunders’ text will show that his attitudes are mixed, clearly illustrating the
Hybrid nature of the instruction.

As a self-instructing text, Saunders is adult directed, a fact he makes clear to his
proposed audience, quoted above. The language he uses is sophisticated and adult, and
there are no considerations of children or their needs, or use of children’s tunes.
7.3.2 AM5/RM5 Music for Technique/ Music for Playing

In keeping with the Hybrid sensibility, Saunders presents the student with both
music for technique and music for playing. As an introduction to the section of tunes, called
‘progressive lessons’, he says the following:
The following progressive lessons are arranged in the most pleasing and instructive
manner, and are calculated to lead the scholar, step by step, through the principal keys,
varieties of bowing, and different modes of time, with their explanations, &c. (p.20).
Saunders states the technical purpose of the music clearly, and like Lazan (1968)
includes purpose-composed material. One original tune is used multiple times. He says:
This air will be transposed and set at the beginning of all the Major scales, in order to
familiarize the pupil with them, as they occur, one after the other, throughout these
lessons (p.20).
His intent is to help the student change key more easily by using a tune which will
become familiar through multiple playing.
While some of his tunes are composed for technical reasons, others are not. His
compositions are interspersed throughout the sections of repertoire, and have titles similar
to other dance tunes. Titles such as Penny Post, Spring’s Waltz, Burlington Waltz, and
Aldrich’s Favorite Reel are virtually indistinguishable from pre-existing dance tunes [see
Appendix XXIV.II]. Unlike Lazan (1968) whose pieces were all clearly composed for
technical reasons, Saunders’ tunes are of a different order. Saunders was a professor of
music and dancing, and it is possible that he wrote the tunes as a contribution to popular
dance and recreational music of the day.
The other repertoire is similar to that of the Recreational Model texts. It includes
dance music, songs, themes from European art music, etc. There is certainly no indication,
either in the arrangement or technical difficulty of the repertoire, that he has chosen the
pieces primarily for technical development.
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Saunders is the earliest nineteenth century text analyzed in this thesis to have this
mixture of music for technical purposes, as in the Achievement Model, and music for
enjoyable playing, as in the Recreational Model. His text represents the first extant example
of this Hybrid sensibility which will be considered in relation to other social factors in
Section Three.
Saunders also represents a change from Recreational Model texts in that he is a

specialist author. With the exception of Ole Bull (1845), the texts prior to Saunders were
compiled by publishers who were not necessarily violinists. Saunders brings to his text his
own learning experience which has informed his practice. Interestingly he feels the
European approach is unsuitable, but still feels that exercises and music for technique is
necessary in order to learn the violin. Saunders’ text is less work-based than the
Achievement Model texts (including European publications), but skill development through
the music is still a feature.
7.3.3 AM6/RM6 Accuracy Defined/ Accuracy Undefined

Saunders’ text is not consistent in the degree to which he mandates accuracy,
according to his definition, or otherwise. There are a range of techniques that, he writes,
‘must’ be performed in specific ways; there are others that ‘should’ be done a certain way;
still others where he finds a range of possibilities acceptable; and some which do not seem
to concern him at all. This variation in defining accuracy is in contrast to Achievement
Model texts that are consistent in describing and insisting on it and Recreational Model
texts that often don’t make comments related to it at all. Saunders offers a truly Hybrid
sensibility for this characteristic, insisting on more accuracy than the Recreational Model
texts, but not as much as the Achievement Model texts.
Some ‘musts’ in Saunders include the position of the violin: ‘The right side of the
violin must be dropped down a very little, to prevent raising the arm too much when
playing on the fourth string’ (p.12); as well as the bow hold: ‘The thumb and fore-finger
must press the stick, and never the little finger, except when the hand is close to the bridge
as it would spoil the bow-hang’ (p.12).
Accuracy in bowing direction is of great concern to Saunders and is defined in some

detail. For example, the section of preliminary exercises contains multiple directions about
how the bow should be used while playing the exercises.
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This exercise on the four open strings is played with the half bow, from the middle to the
upper end, and without using the shoulder-joint, except raising and lowering the arm
when changing the bow from one string to the other (p.13).
Definitions of accuracy occur throughout the section. ‘Exercise No. 3 must be
played very slow, and with the whole bow, making short rest between each note’(p.13),
‘use about one half of the bow to each note, from the middle to upper end, commencing
with a down bow, from the middle’ (p.14) are just two examples.
Saunders’ insistence on correct bowing direction is very much in line with

Achievement Model texts. His careful marking of direction in pieces is in contrast to the
texts reflective of the Recreational Model [see Chapter Six] which never used such
markings within the repertoire. Saunders says:
The scholar must be very particular to give one stroke of the bow to every note,
throughout the Progressive Lessons, that is not marked with a slur; as I have been very
particular to mark the bowings, in all of them in the best possible manner; and also to be
particular in commencing the lessons, at the beginning, with the right bow, as they are
marked, either up or down; otherwise the bowing would be all wrong (p.19).
The degree of emphasis on this technique, at the expense of musical flow, is made
obvious when Saunders writes:
It is expected that the scholar, in practising the following lessons, will make frequent
stops; in all such cases he must be particular, before commencing, to ascertain whether
the note he wishes to start on is played with an up or down bow (p.19).
While many authors are insistent that the student be accurate, they do not often offer
any explanations as to why. Saunders, however, enlightens the student as to why he
considers it so important. He says:
The down bow, in consequence of the nearness of the hand to the strings, gives the most
pressure, and consequently produces the heaviest tone; therefore the down bow is
preferable, on the accented parts of the measure, to the up bow. The ancient rule is, to
commence every measure with a down bow and finish with an up bow; but modern
playing has made frequent deviations from this rule. The violinists who play the
accented parts of the measure with a down bow, (as often circumstances will admit),
have the best accent, keep the best time, and make the best leaders. LOUIS SPOHR, in
his school for the Violin, begs to remind the orchestra player of the old rule, which
prescribes the accented parts of a measure to be taken with a down bow, and finish with
an up bow. I shall endeavor, wherever it can be done as well as not, to give the accented
parts of the measure the down bow, throughout this work (p.20).
Saunders is primarily concerned with the bowing for reasons of accent for practical
purposes. While he mentions Spohr and orchestral playing, he is more concerned with the
type of orchestra that plays for dancing. Saunders’ qualifications state that he is a ‘professor
of music and dancing’, the latter a focus of his book. Indeed, Saunders’ remarks in the
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introduction to Part Three of his text are exclusively devoted to the art of playing for
dances. He writes:
This part of the work is intended to give the scholar a thorough knowledge of playing
and calling Cotillons and Contra dance, and also of arranging figures to music, and
music to figures. The following sets of Cotillons, thirteen in number, are all my
composition, and were written expressly for this part of the work, being both easy and
pleasing, with the bowing and fingering all marked. This is of the utmost importance to
the scholar, as the style of dancing music differs from any other, and the style of playing
a piece of music depends very much on the manner in which it is bowed; therefore, no
one that is not acquainted with dancing music, no matter how great a performer he may
be, can play well for dancing (p.78).
Saunders is not as definite in his insistence on accuracy in all areas. For example, he
appears less insistent about the position of the left hand (pg.12) and like Lazan, makes
allowances for physical differences in players thus:
As there are various ways of holding the violin with the left hand, I would say that any
position may be considered good, which will admit the playing of the following
Exercise; each finger, with bent joints, firmly placed upon one string, and all kept down
while playing it (p.12).
A significant area of difference between Saunders and Achievement Model texts is
his more relaxed attitude towards intonation. While Stulberg labels intonation ‘the greatest
challenge a violinist faces’ Saunders only mentions it once:
Observe that the same pressure of the bow and fingers must be given to each string, in
playing double stops, and the strictest attention paid to a correct intonation (Intonation
signifies stopping in tune) (p.48).
This reminder comes in Part Two of the text and occurs only in regard to compound
double stops. Intonation is not mentioned in Part One when the left hand is introduced.
Whereas Stulberg (1938) introduced double stops specifically to improve intonation,
Saunders has introduced them along with other advanced techniques such as shifting and
harmonics because they occur in violin music. This lack of focus on accurate intonation is
an important and consistent difference between nineteenth century and twentieth century
texts, where accurate intonation is stressed and equated with ‘good’ playing.

It is unsurprising, given his focus on accuracy, that Saunders stresses practice. He
does not label ‘practice points’ like Lazan, but instead uses ‘practice’ frequently throughout
the text: for example, ‘this scale should be practiced’, ‘the following exercise is to be
practiced’, ‘I therefore advise the scholar to practice them frequently’ and so on. Consistent
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with his focus on accurate bowing, discussed above, he is particularly insistent on practice
regarding bowings. He says:
The following are the principal varieties of bowing that will be used in the Progressive
Lessons, which the scholar must be familiar with before proceeding any farther. These,
as far as No. 21, are to be practised in the following Exercise, which must be well
understood before applying them. The pupil should practice diligently all the
Preliminary Exercises, as it will very much facilitate his studies in the following lessons;
as a good beginning is sure to make a good ending, if persevered in (p.16).
Saunders’ emphasis on practice highlights a difference between his text and the
texts more reflective of the Recreational Model. While some of the texts analyzed in
Chapter Six did mention practice, they did so casually, many of them only using the word
once within the texts. Saunders and Ole Bull [see below] are the earliest of the nineteenth
century texts to advocate regular practice for improvement. This introduction of the idea of
regular practice is one of the significant changes that begin to appear in the self-
instructional texts during the mid-nineteenth century.
The idea of practice is central to texts which lean more towards the Achievement
Model than towards the Recreational Model, because practice is considered essential for
improvement and the technical development that are stressed by Achievement Model texts.
Saunders stresses practice, but in a way that appears to resist any significant tipping
towards the Achievement side. However, as will be shown below, there are some Hybrid
texts where the stress on practice is less balanced.
7.3.5 AM8/RM8 Importance of Teacher/ Teacher Not Considered Essential

Saunders’ design of a self-instructing text assumes that the adult student can learn a
substantial amount on his own. A teacher is not considered essential, but there are particular
criteria that must be met in Saunders’ view. He writes:
I would advise every one who takes up the violin, with the intention of learning to play
it, to have nothing to do with any of those violin books gotten up by mere publishers,
who, by their works, show that they know nothing about the instrument, or music –
therefore their works must be detrimental to the practice of new beginners; and
furthermore, to avoid taking lessons of any one unless he is a competent teacher of the
violin, as, if bad habits and positions are contracted in the beginning, it is ten chances to
one if they do not spoil the pupil’s playing forever, unless he breaks up and commences
entirely new again (p.3).
Saunders condemns the entire set of texts analyzed in Chapter Six because they
were not authored by violinists. Moreover he requires a certain standard from any potential
teacher. He goes on:
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There are many persons who, because they can play one instrument, pretend to teach all
the others; that may be the case with some instruments where the method is very similar
– but that is not the case with the violin. No person, no matter how great a performer he
may be on any instrument, if he does not understand the violin, he can neither write for
nor teach it. To write for the violin, or to teach it, it is necessary to understand all the
different varieties of bowing – different positions and methods of fingering – art of
skipping or jumping from one note to another, &c. (p.3).
Saunders’ perspective is colored by his own view as a professional, but possibly
also by the conditions of the time, which will be explored in more detail in Section Three,
including the growth of formal music education. The interesting point about Saunders’
comments on teachers is that he is, in effect, saying that a student is better off not having a
teacher and using only his book if a good teacher is not to be found. The text is, still, self-
instructing, and it, on its own, is presumably better than what he would regard as a ‘bad’
teacher. This basic fact needs to be taken into account when reading his comments above.
Saunders clearly also believes that his text alone can teach someone to play the violin. A
teacher is not absolutely necessary but, if having a teacher, a good one is necessary.
Yet one could suggest that, if a self-instructing text works at all, those persons who
‘play one instrument [and] pretend to teach all others’ could make use of his book, too, in
order to develop correct technique. This attitude towards teachers in a self-instructing book
(unlike Stulberg (1938), for example that is designed to be used with a teacher) is an
excellent demonstration of the mixed mentality of the Hybrid Model. He is, at one and the
same time, promoting independent learning and prescribing an expert teacher, if any
teacher is used at all.
Saunders provides more detail than self-instructing texts of the Recreational Model,
perhaps implying that more is needed to self-instruct satisfactorily. The large amount of
detail may also be included because of the wide audience from beginners to business
players and teachers. The detail allows for precise technique which is needed by business
players and teachers. The amateur, however, may not need such precision to play
recreationally. While in his opening comments Saunders seems to be specifying both a
Recreational focused audience and an Achievement focused audience, in this characteristic
he leans more towards the Achievement Model.
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7.3.6 AM9/RM9 Sequenced and Progressive/No Sequence or Progression
Saunders’ cover advertising states that his text contains progressive lessons that
occur in the section of repertoire not in the preliminary exercises. He describes his
progressive lessons as follows:
The following Progressive Lessons are arranged in the most pleasing and instructive
manner, and are calculated to lead the scholar, step by step, through the principal keys,
varieties of bowing, and different modes of time, with their explanations, &c (p.20).
Saunders’ progression is a succession of keys starting with C and moving through
the circle of fifths accompanied by varieties of bowing and time signatures. This
progression, unlike Achievement Model texts, does not consider the level of difficulty of
the pieces. Some pieces which come early in Saunders’ text are actually more difficult than
those which come later. The nature of his progression is substantially different from
Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1968) who similarly seek to develop the student’s technique by
introducing skills and practicing them in an orderly manner.
Since Saunders does use a type of progression, this characteristic seems to lie on the
Achievement Model side. His progression, however, cannot be said to be designed for the
orderly development of skills in the same way as Achievement Model texts. This
characteristic is representative of a true Hybrid approach in that it is neither one thing nor
the other, but a mixture of both.
7.3.7 AM10 Skill Development Through Teacher or Correct Approach

Texts reflective of the Recreational Model provided alternate methods for technique
like tuning and left hand finger placement in order to make those skills easier for the
student. Saunders does not provide such alternatives, expecting that those skills will be
developed through the correct approach as described in the text. For example, when
describing tuning he writes:
The violin is tuned by fifths; the second or A string is tuned in unison with an A tuning-
fork; the third or D string is tuned a perfect fifth below the A, or second string; the
fourth, or G string is tuned a perfect fifth below the D string; and the E or first string is
tuned a perfect fifth above the A string (p.12).
For amateurs who are musically experienced, business players or teachers, the
above description would suffice. However, for new beginners, it might prove more difficult
if they cannot hear the interval of the fifth.
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It is unusual, however, that a nineteenth century self-instructing text does not
provide an alternative for this skill. Saunders may not provide an alternative assuming that
the student will get help, if needed, from others during social music making.
Saunders also does not give any alternate way to find the placement for the fingers
of the left hand but his instruction shows a relaxed attitude to finger position, somewhat at
odds with his stricter comments on bowing and practicing:
I would say that any position may be considered good, which will admit of playing the
following Exercise; each finger, with bent joints, firmly placed upon one string, and all
kept down while playing it. The figures 1,2,3,4, before the notes, signify, first, second,
third and fourth fingers (p.12).
The exercise that follows indicates particular notes on which the fingers should fall
if the hand is in the correct position. There is no mention of intonation, nor is there a
diagram of the fingerboard with the notes marked upon it in order to help the student
identify where the notes lie. In his first two preliminary exercises, Saunders does provide
the student with finger numbers over each note, but there is no information as to where
those notes are on the fingerboard. All the written instructions for the exercises are to do
with bowing, not with the left hand.
Saunders seems genuinely unconcerned about intonation, and appears to assume the
student will be able to play in tune right away. His lack of information is interesting given
his criticisms of potential teachers and his concern with regard to texts, like those in the
Recreational vein, that were not authored by violinists. In this respect Saunders mirrors
Achievement Model texts that assume that their way is the right way.

Saunders’ text is more concerned with technical development than the Recreational
Model texts, but does not present it completely in the manner of the Achievement Model.
The mixture of ideas presented in Saunders’ text illustrates the changing nature of violin
instruction during the mid-nineteenth century and shows technique and technical
development manifesting increasing importance.
7.4.1 AM11/RM11 Technique Leads/Music Leads

The previous two chapters have compared the Achievement Model approach which
focuses on technique as a route to the playing of ‘real’ music, with the Recreational Model
approach that focuses on music through which technique may develop. Saunders again
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exhibits a Hybrid sensibility with regard to this characteristic. The format of his text is
similar to that of the texts reflective of the Recreational Model [see Chapter Six] which puts
the instruction and exercises before the pieces. Within the section of exercises, technique,
particularly bowing technique, leads. However, in the section of repertoire, even though the
pieces are bowed in particular ways and are organized according to key, there is no hint that
the pieces have been chosen or organized for technical development. Saunders indicates he
has chosen the pieces because they are ‘pleasing’ which gives the impression that in the
section of repertoire, music leads. Saunders seems to say that technique is particularly
important in the exercises, but secondary in the section of repertoire.
Saunders is the second extant text that has a focus on technique before music (the
first being Ole Bull (1845) which will be analyzed below). Prior to the publication of
Saunders’ text, most other extant texts clearly revolved around music, first and foremost. In
the mid-nineteenth century, however, instructional texts, starting with Bull and Saunders
give more importance to technique.

Saunders is concerned with improvement through drill though not to the extent of
authors such as Yost (1946) and Seidel (2008). For example, in the section of preliminary
exercises on bowing patterns, ‘the student should practice diligently all the preliminary
exercises as it will very much facilitate his studies in the following lessons’.
While Saunders does not use the idea of progression to mean easy to difficult, he
makes remarks which indicate that he expects progress in the student’s abilities. He does
not advocate the use of European texts until the student is ‘advanced far enough’: the
student will make ‘little progress’ if he/she does not have a good text to use, and Saunders’
own text will help the student gain information in a short time that would have ‘taken him
years’ to obtain by other means. Improvement is expected, and if Saunders claims are to be
believed, in less time than if using a different text.
7.4.3 AM13/RM13 Descriptions Detailed and Sophisticated/Descriptions

Simple and Concise
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Saunders’ descriptions of skills reflect the Hybrid Model in fitting between the
detail of Achievement Model and the simplicity of the Recreational Model. For example,
Saunders describes holding the violin and the position of the left hand as follows:
The Violin is placed on the left collar-bone, and is held fast by pressing the chin partly
on the belly and the left side of the tail-piece, and partly on the tail-piece itself. The left
shoulder is drawn a little forward, to support the violin. The right side of the violin must
be dropped down a very little, to prevent raising the arm too much when playing on the
fourth string The neck of the violin rests gently over the first joint of the thumb, and at
the third joint of the fore-finger, pressing it just enough to prevent the neck from sinking
down into that part of the hand which connects the thumb and fore-finger (p.12)
The description is detailed, but not so much that the student would feel
overwhelmed and unable to do the skill. However it is more detailed than that of the
archetype Recreational Model text, the Instructor (1828):
The body of the violin should rest against the left collar bone, the neck should rest in the
left hand between the thumb and fingers with the elbow directly under the instrument, so
that you can cover all the strings with your fingers with ease. The violin should be
canted a little to the right (p.5).
An Achievement Model text, at the other end of the scale, Bowman (1882), uses
two sets of instructions to describe the same thing. He first describes holding the violin:
The Violin is to be placed on the left collar-bone, and slightly depressed towards the
right; in this position it must be held firmly by the Chin, which rests on the instrument to
the left of the tailpiece. When thus supported, the Violin will be almost in a horizontal
position, while its neck is to be in a straight line with the centre of the left shoulder. The
elbow is brought under the middle of the instrument, causing a slight projection of the
left shoulder, which affords additional support to the Violin (p.19).
What follows is a description of the left hand and arm position which is twice as
long and even more obtuse.
Of course, the length of his description is not the only important point. What
matters is the degree to which the description may help the learner. The overly detailed
descriptions that are found in Achievement Model texts can sometimes appear to be
counter-productive for students or, indeed, even for musicians.
This archetype Hybrid Model text by Saunders shows the ways in which the self-
instructing texts, and the attitudes underlying them, are changing and becoming more
concerned with technique. The more complex the descriptions become the more they point
to an insistence on correctness by the student in performing the skill. The growing
complexity of the descriptions highlights one of the changes occurring as characteristics
from the Achievement Model begin to appear in the self-instructing texts.
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Saunders text follows the pattern of Recreational Model texts in placing
instructional material in one section and pieces in another, with, as discussed, some attempt
at an undefined form of progression. This organization does not allow for ‘chunking’.
This format assumes that students can absorb larger amounts of information at one
time and can pace their own learning. Even within the first section Saunders does not chunk
information, but elects to introduce all the fingers at once on all the strings. This gives the
student all the information he/she needs to play any of the pieces in the first part of the text.
The format provides a reference section for students but also requires him to be
proactive with his learning.
7.4.5 AM15/RM15 More Technical Work than Music/More Music than

Technical Work
Saunders’ text sits halfway between Achievement Model and Recreational Model in
this category as well, containing both abundant exercises and abundant music. It is possible
to see in Saunders the beginning of a trend of increasing focus on technique and the
inclusion of larger amounts of technical work, which ends with texts such as Stulberg
(1938) and Lazan (1968) who only include technical work.
7.4.6 AM16 Technical Work Prerequisite for Playing Music

The inclusion of a section of preliminary exercises prior to the pieces, makes it
obvious that, for Saunders, technical work is a prerequisite to playing ‘real’ music. The
students are expected to play all the exercises before playing the pieces, but Saunders is
aware that they might not want to. He says:
The scholar may think that it is useless to practise so much on the different varieties of
bowing, in the early part of his studies; if so, he will find his mistake before he gets half
through the Progressive Lessons. As the bow is considered by all great masters of this
instrument to be the soul of violin playing, a few hours spent in practising some of its
varieties, in the beginning, may not be considered as thrown away (p.18).
Saunders attitude towards technical work is an interesting one. He expresses the
idea that the European texts are unsuitable in part because they contain ‘hard, dry exercises’
which are discouraging, but he has still presented the student with a section of exercises
even though his stated desire is to offer a different approach. The mixed message inherent
in the text is a feature of the Hybrid Model. Saunders’ struggle to find a different way is
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like the issues facing many of the music educators discussed in Chapter Three. He sees the
problem in that they discourage the student but cannot see his way to a solution that does
not involve some sort of technical work. Saunders may consider that the brevity of his
exercises, compared to other exercises such as those in Rode and Spohr may make them
less ‘dry’. In terms of difficulty, he seems to make the exercises easier for the student rather
than harder. For example, exercises five through eight are for both bowing and counting in
different time signatures. He tells the student to play them slowly, and they are all
thematically related so the student has the sense of playing the same tune in slightly
different ways.

Saunders’ text, being in three parts, contains a large amount of mixed repertoire [see
Appendix XXIV.III] which includes songs, themes from operas, original compositions and
dance tunes of all styles. As Saunders himself is a dancing master, the large selection of
dance tunes is unsurprising. With the exception of Saunders’ original compositions, the mix
of repertoire is similar to that of the texts reflective of the Recreational Model.
Saunders does not include ensemble pieces for a social outlet, but instead teaches
the student how to play for and call dances. Clearly Saunders sees a market for adults
wanting to learn the violin for this very practical social purpose.
The modern reader may doubt that a self-instructing text like Saunders would allow
a potential player to reach the necessary standard for public playing. Our modern sensibility
tells us that the student should be at a reasonably high standard for public performance, but
Saunders presents a different view. He says:
Hilarity, mirth, and cheerfulness, are characteristics of dancing; consequently, the music
requires to be played in a bold and majestic manner, with a great deal of fire, life, and
animation, with strong accentuations, square bowings, and in strict time. Easy music,
that which is most pleasing to the ear, as a general thing, gives the best satisfaction for
dancing. Hard and difficult music, if well executed, is not always appreciated; and then it
is too laborious many times to perform, when a person has to play very steadily all
through a night, which is frequently the case. It is an old saying, - and I think, with
upwards of twenty years’ experience in the profession, a true one, – that good music
makes a company cheerful and lively, and adds a charm to the beauty of both sexes;
whereas poor music makes a company dull and unsociable (p.79).
Saunders, while highlighting technical facility within his text, places great influence
on the energy, enthusiasm and passion in the music, rather than its correctness.
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Additionally, he advocates easy music rather than difficult as it will give the ‘best
satisfaction for dancing’. The readily available social outlet of accompanying dancing does
not require, by Saunders’ criteria a high standard of playing, like European Art Music.
While Saunders spends most of his effort on dance music, he realizes the value of
European music. In his further recommendations he says about the student:
After this he will have no difficulty in studying any of the European works with
advantage. He will then begin to appreciate the posers and beauties of this most
wonderful of all musical instruments – which has, for centuries, taken the lead in all
complete orchestral music – and which is universally admitted to be the only instrument
that claims the honor of rivalling the human voice (p.3).
He considers his text a jumping off point for further study, and he recommends the
European texts. In effect, Saunders has done what he set out to do in his preface. He gives
students an approach which brings them to a level where they can, if they wish, study the
European texts which he believes are too difficult for the novice. However, this very goal
indicates that Saunders, while exhibiting a Recreational Model mentality in many ways,
also has his eyes firmly on Achievement Model goals for his potential students.
7.5.2 AM18/RM18 Repertoire for Improvement/Repertoire for Enjoyment
Finally, and the comments above notwithstanding, Saunders states in his preface
that he has ‘introduced pleasing airs of every description of style’. The lack of progression
of the pieces and the importance to Saunders of the ‘pleasing’ nature of the music shows
that, unlike Achievement Model texts, the technical progression of the pieces is not
uppermost in his mind. He has not chosen the pieces because they contain, for example,
particular bowings which will help develop the student’s technique.
Saunders’ text clearly illustrates the Hybrid sensibility, with technical development
assuming greater importance, while still maintaining a social, recreational purpose for
music making.
7.6 Other Hybrid Texts

Like Saunders above, the six texts analyzed in this section exhibit Hybrid
characteristics, though none straddle the divide as comprehensively as Saunders. The
majority of these texts are from the mid to late nineteenth century, with two texts from the
twentieth century. Of the two twentieth century texts, one was published at the beginning of
the century (1904) and the other at the end (2001). Like the texts in Chapter Six which
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reflected the Recreational Model, all of these are self-instructing. The six texts to be
analyzed in this section, in chronological order, are:
• Ole Bull Instruction Book (1845) [Ole Bull] [see Appendix XXV]
• Winner’s New School for the Violin (1869) [Winner’s New School] [see
Appendix XXVI]
• Winner’s Violin Gamut (1877) [Winner’s Gamut] [see Appendix XXVII]
• White’s Excelsior Method (1894) [White] [see Appendix XXIII]
• Clarke’s New American Teacher (1904) [Clarke] [see Appendix XXIX]
• Step One: Teach Yourself Violin (2001) [Silverman] [see Appendix XXX]

Simple though it may sound, it is possible to use the amount of cover advertising as
an early indication of the blend of elements which occur in this group of texts.
7.7.1 AM1/RM1Focus on Accuracy and Skill Development/Focus on

Enjoyment and Ease
While there is a variety of information presented, none of the texts offer as clear a
statement of philosophy or intent as Saunders.
Some texts, while providing cover advertising like texts reflective of the
Recreational Model, also express the Hybrid sensibility of Saunders. For example, Ole Bull
(1845) [see Appendix XXV.II] describes his text as:
A Complete School for the Violin Containing Progressive Exercises, Marches, Quick
Steps, Waltzes, Popular Melodies, Jigs, Exercises in Double Stops, Solos and Duets,
with Variations Many of Which are Composed Expressly for this Work and Others
Selected from the Best European Masters. This Book is Better Calculated for Self-
Instruction than Any Ever before Published in this Country.
Already the Hybrid sensibility is clear; ‘popular melodies’ are juxtaposed with
‘exercises in double stops’; ‘progressive exercises’ are followed by ‘marches’ and
‘quicksteps’, ‘solos and duets’. The other texts show a similar mixture of elements.
Winner’s Gamut (1869), while not as specific as Ole Bull (1845), gives the
impression of being Hybrid [see Appendix XXVII.II]. It describes itself as:
The Best Self-Instructor Containing the Rudiments of Music, Full Instruction for the
Instrument, and Fifty Standard Tunes Arranged Progressively.
Like Saunders, Clarke (1904) provides a great amount of detail about the instruction
on the cover [see Appendix XXIX.II]. It describes itself as follows:
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This new and up-to-date method contains new and original exercises and studies with
pieces following in the same keys. The major and minor keys are progressively
arranged. Diagrams of the different scales, showing where to place the fingers upon the
strings, are shown with each exercise and scale. It gives the correct positions for holding
the instrument. It also contains a superb selection of music from easy to medium grades,
embracing some of the best known melodies of the day, with a fine variety of duets. The
Instructor is well recommended as an easily understood system to teach and learn from.
Finally, it is a self-instructor from beginning to end, to meet all the requirements of the
20th century.
Winner’s New School (1869) presents itself almost as a Recreational Model text
[see Appendix XXVI.II]. It says:
Instructions are so Clearly and Simply Treated, as to Make it Unnecessary to Require a

Teacher. For Practice, More than 150 Operatic and Popular Airs are Added Forming a
Complete Collection of the Best Melodies of the Day.
The covers of White (1894) and Silverman (2001) most resemble those used by the
Achievement Model [see Appendices XXVIII.II and XXX.II respectively]. White’s cover
says: White’s Excelsior Method for the Violin and Silverman says: Step One: Teach
Yourself Violin. On the inside cover White says: Without a Teacher The Best and Latest
Instructor, but that is all the information it gives. On the cover advertising alone, it is
difficult to tell whether these two texts are focused on skill development and accuracy or on
enjoyment and ease.
7.7.2 AM2/RM2 Prescriptive/Optional

The format of all the texts replicates Recreational Model texts in presenting the
instruction in the first section and tunes in the second. However, most of the texts offer
some form of prescriptive learning. Prescription occurs either in the section of repertoire
or in the section of technical work prior to the repertoire.
For example, after the section of instruction, White (1894) and Clarke (1904)
present the student with step-by-step learning as the student learns each key. The student is
given the scale of the key, then exercises, then pieces in that key. The prescriptive learning
only occurs in that one section, and the section of repertoire is not prescriptive. Ole Bull
(1845) is the least prescriptive, but includes a section of exercises that the student
presumably must do in order. Winner’s New School (1869) presents alternating scales and
pieces, and Winner’s Gamut alternates exercises and pieces similarly to Bacon’s (1814)
preludes and pieces [see Chapter Six]. While much of Silverman (2001) gives the
appearance of being optional, the student is expected to learn the exercises and scales at the
beginning in order, before the section of pieces begin. Also perhaps contributing to the idea
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of prescriptive learning is the idea that the student should follow the order of events on the
included CD and DVD.
7.7.3 AM3/RM3 Work Based/ Enjoyment Based

As can be seen by the cover advertising, most of these texts offer a Hybrid
sensibility in relation to this characteristic. Many of the texts advertise particular technical
work which the student is expected to ‘drill’, contributing to the feeling that the text is work
based. Inside the text, varying amounts of technical work are included, and the prescriptive
nature of many of the texts gives the impression of work. However, all the texts have
abundant repertoire, with some including duets and dance music with figures which
contribute to the feeling that the text is enjoyment oriented.
Silverman (2001) presents itself as being work based, like Stulberg (1938), Lazan
(1968) and the US School (1921,1964) [see Chapter Five], with the idea that the student
may be learning the violin for the purpose of work. In the Introduction it says: ‘Whether
you intend to be a professional violinist or simply wish to play for your community, family,
and friends – this book is for you’ (p.5). While the exact type of work is not specified,
Silverman envisions that some students using this book might wish to, or will become
professionals. This is in contrast to the texts analyzed in Chapter Six, whose intention was
to produce an amateur player.

While Saunders expressed his attitudes very plainly through his preface, the
majority of these texts do not do so. Like the texts reflective of the Recreational Model
their attitudes must be extrapolated from the instructional material itself. Like Saunders,
these texts reflect these characteristics in different ways, demonstrating their Hybrid
sensibility.
7.8.1 AM4/RM4 Linking Inexperience with Cognitive Immaturity/Assuming

Cognitive Maturity
All these texts are self-instructing and therefore, it must be assumed, adult-directed.
The majority of these texts do assume the cognitive maturity of their audience in the
language that they use. For example, when describing the shake, Winner’s New School
(1869) says:
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A SHAKE is one of the principal embellishments in music, if well performed, but should
not be so frequently and injudiciously used as is often the case. A plain shake is the
sound of two notes put in equal motion. A turned shake is composed of three diatonic
notes, the first of which is called the preparative note, and the last two its resolution.
Shakes, and all other kinds of Graces, must be played in proper time (p.13).
At the same time, two of the texts express Hybrid sensibility in this regard, either
talking about, or to, children. For example, White (1894) says:
NOTE: As very young students, and even beginners of more mature years, often
experience much difficulty at first in tuning the Violin, it might be found quite
advantageous to tune all four strings to the same notes on a pianoforte or organ, where
such (or any other) instruments are available (p.15).
Silverman (2001) says: ‘Chord symbols are included with each tune so that the
accompaniment can be played by a teacher, parent or friend’ (p.5). Additionally, when
discussing the equipment one might need, the text makes mention of different size
instruments. It says:
Violins come in different sizes and it’s best to go to your local music store to ask which
size is appropriate for you. Usually by the age of thirteen or fourteen a full size violin is
manageable (p.8).
The notion of children as an audience for the text is strengthened by a glance at
some of the repertoire, which includes Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star, and Frere Jacques.
7.8.2 AM5/RM5 Music for Technique/Music for Playing

In this characteristic, four of the texts represent a Hybrid sensibility and two
represent a Recreational sensibility. Both Ole Bull (1845) and Silverman (2001) provide the
student with music for playing rather than for the development of technique, since they do
not link the pieces to particular technical skills, but present them in a separate section.
Winner’s Gamut (1877), Winner’s New School (1869), White (1894), and Clarke (1904)
present the student with both music for technique and music for playing. For example,
Winner’s Gamut has a section alternating exercises and pieces. However, the section
following, Popular Airs Arranged Progressively, while arranged according to key, does not
link to particular technical skills. Winner’s New School, White and Clarke present
information similarly.
7.8.3 AM6/RM6 Accuracy Defined/Accuracy Undefined

Most of the texts in this group define accuracy in some manner with the exception
of Winner’s Gamut (1877) which does not define accuracy at all other than a single use of
the word ‘properly’ when explaining tuning. The lack of concern that Winner’s Gamut
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shows for accuracy is more marked than that of the archetype Recreational Model text, the
Instructor (1828) [see Chapter Six].
The rest of the texts all define accuracy in a variety of ways, but not consistently,
thus presenting a Hybrid sensibility. For example, Clarke (1904) advertises that it contains
‘correct positions for holding the instrument’, and uses the word ‘must’ stating that ‘the
neck of the instrument must not be allowed to touch that part of the hand situated between
the thumb and finger’ (p.3). The description of the action the fingers should take also
expresses some concern with accuracy, saying: ‘The fingers used for stopping are to be set
firmly upon the strings, strictly in time, and energetically raised, but only high enough to
keep them clear of the strings’ (p.11). At the same time accuracy in intonation is only
mentioned once when the text is discussing chords: ‘The student, in practicing the chords
should take care that each finger is stopping the right note in perfect tune’ (p.41).
Interestingly enough, Clarke does not define accuracy in rhythm or in bowing. He does
include an explanation of bowing directional markings, but does not use them at all in his
text.
Ole Bull (1845) provides a different example of how accuracy is defined in this
group of texts. The word ‘must’ features prominently in his descriptions of skills. For
example, the ‘position of the violin’ is described as follows:
The end of the Violin must rest upon the collar bone, with the chin gently pressing upon
the instrument on the side of the G, silver string, and close to the tail piece. It must not
be held in a position absolutely horizontal, but inclined, so that the G string will be
somewhat more elevated than the first or E string. The neck of the violin must be
supported between the thumb and forefinger, with as little pressure as possible; and the
player must take particular care to leave a small space between the neck and the bottom
of the hollow formed by these fingers. The wrist must be bent outward, so that the palm
of the hand may recede as far as possible from the neck. The elbow must be brought
forward and inward underneath the instrument a little (p.11).
In tone, the above description is similar to Achievement Model texts, where there
was the expectation that the student needed to perform the skill in a certain way to be
correct. Ole Bull (1845) also stresses accuracy in time which he feels is important. He says:
Beating or Marking Time with correctness and precision, is of the utmost importance. In
beating Common Time, the hand must descend at the beginning of every measure
(marked D), and rise at the middle (marked U) (p.6).
Accuracy is defined regarding fingering, in explaining that the numbers over the
notes indicate ‘the proper fingers for stopping the notes’ (p.12), and also in intonation. The
student is urged to ‘practise the Gamut thoroughly, and learn to stop the notes in proper
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tune’ (p.13), and ‘the constant practice of the double stop is a sure means of acquiring a
perfect intonation’ (p.15). The attitude of Winner’s New School (1869), White (1894), and
Silverman (2001) are similar.
The concern with accuracy in this group of texts reflects the Hybrid model because
it is much greater than that of the Recreational Model texts, but less than the Achievement
Model texts.
7.8.4 AM7/RM7 Stresses Practice/Does Not Stress Practice

This group of texts provides us with a mixed view of practice but Winner’s Gamut
(1877) is the only text in this group that does not mention practice at all.
Some texts exhibit a clear Hybrid sensibility, mentioning practice but not discussing
it in detail or recommending particular amounts of daily practice. For example, Winner’s
New School (1869) treats practice relatively casually, with only two appearances of the
word, but there is the expectation that practice is necessary. For example:
I would recommend the learner to practice every note thus, to produce a good, clear
tone on each note. This is executed by performing a long note, beginning it piano,
gradually increasing the tone to the middle, and then imperceptibly diminishing it to the
end. Practise backward as well as forward (p.20).
The other mention of practice occurs when the text is giving the student an alternate
way of finding left hand finger placement it says: ‘with a little practice learn to stop in tune
to a very great nicety’ (p.21).
Clarke (1904) also does not greatly stress practice, but in a couple of phrases makes
it clear it is expected. For example in discussing chords, he says: ‘The student, in practising
the chords, should take care that each finger is topping the right note in perfect tune’ (p.41).
A more oblique mention of practice occurs before a section titled Finger Exercises. It says:
‘Play each line ten times’ (p.22).
Ole Bull (1845) more consistently mentions practice, using phrases like ‘practise the
following Exercises’ (p.13) and ‘constant practice of the double stop is a sure means of
acquiring perfect intonation’ (p.15). In an advertisement at the beginning of the text,
presumably authored by the publisher Charles H. Keith, it recommends that the ‘learner is
particularly recommended to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the Exercises on the
Scale’, and he/she is also ‘recommended to practise’ the ‘seven different positions’. Ole
Bull does not stress daily practice, but there is the assumption that practice will occur.
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White (1894) scatters mentions of practice throughout his text. In discussing minor
scales he says: ‘As the Student will meet both forms in his subsequent practice, an example
of each has therefore been given’ (p.6), and in the section of preliminary instruction he
says: ‘But before the student proceeds to practice or play upon the instrument, he must be
sure that it is in good tune’ (p.15). While White seems to be making a distinction between
practice and playing, he may in fact not be. Other mentions of practice include: ‘In
practicing the following scales’ (p.19), ‘Practise slowly at first and keep strict time’ (p.19),
and ‘Execute the slurred notes in a smooth and connected manner and practice each
example until it is perfectly acquired’ (p.29). White’s (1904) insistence on practicing for
accuracy harks back to Stulberg (1938) [see Chapter Five] who did not want the student to
progress if the previous exercise wasn’t perfect. White also advocates, as did Brainard
(1863) [see Chapter Five], daily practice of scales. He says: ‘The following scales, from C
major to F# major, and from F major to Db major, with their Relative Minor Scales, should
be practised daily until they are thoroughly learned’ (p.30).
Silverman (2001) advocates regular practice, though he does not suggest a

minimum amount per day. He says:
People have different levels of commitments as well as time, so in general, practice time
will be an individual choice. The key to practicing is quality over quantity. If you can
only commit to twenty minutes every other day or can practice up to an hour a day, the
principles are the same: Make every minute count. At the beginner level, it is often more
beneficial to practice efficiently for small bursts of time. Even five to ten minutes of
intense concentration on the scales and exercises, and then the same on a couple of
pieces, is reasonable. Always make sure that good tone, smooth bow, relaxed body and
the other basics are attained (p.14).
In addition to the direct discussion of practice above, there are also reminders in the
text such as: ‘You may find that practicing in front of a mirror can be valuable’ (p.11) and,
in the introduction, ‘Well, with a little study and practice, anyone can play violin’ (p.5).
These texts fit into the Hybrid Model for this characteristic as they mention practice
more often than in the Recreational Model texts, but do not specify daily amounts.
7.8.5 AM8/RM8 Importance of Teacher/Teacher Not Considered Essential

As all six of the texts in this group are self-instructing, it seems obvious that a
teacher is not considered essential. Charles H. Keith, the publisher of Ole Bull (1845),
makes remarks about possible reasons for self-instruction and the purpose of Ole Bull’s
text. It is the only text analyzed for this thesis which makes such a statement. It says:
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In presenting this work to the public, it has been the publisher’s aim to make it a
complete system of self-instruction. There are many persons in our villages and country
towns, who are lovers of the instrument, but who have not such facilities for obtaining
instruction in instrumental music, as are to be met with in large cities and towns, where
the professor commands a more extensive patronage. To such, this Violin Instruction
Book is particularly adapted. If the learner has but a limited knowledge of music, he can
render himself capable of further advancement by close application to the lessons and
exercises contained in this work. Every thing is here laid down in an easy and
progressive manner, from the most simple to the most difficult.
With the exception of the ‘progressive manner’, Keith might be speaking of any of
the nineteenth century self-instructing texts. Given the lack of any other equally clear
written statement, Keith may well be taken to represent the nineteenth century idea
embedded in texts with a Recreational Model sensibility that a person can indeed learn to
play the violin without a teacher.
While Winner’s New School (1869), Winner’s Gamut (1877), White (1894) and
Clarke (1904) make no mention in their texts of the possibility of having a teacher, both
Ole Bull (1845) and Silverman (2001) contain remarks which indicate they consider a
teacher a possibility or important in some way. Ole Bull does something similar to
Saunders who feels that a violin text must be authored by a violinist; otherwise the
instruction will not be proper. Ole Bull was a virtuoso violinist, so according to Saunders’
criteria the text offers ‘proper’ instruction. However, the publisher, Keith, in his opening
‘advertisement’ also makes a point of telling the reader that:
Many of the Exercises were furnished by that universal favorite, Signor OSTINELLI,
whose name alone is sufficient evidence of their utility. The Exercises on the Scale in
different keys, are from the Ms. of the celebrated Signor MORIANI. Others, well known
in this country, have contributed to enrich the pages of this work.
If Ole Bull’s name is not enough to prove the instruction is of high quality,
instruction has also been contributed by other European teachers such as Ostinelli and
Moriani. The importance and status of European sources and music is becoming important
at the time Ole Bull (1845) was published, and the fact that his text includes instruction
from such sources might well be an additional selling point for the text.
Silverman (2001) mentions the possibility of a teacher more than once. For
example, he says: ‘Chord symbols are included with each tune so that the accompaniment
can be played by a teacher, parent or friend’ (p.5). He also says: ‘Remember that one of the
most important aspects of learning is human contact. The interchange of ideas and advice
with a more experienced player or teacher is invaluable’ (p.31). While the text is self-
instructing, there is still the idea presented that a teacher is ‘invaluable’. Silverman (2001)
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also has a DVD component which means that like Seidel (2008), there is a form of
‘teacher’ even though there is no direct interaction between the student and the ‘virtual’
teacher.
7.8.6 AM9/RM9 Sequenced and Progressive/No Sequence or Progression

All of the texts in this group use progression in some more or less obvious way. As
will be seen in Section Three, the appearance of a progressive approach during the period
when these texts were published is likely to relate to other changes in social and
educational conditions.
But while these texts use progression, they are not consistent in the way that
Achievement Model texts are. For example, they may only use it in one section of the text
rather than throughout. Ole Bull (1845) advertises ‘progressive exercises’ on the cover but
does not mention progressive pieces. Keith in his ‘advertisement’ urges the learner to pay
close attention to ‘the lessons and exercises in this work. Everything is here laid down in an
easy and progressive manner, from the most simple to the more difficult’.
One meaning of ‘progression’ in this period seems to refer to the cycle of keys.
Winner’s New School (1869) does not advertise progression, but in the section prior to the
tunes, the scales and exercises are progressive according to key as in Saunders’ text. The
section of melodies is titled ‘Popular Melodies Arranged Progressively’, but like Holyoke
(1801) it is difficult to determine the nature of the progression. The melodies are not
progressive according to key, nor do they appear to be progressing from easy to difficult.
Regardless, it is clear Winner had some sort of progression in mind. Winner’s Gamut
(1877) like Winner’s New School (1869) uses a key progression in exercises and repertoire,
but mixes keys towards the end of the repertoire section.
White (1894) uses progression in the first section of his text and progresses
according to key like Saunders (1947) and Winner’s New School (1877), though he only
progresses partway around the circle of fifths. However, like Ole Bull, his section of
repertoire is non-progressive. Clarke (1904) advertises on his cover that ‘the major and
minor keys are progressively arranged. However, his ‘superb collection of music from easy
to medium grades’ is not arranged in progression from easy to medium. Likewise neither
his ‘easy’ duets, nor the sets of dances that follow, are arranged in progression.
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Silverman (2001) alludes to progression when he says: ‘This easy step-by-step
method will guide you through all the basics of violin performance and technique’ (p.5).
Like the majority of the texts above, Silverman only uses progression in part of the text. In
the section titled Practice Time, the melodies are progressive according to key, but in the
section titled ‘Fiddle and Violin’ there is no progression.
It is interesting that these texts by and large progress by key rather than difficulty. In
the texts reflective of the Achievement Model, and most modern texts, the progression is
very clearly from easy to difficult. The texts in this group may reflect a transitional period
where progression was becoming common but not yet established in its current form.
7.8.7 AM10/RM10 Skill Development through Teacher or Correct

Approach/Skill Development through Different Pathways
Texts in this group show the Hybrid sensibility with regard to skill development.
Ole Bull (1845), Winner’s Gamut (1877) and Silverman (2001) provide skill development
through the correct approach like Achievement Model texts, while Winner’s New School
(1869), White (1894) and Clarke (1904) provide skill development through different
pathways like Recreational Model texts.
For example, Ole Bull (1845) says the following about tuning:
The Violin is tuned by fifths; the second string is tuned to A by means of a tuning-fork,
or by sounding that note upon any musical instrument. The third string is then tuned at
the interval of a fifth below the second; and the fourth string a fifth below the third
string; the first string is then tuned a fifth above the second (p.11).
Ole Bull also does not provide an alternative for left hand finger placement, though
he does provide a chart of the fingerboard which the student can refer to if needed. Both
Winner’s Gamut (1877) and Silverman (2001) are similar.
Winner’s New School (1869) explains tuning similarly to Ole Bull (1845) above,
but then provides the following alternative:
But, if you cannot put the Violin in tune by the help of the former directions, measure
out the 7th line or fret from the Nut, which is drawn across the scale of the finger-board,
and draw with a little ink a line over the finger-board, at the same distance from the nut
as that line, then screw up the second string to as high a pitch as it can moderately bear,
and put your little finger on the aforesaid mark on the second string, and cause that string
to give the same sound as the first string when open; afterward put your little finger on
the same mark on the third string, and cause it to have the same sound as the second
string when open; observe the same method with the 4th string (p.21).
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Winner also provides an alternate method for finding finger placements providing
the student with a diagram of the fingerboard and writing:
If you cannot readily attain to stop in tune, you may then have recourse to the above
example, whereon the strings of the Violin are represented and divided into Frets, and is
to be done as follows. Mark out the lines or frets with a pair of compasses, either with
ink or bits of paper, and paste it on the finger-board of your Violin, at the same distance
as example; thus you will easily discern every note, and with a little practice learn to
stop in tune to a very great nicety (p.21).
Like the Instructor (1828) and the other texts reflective of the Recreational Model,
Winner (1869) assumes that some students will be able to ‘readily stop in tune’, but
provides the alternative for those who may have difficulty. This attitude is in contrast to
Seidel (2008), for example, who has all students put ‘frets’ on immediately because she
assumes that they will all play out of tune. While Clarke (1904) and White (1894) provide
alternatives for tuning, they do not do so for left hand finger placement.

Like Saunders (1847), and as one might expect for texts in this category, the group
as a whole is more concerned with technical development than the texts reflective of the
Recreational Model. However, while more technical work has been included and more
technical development is expected, it is still less stringent than the texts reflective of the
Achievement Model.
7.9.1 AM11/RM11 Technique Leads/Music Leads

All of the texts exhibit a Hybrid sensibility in this characteristic because while there
is a section in each text where technique leads, there is also a section where music leads,
similar to Saunders (1847) above. Clarke (1904) provides a good example [see Appendix
XXIX.II]. His section titled ‘Exercises’ is designed to develop both left hand and bowing
technique. He progresses through the keys, providing the student with exercises, and pieces
that are linked to the scale and the technique being learned. However, in the section of
‘easy duets’ and dance music that follows, music leads. While the melodies are in the keys
Clarke has taught the student earlier, there are no indications that he has linked other
techniques in any way. There are no reminders of technique or ‘practice points’. It is as if
these texts assume that once the technique has been introduced, there is no need for further
reminders; the student will continue to develop technique through the playing of the
repertoire.
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Silverman (2001) shows this Hybrid sensibility in the epilogue to the text. It says:
‘There are many more keys to become familiar with, techniques to master, and styles of
music to discover’ (p.31). The technical concerns are juxtaposed with new styles of music.
7.9.2 AM12/RM12 Emphasis on Improvement

The emphasis on improvement seen in the archetype, Saunders, is mirrored in four
of the other texts, Ole Bull (1845), White (1894), Clarke (1904) and Silverman (2001).
For example, Ole Bull (1845) includes progressive exercises, and in discussing
double stops says: ‘The constant practice of the double stop is a sure means of acquiring a
perfect intonation and of mastering all the mechanical difficulties of the instrument’ (p.15).
He expects that the student will improve in the areas of intonation and master ‘mechanical
difficulties’.
White (1894) expects improvement in the areas of tone, writing: ‘strive to produce a
full, round, pure tone’, and in the movement of the bow, about which he says: ‘Both in
holding the bow and in all movements of the hand, wrist and arm, cultivate flexibility and
grace; as all stiffness and awkwardness are not only unsightly, but also hinder the progress
of the student’ (p.12). Improvement is also expected in playing various patterns of bowings:
‘Execute the slurred notes in a smooth and connected manner and practice each example
until it is perfectly acquired’ (p.29).
Clarke (1904) expects improvement, though less directly than Ole Bull (1845) and
White (1904) above. Improvement is suggested in the inclusion of tunes ‘from easy to
medium grades’. While the student does not have to play both grades of piece, inclusion of
graded pieces suggests improvement and progress. The inclusion of exercises which focus
on different bowing patterns suggests improvement is desired in bowing technique.
Advocating fingers stopping in ‘perfect tune’ implies improvement in intonation. However,
Clarke also includes a section of easy duets which suggests that the student does not need
to improve his overall level of playing. This text is truly Hybrid in this characteristic.
Silverman (2001) does not offer a great deal of written content, but it is possible to
see some emphasis on improvement. For example, he expects improvement in tone when
he says: ‘Repeat the note until you feel you are consistently generating a good tone’ (p.11).
In discussing practice he says: ‘Always make sure that good tone, smooth bow, relaxed
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body and the other basics are attained’ (p.14). He also asks the student to ‘play as cleanly as
possible’ (p.14).
While the emphasis on improvement may not seem as strong in these texts as it was
in Saunders (1847) or texts illustrative of the Achievement Model such as Seidel (2008) or
Bowman (1882), the fact that there is any emphasis on improvement separates these Hybrid
texts from those reflective of the Recreational Model.
Two of the texts more closely reflect the Recreational Model in this category:
Winner’s New School (1869), and Winner’s Gamut (1877). While they both use
progression, which in the Achievement Model texts meant improving one’s standard of
playing, they progress through key signatures rather than degrees of difficulty.
7.9.3 AM13/RM13 Descriptions Detailed and Sophisticated/Descriptions

Simple and Concise
With the exception of Ole Bull (1845), the descriptions of skills in this group of
texts are simple and concise. For example, prior to the student using the bow for the first
time, White (1894) says:
Place the middle of the bow on the A string, about one inch from the bridge. Hold it
there a moment until the hand becomes accustomed to the position and gains some
control of the bowstick. Then draw the bow slowly downward almost to the Point (Pt.).
Then push the bow upward from the Point to the Frog (Fr.). Always be careful to move
the bow parallel to the bridge (p.16).
While the student is admonished to keep the bow parallel to the bridge, the
description of the motion is quite simple. Ole Bull’s description when compared to White
is, complex. He describes the movement of the bow as follows:
The bow must glide smoothly along the strings, in a direction perfectly parallel to the
bridge, at about the distance of an inch from it. Always play with the bow on the same
points of the strings, and not allow it to wander at will, sometimes towards the bridge,
and at others towards the finger board. Avoid drawing the elbow behind the body, as that
will disturb the direction of the bow. In playing loud, the bow must not be pressed too
firmly on the strings, for it will stifle the tone and produce a harsh disagreeable sound.
Let the pupil accustom himself to use long strokes of the bow, and carefully abstain from
using a short stroke of the bow, as the strings will vibrate but partially. To infuse spirit
into the performance, the bow must move across the strings with firmness and energy,
and not with a dull sleepy motion (p.13).
The other texts in this group offer descriptions similar to that of White, which
contain enough detail so that the student can accomplish the skill, but not so much that it is
overwhelming. The amount of detail supplied by Ole Bull, which is similar to that of texts
reflective of the Achievement Model, is not just so that the student can play, but so that
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he/she can play in a particular way. The impression is that variation in such skills is less
acceptable; that the student must perform the skill by certain criteria or it is incorrect.
7.9.4 AM14/RM14 ‘Chunking’ of Skills to Aid Progression/No ‘Chunking’

This group of texts does not ‘chunk’ skills in the way Achievement Model texts do
because they do not progress from easy to difficult. Skills such as holding the violin and
bow, all the notes for the left hand, and the rudiments of music which are ‘chunked’ in
Achievement Model texts are introduced in one section at the beginning of this group of
Hybrid texts. However, some texts do offer a progression according to key. Winner’s New
School (1869), Gamut (1877), White (1894) and Clarke (1904) do ‘chunk’ tunes within
each key which does help to aid their progression. This use of modified ‘chunking’
suggests that those four texts are Hybrid for this characteristic while the others are more
representative of the Recreational Model.
7.9.5 AM15/RM15 More Technical Work than Music/More Music than

Technical Work
Some of the texts in this group reflect the Recreational Model and present the
student with more music than technical work. While Ole Bull (1845), Winner’s New
School (1969), Winner’s Gamut (1877), and Silverman (2001) all include some technical
work, the amount of repertoire is considerably greater than the amount of technical work.
However, both White (1894) and Clarke (1904) include fairly equal amounts of technical
work and pieces.
7.9.6 AM16/RM16 Technical Work Prerequisite for Playing Music/No

Technical Prerequisite to Play Music
All of these texts make playing technical work a prerequisite to playing music even
if they do not have a separate section of exercises like Saunders. For example, the first
music played in Silverman (2001) appears in a section called ‘Open Strings’ which contains
exercises for the bow on the open strings. In introducing the fingers it provides the student
with two scales, then two exercises in which the newly learned notes are used and then after
that the first piece ‘On the Bridge’. The attitude seems to be that students must learn and
practice the skills before applying them to pieces rather than learning them through the
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playing of tunes alone. This is a contrast to the Recreational Model texts which advocated
learning through pieces rather than technical work.
Ole Bull (1845) includes both the diatonic and chromatic scale, and a section of
what he calls ‘exercises on the scales’ prior to the first pieces. While there is nothing to
indicate that the student must play the ‘exercises on the scales’, there is an indication that
the student is to play both the diatonic and chromatic scales before the pieces. Ole Bull
says: ‘It will be necessary to practice the Gamut thoroughly, and learn to stop the notes in
proper tune, and commit the names to memory before attempting the Chromatic Scale’
(p.13). A technical prerequisite is a new idea for these nineteenth century self-instructing
texts, and an indication of changes in how violin instruction is viewed during this time [see
Section Three].
7.10.1 AM17/RM17 Emphasis on Elite Art Music/Mixed Repertoire

All the texts in this group provide mixed repertoire which includes songs, operatic
themes, original compositions and dance tunes. [see Appendices under the text name for
lists of repertoire included in each text] Like the texts reflective of the Recreational Model,
this repertoire is suitable for a variety of social purposes. Some texts provide the student
with indications of particular social music making. For example, Ole Bull (1845) includes
duets, Winner’s New School (1869) contains dance music with figures, and Clarke (1904)
provides the student with both a section of ‘easy duets’ and a section of dance tunes with
figures. The modern text, Silverman (2001), includes chord symbols with every tune so that
accompaniment can be provided by instruments such as piano or guitar. While there may be
fewer social opportunities available today, this addition of chord symbols is in contrast to
other modern texts based around the Achievement Model which do not supply such
additions.
While all the texts include mixed repertoire, there is the sense that some texts also
envision the students playing elite art music because they teach advanced technique. For
example, Ole Bull (1845) includes exercises in double stops, Clarke (1904) teaches double
stops and shifting up to fifth position and White (1894) teaches advanced technique such as
shifting, double stops, chords, and harmonics, both natural and artificial. These techniques
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are not necessary for dance tunes or social playing, but they are needed for playing much
elite art music.
While the repertoire in these texts is indeed mixed, it should be pointed out that
none of the texts published around the turn of the century include ragtime [see Chapter 9,
9.4] which was the newest popular music, further indicating the movement of the violin
away from being an instrument that plays popular music.
7.10.2 AM18/RM18 Repertoire for Improvement/Repertoire for Enjoyment

The majority of the texts in this group present a Hybrid sensibility for this
characteristic, the exception being Ole Bull (1845) who, like Saunders (1847), presents the
student with repertoire for enjoyment with no link to the development of particular
technical skills. All the other texts in this group present the student both with repertoire for
improvement and repertoire for playing.
For example, White (1894) introduces the student to various keys through the scale
and exercises; the student is then presented with pieces in that key in order to become better
at playing in that key. However, once White has introduced the student to certain keys there
is a section of mixed repertoire which is not linked to technique and seems to have been
chosen for enjoyment.
Winner’s Gamut (1877) is similar, linking pieces to skills such as syncopation and
staccato, but also including a section of ‘popular airs’ which seem chosen for the purposes
of enjoyment and are not linked at all to particular techniques. The student does not have
choice in the sections of exercises, but there is choice in the section of pieces. While the
texts reflect the Achievement Model in including some music for improvement, they also
reflect the Recreational Model by including repertoire, like duets and dance music with and
without figures, for the purposes of recreational enjoyment.
7.10.3 Conclusion
The Hybrid texts offer a clear middle ground or transition between the Recreational
and Achievement Model texts. Technique and skill development are more prominent than
in the Recreational Model texts with the addition of increased amounts of technical work
required before playing melodies, higher expectations of accuracy and improvement, a
greater importance placed on the source of the instruction and more prescriptive learning.
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However, there is also some optional learning, a sense that students can learn on their own,
and a provision for social music making with the inclusion of dance tunes with or without
figures, and ensemble pieces. The fact that the majority of these texts were published in the
latter half of the nineteenth century indicates the possibility of some change in the way
violin instruction and learning was viewed. Socio-cultural factors which may have
influenced or informed these changes will be discussed in Section Three.
7.11 Summary/Conclusion
The above chapters presented the idea that violin instructional material reflects
certain attitudes and ideals about learning. Two basic models reflecting two contrasting
positions were presented. These models were developed from a modern perspective looking
back and were not necessarily clear to people during the nineteenth century.
The Achievement Model was proposed as a descendant of European instructional

texts. The primary concern of this model was development of good technique, largely for
playing orchestral and/or European art music. The second model proposed was the
contrasting Recreational Model, a descendant and extension of earlier English texts such as
Playford (1657), and represented here by American nineteenth century self-instructing
texts. The primary concern of this model was directed at quick mastery of popular and/or
dance music for social entertainment. [For a complete list of the characteristics of both
models see Appendix III]. One group of texts, analyzed in Chapter Seven, was described as
Hybrid, showing characteristics of both models.
If viewing the texts chronologically, between the years 1800-1840 the two presented
models are easily discernable. A student using a text may choose the Achievement path
with a teacher through a European text or the Recreational path through a self-instructing
text (with or without a teacher). From 1840-1905, while there are examples of ‘pure’
Achievement Model texts, the ‘pure’ Recreational Model text disappeared, being replaced
with Hybrid texts which exhibit characteristics of both models. The message in these
Hybrids is mixed: the enjoyment and ease of playing fought for attention with exhortations
to be accurate and practice technique. From 1905-present, there are no longer texts
conforming to the Recreational Model or even the Hybrid model as all texts have been
subsumed into the Achievement Model.
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The supremacy of the Achievement Model has many repercussions for today’s adult
beginner, the most obvious being that if using a text to learn to play the violin, the adult
student has no choice in the manner of instruction; he/she must take the Achievement route.
Essentially, adults are being told they must follow the path described by the Virtuosic
Mountain woodcut [see Appendix II] if they are going to learn the violin. While one could
argue this path might be appropriate for children who are potential professionals, for adults
who wish to play for recreational enjoyment it seems less appropriate.
Another repercussion is that there are currently no texts available for the adult
amateur audience. There seems to be a belief that adult beginning violinists cannot achieve
a high standard of playing. Therefore, texts are designed for children who have the potential
to achieve that high standard. While some authors do include adults specifically as an
audience for their texts, it seems clear from the analysis that they were thinking primarily of
children when writing their texts.
With the Recreational Model enjoyment was the main focus, but with the
ascendancy of the Achievement Model, developing technique is now the primary goal of
study. Since adults primarily take up an instrument for personal enjoyment and recreation,
the focus on technical concerns seems counter-intuitive; suggesting that the operating belief
is that only through achievement is enjoyment possible.
The primacy of the Achievement Model also means there is a narrow focus on the
projected social outlet for playing. The primary expectation seems to be that of orchestral
playing rather than other group playing. For adult beginners, while they may desire to play
with an orchestra, many orchestras and the repertoire they perform have a high minimum
standard of playing which may make beginners ineligible to join. Additionally, many adults
may wish to play in smaller ensembles or other styles of music such as jazz or popular
songs which are often not included in the instruction books.
Anomalies such as Allan (1969), a Recreational Model text, and Silverman (2001) a
Hybrid text, suggest that there are some authors who believed something different was
needed. These anomalies, as well as the correlation between model type and year of
publication of the text, make it necessary to examine socio-cultural developments over the
last two hundred years to see if there are any factors that may have informed the changes.
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The next section will consider these events and trends in the broader social and
educational arena that may have influenced violin learning and, therefore, published
materials across the period analyzed.
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Section Three: PARALLELS IN
CULTURAL, EDUCATION AND
SOCIAL SOURCES
In Section Two the analysis showed that the texts reflected particular models:
Achievement, Recreational or Hybrid. There was also found to be a relationship between
time of publication and which model the texts reflected. The purpose of this section is to
consider events and developments in the social arena that may have influenced violin
learning and texts. These social developments will be discussed broadly as they can be seen
to apply to the issue and in the same time periods as the textual analysis to make
comparisons easier.
The areas to be examined fall into three broad categories with considerable overlap:
music education, immigration, and cultural development.
Over the course of two centuries various developments in music education have
affected violin instructional texts and the audience for those texts. These developments
include the training of teachers, how and where students were taught, the formation of
professional organizations, the standardization and formalization of the educational process
and the establishment of music education in public schools.
Immigration, particularly from Europe, influenced the musical life of America in

significant ways, including introducing the first wave of professional musicians, the
development of music publishing and providing instrument makers and sellers.
Cultural developments of significance include the widening gap between popular or

mass culture and high culture, developments in transportation, and technological
advancement. The following chapters will explore how these various influences may have
affected violin playing and instruction and the emerging texts. [for a list of social
developments in relation to instructional texts see Appendix XXXI]
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CHAPTER 8: 1800-1840
8.1 Introduction
This section will mainly relate events during the period 1800-1840 which saw the
musical life of America develop and flourish in a more sophisticated way. As Tawa (2000,
p.6) says:
The music chronicler finds that from the beginning of U.S. history, ordinary men and
women were engaged in musical activities…and were carving out the cultural attitudes,
values, and biases that would also characterize much of the musical civilization to come.
The task in this chapter is to look at a number of the musical activities in which
people were engaged, what biases and values they placed on their activities and music and
to see in turn how those items influenced violin instructional texts. While the main focus in
this chapter is the period 1800-1840, a brief discussion of some aspects of musical life prior
to 1800 is appropriate to help establish how musical life developed in America up to the
beginning of the nineteenth century, and the time when the discussion of instructional texts
begins.
8.2 Development of Musical Life in the Colonies pre-1800

By 1800 America was divorced from England, but the roots of its musical activity
lay in the traditions of the homelands of its earliest immigrants (Mellers, 1946). The
European immigrants came particularly from England, Holland, and France (Hamm, 1983).
There were great hardships for the early colonists, and, as Seeger (1957) says ‘conditions of
Pioneer life shattered the traditions of European music brought to the New World’. He
continues that only ‘folk art seems to have survived in the colonies upon a broad basis of
general social use, both urban and rural’ (p.282). Mellers (1946, pp.134-135) says that:
The rigour of the early pioneering days left little time and impetus for ‘conscious’
artistic creation, nor did seventeenth century European art conventions seem very
appropriate to the new environment. Folksong survived but it could not, without the
backing of centuries of cultural evolution become linked…with a powerful tradition of
art music.
While European art music did not transplant to the early colonies, sacred and folk
music did, including the dance music and songs that are found in the violin instructional
texts discussed in Chapter Six. As conditions improved, and more immigrants continued to
come to America, more music, musical instruments and professional musicians added to the
already existing musical life.
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The settlers of both New England and Virginia originally came from England
(Hamm 1983), and it is understandable that the earliest musical influences came from the
UK. Ritter (1890, p.119) notes that ‘Until the beginning of this [nineteenth] century
American culture, as far as it went, received its musical nourishment almost exclusively
from English sources’. Ewen (1977, p.5), after discussing the sacred music tradition of New
England indicates that secular music was also present there in the form of English songs,
and music and dance tunes found in texts such as Playford’s The English Dancing Master
published in London in 1651.
The English contributed more than just sheet music and professional musicians.
Crawford (2001, p.223) points out that it was an Englishman who was responsible for the
first music publications in America, citing the performer/composer Alexander Reinagle as
the immigrant who helped begin the ‘home music-making business’ in 1787 which was
thriving by the 1850s.
Reinagle was of great importance in founding the music publishing industry as it

exists today. A ‘local’ publishing house allowed for more immediate access by the
American public to instruction books and collections of music; available previously only
via import. Easier access to such materials had the effect of making it possible for more
people to engage in music making and learning.
In addition to the influences from England, Irish music and the violin were staples
of musical life at this time. Broyles (1998, p.137) notes that: ‘the fiddle was cheaper [than
the uillean pipe] and more easily transportable by an immigrant in dire poverty’ and that
‘Irish songs and dances appeared in many collections of instrumental and vocal music
beginning in the eighteenth century’ (p.138). Other immigrants from a variety of countries
also added to the musical life of the colonies, and influenced it. The Pilgrims and Puritans
sang primarily sacred music, the slaves brought their chants and African rhythms, and
songs from France, Spain, Holland, Germany and Ireland were brought by immigrants from
those countries (Ewen, 1977, p.3)
Even with the colonies receiving most early musical influence from England,
Brooks (1998) shows us that musical life developed differently in different areas of the
country. For example, he cites differences between the Virginia and New England colonies.
In New England colonists emphasized religious music which they saw as an agent for both
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spiritual and social change. In Virginia, music was used to preserve class distinctions
through preserving the distinction ‘between folk and art musics’.
On one hand were ballads, dance tunes, and work songs; on the other were keyboard
music, ensemble music, and parlor songs. The former were primarily transmitted orally
and were especially the purview of small farmers, indentured servants, and laborers of
various kinds; the latter were notated and were heard almost exclusively in wealthy
plantation households (Brooks, 1998 p.34).
Already prior to 1800 some important elements relevant to the discussion of the
texts are emerging. The ballads and dance tunes which survived colonization were the
popular music of the day, and comprised much of the repertoire which appears in the
Recreational Model texts. However, in some parts of the country, such as Virginia, some
forms of European art music had become established. This fact indicates that conditions
became settled enough for subsequent groups of immigrants to bring their art music to
America and to allow them the time to participate in such music making.
The art music in America at this time is songs, keyboard music, and ensembles; not
orchestral (Brooks, 1998). Brooks also points out that, the distinction between folk and art
music aside, ‘the two did interact; colonists brought with them such ‘published hybrids’
and Playford's enormously popular collections of dance tunes. This variety of musical
styles is easily seen well into the nineteenth century in the repertoire that is included in the
violin instruction books.
Brooks lends support to Seeger (1957, p.283) in his contention that ‘By 1750, a
sufficiently large urban class of status, wealth, and fashion began to require something
more than a musical art upon a folk level’. It is clear that in Virginia at least European art
music was enjoyed by the wealthy plantation owners.
Maurer (1950) presents us with a more specific musical picture. His article
discusses the music library of one William Ogle – a colonial musician in Virginia who died
in 1755. Not much is known about Ogle, but his library offers a glimpse into what colonial
musicians might have played and/or taught. In discussing the library of Ogle, Maurer gives
us a description of the life of a music teacher in Virginia at that time as well as insight into
the musical life of the plantation owners:
The planters had means for employing teachers and purchasing instruments and music,
and they found time to devote to social and cultural pursuits. The music of the
aristocratic society centered upon the amateur in his own home. The colonial gentleman
might play the flute or violin or harpsichord, and his children would be trained to play
and sing (pp.50-51).
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Ogle’s life as a professional musician may well have included playing for theatrical
productions, for dancing, and as entertainment for parties.
. While it cannot be said for certain exactly how Ogle taught his students, a
hypothesis can perhaps be extrapolated from various sources. Ogle’s library contained
music by some of the popular European composers of the day including that of Handel,
Corelli, Purcell, Alberti and Hasse which supports Compton’s (1979, p.39) idea that:
‘teachers were predominantly European and brought with them a taste for the more serious
European music’. Ogle is likely to have both played the European music for his patrons,
and taught it to his students, drawn from the wealthy households, whom Brooks (1998)
indicates, listened to and played art music. Ogle’s library contained almost exclusively
European classical music, but he and other musicians of his time would also, according to
Maurer (1950), have played Irish or English folk tunes for dancing. It is possible that he
taught dance music as well.
Looking ahead to the nineteenth century, it is clear to see this mixture of folk/dance
tunes and European classical melodies in the repertoire of the self-instructing texts
discussed in earlier chapters. For example, the Instructer (1828), the Recreational Model
archetype, includes dance tunes such as Money Musk and Fisher’s Hornpipe, but also some
tunes from European art music such as Air by Haydn and March by Haydn. This may be a
later example of what Brooks (1998) referred to as ‘published hybrids’ although Brooks use
of hybrid is not identical to the Hybrid Model described in this study.
Certainly the performing and teaching of European art music to the wealthy helped
to build an audience for that music particularly among the upper class. In addition to giving
his students an appreciation for European art music it is likely that Ogle passed along his
attitudes as to the level of achievement they would need in order to do those pieces justice.
The influence of the spread of this music can clearly be seen in the latter half of the
nineteenth century with the development of symphony orchestras and the building of
concert halls which will be discussed in detail in later chapters.
It was ineluctable that the Revolutionary War, begun in 1776, changed not only life
but also the musical life of the nation. Wolfe (1980, pp.39-40) indicates that the patterns of
both musical activities and immigration were minimized during the war but they bounced
back once the conflict was over:
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The musical and theatrical activities that had been all but suspended during the conflict
with the mother country resumed with renewed vigor after the cessation of hostilities in
1783; and the flow of foreign musicians and music teachers to America, which had
amounted to little more than a trickle before the war, grew into a rapid stream in the
years that followed it.
Here was, in the latter part of the eighteenth century a new group of European
musicians coming to America. Sanjek (1988, p.93) indicates a more specific group of
immigrants coming to the new United States after 1790 as a result of the French
Revolution. He says:
The influx of French musicians, noblemen, soldiers, and others to the United States led
to many publications of books on dancing and collections of ‘new cotillions with
appropriate figures’. These immigrants…used local job printers to prepare their
instruction books and music, selling them to pupils.
It is possible to see the influence of new immigrants in many aspects of musical life.
This group of newcomers, for example, wrote instruction books and music and influenced
the type of music that was played for social occasions such as dancing, by introducing the
cotillion. This influence is clearly evident in the violin instructional texts from the early
nineteenth century onwards as many of these texts use their inclusion of cotillions as a
selling point [see Chapter Six].
Another group of immigrants, albeit forced ones, who were to influence music and
music making in significant ways was the slaves. They were to exhibit a profound influence
on music making in their new country, particularly in the late nineteenth century with their
contribution to the development of ragtime and jazz. Not only did the slaves bring their
own musical traditions with them, as did the Europeans, but Southern (1971, p.xv) points
out that ‘ever since his arrival in the New World, he [the slave] has enriched with his
contributions the European-based musical traditions of the nation’.
The slaves had a particular affinity for the violin. Epstein (1977, p.80) notes that:
‘As the eighteenth century progressed, increasing numbers of slaves in the islands and on
the mainland learned to play Western instruments and to dance European dances’. Djedje
(1998, pp.114-115) points out this was not necessarily to please their white masters, but
allowed the slaves to maintain musical traditions they held prior to their arrival in the
American colonies.
However useful the violin was to the slaves maintaining their own culture, the fact
remains that their violin playing also had great social use for their masters in that they could
then supply music for dancing. Dancing was a favorite social entertainment countrywide,
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with the violin, played by both black and white fiddlers, the favorite instrument to supply
the dance music (Southern 1971, p.26).
Epstein (1977, p.116), in discussing how slaves learned to play, says that ‘Most
slave fiddlers played by ear, but some of them had lessons, more or less formal, and
arranged by themselves or (like the instruments) provided by their masters’. Southern
(1971, p.63) says that ‘Frequently, young people of slaveholding families taught the slaves
to play flutes and violins themselves’. However they learned, some of them became skilled.
Epstein (1977, p.148) points out that the slave fiddler became a ‘necessary support’ for
social and recreational purposes, despite evangelical disapproval and, furthermore, that
‘playing the fiddle provided ready employment for a slave making his way to freedom’
(p.113). Southern (1971) provides her reader with a number of newspaper advertisements
for runaway slaves, in which many describe the runaway slave’s prowess with the violin.
The importance of the above discussion is to show that people from all levels of
society played the violin, from slaves to the wealthiest citizens, and that the violin and
music itself was an integral part of social life at all levels. The violin had universal appeal
partly due to its important role as the instrument to supply music for dancing. This was
clearly seen in many of the nineteenth century texts analyzed in Chapters Six and Seven.
The majority of them contain numerous dance tunes, many of them contain figures, and one
gives detailed instructions on how to play and call for dances. The violin in America, from
its earliest days to the early part of the twentieth century, had an active social function.
While certainly one might play songs or classical melodies for entertainment, it was just as
likely that one would play a dance tune so that everyone could participate. At this time,
perhaps because there was little divide between high and low culture, it was possible for
both Recreational and Achievement texts to coexist without a particular stigma being
attached to those who chose one way over the other. Clearly there was considerable
crossover, with people of all classes enjoying and playing music of differing styles.
8.3 Musical Life in the Early Nineteenth Century

In discussing the circumstances of musical life going into the nineteenth century,
Compton (1979, p.ii) provides us with an abundance of information and paints a picture of
the breadth and diversity of musical life, and its importance to the population:
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Music was enjoyed by members of all social and economic groups, and was supported
by an extensive network of teachers, publishers, importers, and retailers. American
amateur musicians in the late eighteenth century showed a great diversity in training,
experience, and musical taste, and in the value they placed on their musical activities.
This diversity was possible in part due to the immigrants from various countries
who were professional musicians and earned a living in a variety of ways from association
with theater companies, teaching adult amateurs, concert performances, and other business
endeavors (Compton, 1979).
The diversity extends to the public entertainments available by 1840, the end of the
era under discussion here. While public performances were plentiful, there was still a
strong tradition of participatory music making. Preston (1998, pp.189-190) describes the
variety of entertainments as follows:
Americans…attended theatrical performances, where they saw entertaining plays full of

diverting music. They went to concerts that included such works as traditional Irish or
Scottish songs, themes and variations or battle pieces for the fortepiano, operatic arias
translated into English, and overtures or movements from symphonies by Haydn, Pleyel,
or J.C. Bach. They danced to bands and heard these ensembles in parades and concerts.
They played chamber music in their homes. They heard and sang music in church, and
attended and performed in concerts by the amateur organizations mentioned above.
Americans also – with increasing regularity – purchased sheet music arrangements of
operatic arias, traditional tunes, popular ballads, theater songs, and piano pieces, and
performed this music. The goal of all this activity was amusement and entertainment,
which introduces a crucial point: all music – with the possible exception of most sacred
music – was first and foremost entertainment.
While there were many public performances happening at this time, there was also a
tremendous amount of music making occurring in the home. Musical consumption was
active as well as passive; there was room for more than one approach. Broyles (1991, p.93)
describes a scene in the middle class:
The quiet firesides of thousands in our middle classes, when, evening after evening,
husbands, sons, or brothers, sit down, after a day’s work is done, to conquer the
difficulties of some instrument, to make the stiff fingers pliant, the unsteady voice sure,
without a thought of ever shining beyond the limits of that narrow circle.
Broyles above brings out a point which is related to the West (2007) paradigm of
music education [see Chapter Three]. The ‘husbands, sons, and brothers’ are learning a
musical instrument or singing not to become performers on stage, but for their own
edification and the entertainment for both themselves and their families. Music making here
is a recreational pastime. This musical consumption was supported by the growth of the
instrument manufacturing and music publishing industries.
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While there was certainly diversity, it should be remembered that at this time, any
musical training or experience was through private means as music in public schools did
not yet exist. A person desiring to learn an instrument needed to use his own initiative to
find a teacher, or some alternative means of instruction (Crawford, 1983, p.6).
Compton (1979, p.69) points out that: ‘Music teachers in the cities were able to
establish studios (often in conjunction with music stores), advertise in the newspapers, and
have their students come to them’. In the rural parts of the country, this may have been
different as there may have not been many teachers available. Indeed the lack of teachers in
rural areas is supported by the statement made by Keith, the publisher of Ole Bull (1845)
who intended Bull’s text for rural audiences [see Chapter Six]. Matthews (1889, p.449)
writes:
A century ago there was no musical education in this country, saving as a student could
acquire by putting himself under the instruction of some European emigrant, who might
or might not be able to communicate to him the ingredients of a sound musical education
according to the standards of the day.
These different conditions made for different avenues for those wishing to learn
music in the early nineteenth century. Some chose to study individually with locally
available teachers, and some who were wealthy enough chose to have teachers come to
them. Others, either through circumstances, or choice, pursued the avenue of self-
instruction.
Compton (1979, pp.155-156) makes two important points about music texts from
this period. First, he reports that after the American Revolution was over the American
public wanted books that contained tunes popular in their country. Secondly, he writes:
‘The first response to this demand was the publication of editions of European books which
were altered to include material arranged especially for the American market’.
Just like America itself, the early nineteenth century violin instructional material
had its roots in Europe [see Chapter Four], but went in a decidedly different direction.
Compton presents the idea that Americans had a different sensibility and taste in music and
both are displayed in the Recreational Model texts [see Chapter Six] which are an example
of how publishers obliged the American public and gave them what they wanted. The
publishers borrowed the format from texts such as Playford, but utilized the violin
instructions from more current texts by European masters (Eddy, 1990) and presented the
student with tunes that were popular in America. These texts are unique, and present an
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important contrast to the European texts available at the time. The sensibility of the
European Achievement Model texts does not necessarily arise from or seek to oblige public
desires, but rather gives students what is considered necessary for the development of
technique and improvement with the end result of playing European art music.
While Compton (1979, p.245) acknowledges that the instructional material in the
early nineteenth century self-instructing texts may not seem satisfactory from the modern
perspective, he also points out that students could indeed learn ‘some basic skills’ and
simple tunes. He also indicates that the texts were not all the same quality and that the texts
which where authored by experienced teachers of instrumental music were better.
Compton (1979, p.182) also divides the amateur players of the early nineteenth
century into categories based on the instruction books and their likely market. He describes
one category of self-taught musicians as ‘solitary amateurs’ who ‘rarely played either for or
with others’, and considered music a diversion. A second category of amateur players are
described as ‘serious amateurs’ who had teachers, were acquainted with both theory and
music history, were familiar with European music, thought music was not just
entertainment but also art, and occasionally went to Europe in order to view the ‘cultural
life’ there.
The distinction between the ‘solitary’ player and the ‘serious amateur’ is not just a
distinction between professional and amateur. This differentiation also reflects hierarchies
in musical styles. The ‘solitary amateur’ played popular songs which, as will be discussed
in detail in a later chapter, were considered the lowest form of music (Crawford, 2001). The
‘serious amateur’ played European music which was considered the highest form of music
by many.
While Compton opines that the self-taught amateurs did not play socially, his study
does not address amateur music making later than 1810. Looking to the instructional texts
analyzed in Section Two, the fact that many include duets and other ensemble pieces as
well as dance music (some with figures) and the popularity of the violin as an instrument to
play for dancing suggests that self-taught musicians did indeed play socially as the
nineteenth century progressed.
Compton’s attitude implies that the ‘serious amateur’ is somehow better than the
‘solitary amateur’, but that distinction does not necessarily reflect the value of the musical
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experience to the player. The ‘solitary amateur’ plays for his own amusement. On the other
hand, the ‘serious amateur’, in his playing of European music and studying with the local
‘professor’, is likely expected to ‘achieve’ as much perfection as he could.
While there was some division between high and low culture in this era, the bias
and categories of amateur musicians expressed by Compton in modern times did not
necessarily exist in the early nineteenth century. Compton, with his ideas about the
different types of amateur players, is a product of the twentieth century, influenced by the
societal changes being discussed in this thesis.
How does one make the distinction between the ‘serious amateur’ and the
professional player? Compton (1979, p.244) says:
the serious amateurs can be distinguished from would-be professionals by their view of
music as a means of spiritual uplift rather than a skill to be exploited for profit; by the
breadth of their other interests and (consequently?) their success in other fields; and by
their determination that music should hold an honored, but secondary, place in their
lives.
This idea of music as spiritual uplift will be discussed throughout these chapters. It
is one of the ideas adopted by the cultural elite in the later nineteenth century. They
considered European art/classical music to be spiritually and morally uplifting and
therefore more desirable than popular music (Levine, 1988). In the early nineteenth century
this idea was not as widespread as it was to become, but in the missions of some newly
established performing groups and academies it had begun to emerge.
This period of time, from 1800-1840, sees the founding of performing groups who
were dedicated to performing works from the European classical canon, and a few music
academies, though these were to proliferate in the second half of the nineteenth century [see
Chapter Nine]. The performing groups were not just seeking to entertain; many of them had
an additional mission. Keene (1982, p.56) says: ‘The Boston Handel and Haydn Society,
founded in 1815, always aimed toward the improvement of taste in music’. The expression
of the idea that some music is better than others is the beginning of what Levine (1988)
describes as the division of high and low culture [see Chapter Ten]. As discussed above,
though there were distinct differences in folk and art music they were not exclusive to one
class or the other, and most were enjoyed by both. While the upper classes sought to gain
status through playing and listening to art music, some art music was enjoyed by all, for
example opera which was performed in English so everyone could understand it. It is only
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in the second half of the century, through the insistence of the upper class that operas began
to be performed in their original languages in order to make it a more exclusive
entertainment (Levine, 1988). However, the upper classes, their attachment to European
music notwithstanding, also enjoyed dance music and possibly other forms of music later
considered to be ‘low culture’.
It has been shown how early European immigrant musicians were available to teach
music, and the publication of self-instructing texts made some form of music education
more widely available. Music education continued to be an important concern. Crawford
(2001, p.498) points out: ‘since the 1700s, one thing Americans have wanted dearly from
musicians has been instruction in singing and playing. Teaching has been the American
musician’s bread and butter’.
One early form of mass music education, while not concerned with the violin, is
germane to this discussion as it leads towards the establishment of formal mass music
education: the singing school. These schools were originally developed to teach the general
populace how to sing hymns and usually ran no more than twenty-four nights (Keene,
1982). A singing teacher traveled to a town, stayed for a number of weeks to teach the local
citizenry, then moved to another town and repeated the process (Tawa, 2001). Singing
schools were considered recreation for the entire community and included people of all
ages from young children to older adults (Birge, 1928). Birge also points out that by around
1827 ‘The singing-school had demonstrated its value as a means of popular education’
(p.19). There was no separation of people by age: adults and young people all learned
together.
Around 1830, some Americans, along with European immigrant musicians, sought
to replicate the musical life of Europe in America and applied themselves to this with
fervor (Seeger, 1957). This commitment to music education in general and vocal instruction
in particular became the mission of Lowell Mason. Keene (1982, p.105) tells us that
Mason organized the first singing schools for children in Boston in 1827. About these
singing schools he says:
We know little of what was taught in these classes, but instruction of children in music
was new. Few thought that children could be taught to sing and most believed that talent
was exceedingly rare.
It is interesting that people thought children could not learn to sing and lacked talent
especially. Maurer (1950) and Compton (1979) indicate that children of the wealthy learned
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to play instruments through private instruction, so obviously children were capable of
learning music. One could speculate that the view was not that children could not learn to
sing, but perhaps could not learn to sing in a certain style or to a particular standard.
Whatever the reason for the above view, Mason’s classes were the first time that singing
was taught to classes of exclusively children in a formal education setting. Mason did not
just teach classes of children; he also worked with adults. Tellstrom (1971, pp.37-38) tells
us that Mason experimented with Pestalozzian principles to teach a class of adults and that
when that proved extremely successful, ‘adapted [the principles] immediately to his
juvenile classes’.
Mason’s success with his classes of children encouraged him to do more. Mark
(2002, p.44) says: ‘Advocacy for school music goes back at least to Lowell Mason, who
persuaded the Boston School Committee to include music as a curricular subject in 1838’.
Here is the beginning of systemized music education for children. Under Mason, the
children did not learn European art music, or popular tunes but other types of songs. While
Mason clearly supported European art music, his system incorporated other types of music,
possibly with the goal of creating ‘good’ citizens. Carlin (1997, p.58) says:
In early public schooling, much of the music consisted of hymns and patriotic songs.
School music was used to indoctrinate masses of people for specific social or political
purposes. Beyond such indoctrination, musical education was believed to have no
“utility”.
Mason’s contribution to music education has relevance to our discussion in two
ways. First, Mason founded a particular system – that of Pestalozzian principles – that was
very successful. His advocacy was not simply for getting children to sing and appreciate
music, but to have them learn by a particular set of principles because they offered the best
chance of success. Secondly, he focused music education on children. Prior to Mason,
music education was for everyone. While music education was still for all, Mason placed
an extra focus on child learning which was not there before. Music in the school curriculum
now made music education a public – and required – mission rather than the private – and
voluntary – one it was prior to 1838.
Mason and his group thought the best way to ‘make America musical’ was through
education. They believed that unless people were educated they ‘favored music of low
quality’ and only through the auspices of education could the public taste be improved
(Crawford, 1983). Crawford also points out that:
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The essentials of their view were shared by most nineteenth-century cultivated American
musicians who followed them: the summary rejection of uncultivated musics (and hence
of most peoples’ earlier experience and instinctive tastes) (p.4).
Here is a more overt statement of the mission expressed by the Handel and Haydn
Society. Cruz (2002, p.6) says: ‘it was during the nineteenth century that the key forms of
studying music as a social and cultural phenomenon took hold’. For Mason and his group
enjoyment of any type of music was not enough; they believed that music had a role in
educating, civilizing and uplifting individuals, largely through European art music. Keene
(1982) tells us that to that end, the Boston Academy of Music was founded in 1833, which
offered classes for both children and adults in singing. Children learned free while adults
paid. While not its main focus, Crawford (2001, p.303) notes that it extended its education
into the instrumental arena in the 1830s under the auspices of its president, Samuel A.
Eliot.
The Boston Academy was not the first school in Boston to offer support for
instrumentalists but was the first to survive. Compton (1979, pp.99-100) states that there
was an earlier attempt and says:
In Boston a group of well known musicians joined together in 1800 to establish a music
school based on European models. This early conservatory apparently encountered
problems and was disbanded in 1802.
It is possible to see that even in the early nineteenth century there is an interest
among the Europeans, and those who championed their music and standard of playing, to
teach European music in the European manner. While this first attempt at establishing a
conservatory failed, by the late 1800s there was clearly support for these institutions
looking at the number that were established during that time [see Chapter Nine]. The
growth of such institutions may be due, in part, to the efforts of Mason et al. to educate the
public.
8.4 Summary/Conclusions
This chapter has shown how musical life in the colonies and then republican
America developed, from sacred and folk music in the early years to a flourishing concern
that by 1840 included European art music, and involved a large portion of the populace. All
immigrants, whatever their country of origin, contributed to the growing musical life of the
country by bringing the music of their homelands to America. Immigrants who were
professional musicians contributed in various ways to the burgeoning musical life of the
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country. They were music educators, music store owners, and music publishers. They
entertained by playing for social functions such as the theater, parties and dances. They
brought their musical traditions to America, and some had a mission to improve American
taste in music especially for European art music. Their cause was taken up by Americans
such as Lowell Mason who took music education into the public schools of Boston. While
the developments discussed in this chapter did not affect the texts from this time to a
significant degree, they can be seen as the beginning of a cascade of events that were to
take place in the decades that followed that would affect the texts most profoundly.
These events include the widening of the gap between high and low culture as
European immigrants and their music exert more influence through the establishment of
American performing groups and touring virtuosi and orchestras, and new forms of popular
music such as ragtime. Also important is the growth of formal music education and
changing attitudes towards learning the violin.
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CHAPTER 9: 1840-1905
9.1 Introduction
The previous chapter showed that the years 1800-1840 were a time of great
diversity, where a variety of music flourished and was enjoyed by people of all classes and
ages. The Recreational Model texts existed alongside the European model. While there
were significant developments that promoted more formalized and more achievement-
driven music making, they did not profoundly affect the attitudes that led to the production
of Recreational Model texts at that time.
It is the next 65 years, from 1840-1905, where the seeds planted in the early
nineteenth century truly take root. These years coincide with texts analyzed in Chapter
Seven, which are conceptualized in this study as Hybrid texts. The ‘pure’ Recreational
Model is little in evidence during these decades. In other words, during the years 1840-
1905 the idea of recreational music making as a means to proliferate violin texts was
gradually overtaken by the idea of improvement and excellence as principal selling points.
The purpose of this chapter is to examine what developments and events occurred that may
have helped to facilitate this movement towards the Achievement Model.
During this period, domestic instrument manufacturing was a well-established

industry. A cultural elite grew and began to support European art music as morally uplifting
and superior to popular music. Preston (1998, p.207) indicates that while most Americans
took little notice at first, this concept became established in the ‘antebellum period’ before
the Civil War, and its impact on the musical life of America in the second half of the
nineteenth century was profound. There was now the beginning of conflict between
European art music and popular music, whereas prior to this era there was little difference
perceived between the two styles.
Performing groups such as symphony orchestras, dedicated to playing European

classical music, were established sparingly at first and then in ever growing numbers
towards the end of the nineteenth century. The dedication of some towards furthering
European art music had the effect of widening the gap between high and low culture. Scott
(2002) implies that the appearance of the ‘wealthy industrial bourgeoisie’ and their desire
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for ‘cultural domination’ is at least part of the cause of this split between art and
entertainment. Certainly, their adoption of an appreciation for European culture was a way
to separate themselves from the masses that required entertainment to relieve the drudgery
of their lives.
Instrument teaching and music education underwent significant growth and change
with large numbers of conservatories being founded, and professional organizations for
instrumental music teachers being established. Scott (2002, p.544) describes the
‘professionalization of music’ as one of the ‘features of music associated with a capitalist
economy and the consolidation of power of a wealthy industrial bourgeoisie’. Factors
affecting change included ‘new markets for cultural goods, the bourgeoisie’s struggle for
cultural domination and a growing rift between art and entertainment’.
European virtuosi and orchestras toured America exposing the general public to a
higher standard of music making than ever before. Developments in transport such as the
expansion of the railroad system made it possible for those performers to reach audiences
countrywide. New types of music in the form of ragtime and jazz appeared and became
popular. These decades also saw the invention of the gramophone and radio, which allowed
the public to listen to music rather than actively participate in music making. While some of
these developments did not affect violin instructional texts to a great degree, others will be
shown to have affected them quite profoundly.
9.2 The Establishment of the American Music Industry

The establishment of domestic musical instrument manufacture began in the early
part of the nineteenth century when an invention by Eli Whitney provided the impetus for
growth. Gushee (1994, p.69) says: ‘After Eli Whitney proved the efficacy of
interchangeable parts in 1800, the mass production of low-priced musical instruments
increased’. It is likely that domestically produced instruments were cheaper and more easily
available than those from abroad, which may have encouraged more people to begin
learning an instrument. The growth in instrument manufacturing coincided with a growing
interest in studying music. Keene (1982, p.57) says:
A rapid development of American instrument manufacturing, especially pianos, took

place in the first half of the nineteenth century. Serious American students of music
began their pilgrimages to Europe to study, a trend that has diminished only in recent
years. European teachers were coming to America and plying the only trade they knew,
not the rudiments of a singing school but the best in European tradition. The study of
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instrumental music became increasingly popular about this time, particularly of the
piano and cabinet organ.
Violins were among the instruments being manufactured. By this era under
discussion, there is a sense that the quality of these instruments was quite fine. Two of the
texts from this era make particular mention of American violin makers. Both Ole Bull
(1845) and the Ethiopian Instructor (1848) state that violins were available at that time from
American makers, and that their instruments were comparable to those of European make
and indeed in some cases even better. The Ethiopian Instructor says specifically that
Woodbury and Burditt of Brattleboro VT was one such company. Certainly violins were
popular and were available during these decades from a variety of sources including,
according to Bastin (1986), the Sears Roebuck catalog beginning in 1893.
During these decades music publishing was a flourishing concern, particularly since
the numbers of people with leisure time to spend learning an instrument were growing, as
were the numbers of manufacturers selling affordable instruments. As recorded music was
not available until very late into the century, there was a need for sheet music so that people
could make music at home. Throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, the amount
of sheet music published grew as more people began learning music. The demand for sheet
music was supplied by a growing number of publishing firms, which by 1860 numbered
around ninety (Tawa, 1980).
The publishing industry was flourishing because there were so many people
participating in music making as enthusiastic amateurs. They sang and played at home in
addition to attending concerts. Music was as important as other artistic endeavors. Stone
(1957, p.38) says:
Mid-19th-century America was busy…in the arts, music no less than literature, painting
or architecture. The second quarter of the century had seen a remarkable growth in
musical activity, notably of the kinds that were professional and institutional in character
and that established modest but permanent forms of musical endeavor in the nation.
One can see the evidence of this demand in the number of instruction books that
were published during this time. The publishing houses also offered a wide range of music
for a variety of instruments and ensembles. Hamm (1979, p.287) describes the Ditson
publishing house – which published Howe (1851) and Saunders (1847) – and its catalog as
follows:
They brought out thousands of songs for voice and piano, but these represented only a
fraction of their catalog; they also published piano pieces (dances, transcriptions of vocal
works, “characteristic” piano solos), choral music, instruction books and graded
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pedagogical pieces for a variety of instruments, song collections for school and church,
chamber music, and piano-vocal scores of operas and oratorios.
At this time, sheet music was relatively easy to obtain through a variety of sources.
Hamm (1979) tells us that publishers sold through their own stores, stores owned by others
as well as directly to the consumer via mail order. The expansion of the railroads across the
country had a profound social impact. Culture spread from the cities to more rural parts of
the country in the form of American touring groups, and sheet music which was now
delivered by a more efficient ‘mail-order system’ (Tawa, 1980). While clearly music and
music making was thriving at this juncture, changes were beginning to occur. The
continued influence of European immigrants and touring musicians was to impact music
making further.
9.3 The Influence of Europe and the Growth of the Symphonic

Tradition
New immigrants to America continued to have significant influence, particularly

those from Germany. Immigrants from Germany, including many professional musicians,
flocked to America in the 1830s and 1840s due to famine and political unrest and were less
inclined to join the growing American culture than previous immigrant groups, keeping
their customs such as language and music. Their arrival had the effect of making European
art music more prominent in America (Hamm, 1979).
Preston (1998, p.199) points out that most of these professional musicians ‘believed
implicitly in the superiority of their musical heritage’. Some Germans were overtly scornful
of American taste in music. Kaufmann (1937, p.164) presents a quote from one such
German immigrant speaking of Americans circa 1848:
but especially [in] music, he is behind all…and not capable of enjoying instrumental
music. It is a matter of course that only the so-called anti-classical music can in any
degree suit the taste of the American public – such as Waltzes, Galops, Quadrilles, and
above all, Polkas.
The ‘anti-classical’ music described by the speaker above is popular music of the
day and the repertoire of the self-instructors analyzed in this thesis. The German
professional musicians may not have enjoyed it, but the Americans certainly did. Sousa
(1928, p.353) says: ‘The European has had a style of his own to pursue and accordingly has
not often attempted ours. On the other hand, the younger country has of necessity been
influenced by Continental methods’. This insistence, particularly of the German
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immigrants, in playing their own music can be seen as an instance of the sense of cultural
superiority mentioned by Preston, above, as well as a way of maintaining cultural identity.
German immigrant settlement was widely dispersed across America which made
their influence equally wide. Preston (1992, p.243), writing of Washington, D.C. indicates
that the ‘majority of Washington’s white musicians’ were immigrants primarily from Italy
and Germany, and opines that ‘the ethnic makeup of Washington musicians was
characteristic of that of musicians elsewhere in the country’.
These professional musicians influenced music through the high standard of playing
they exhibited during performances, and through their teaching of American amateurs in
the European style. As these immigrants settled in different places in the country, their
influence became steadily greater. This influence can be seen in at least one of the texts
from this time – that of Saunders, who brought his European training to bear in his text. He
includes abundant technical work, a hallmark of European style training, even though he
does not include much European art music in his repertoire. The desire to increase the
standard of playing by making the student more technically proficient is evident in his text
and others from this era.
While he uses some facets of European training in his text, Saunders states that the
European texts are not suitable for American beginners. He was not the only one to feel that
the Americans needed a different approach. Mussulman (1971, p.105) indicates that Dvorak
‘found fault with his American students for the reckless determination to reach all goals by
the quickest possible means’. Mussulman goes on to quote George William Curtis:
Commenting to a friend on the superior playing of an orchestra composed mainly of

Germans, Curtis explained sarcastically: “We cannot practice to the necessary degree.
Those people have all fiddled on two notes for twelve hours together. But no American
would submit to that. Something must be allowed to the spirit of liberty”.
This may help explain the remark in Ole Bull’s (1845) text which admonishes the
student not to skip the exercises and jump ahead to the tunes. Curtis’ remark above
suggests that Americans would not tolerate the drudgery or the slow pace necessary to
reach the standard of playing exhibited by the Germans. If correct, the texts that contain
more Recreational Model characteristics seem well suited to the portion of the American
public more interested in playing recreationally than in achieving a high level of technical
perfection. The perception that Americans wanted something that moved at a quicker pace
and was in keeping with the ‘spirit of liberty’ may help to explain why America produced a
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preponderance of the Recreational Model self-instructing texts rather than simply adopting
the European Achievement Model texts.
One of the contributions of the German immigrants was to help found new
performing groups. They founded many singing societies and also instrumental groups; in
1842 the New York Philharmonic Society and in Boston in 1849 the Mendelssohn Quintet
Club (Keene, 1982, p.101). These groups were dedicated to performing European art
music, much of it by German composers. Not only did the Germans help found these
groups, they also made up the majority of the players. A fraternal group of German
musicians called Concordia ‘formed the nucleus of the New York Philharmonic Society’
which was established in 1842 by Uriah Corelli Hill, an American who’d studied in Europe
(Sanjek, 1988, p.84)
The establishment of the New York Philharmonic began the orchestral tradition in
America. The formation of the group indicates that there were enough players to fill the
ranks, and that there was interest on the part of at least some of the public, to hear
symphonic music. By virtue of the ever growing ranks of immigrants who were
professional musicians, and support from Americans who admired European art music, this
music began to be established as a regular and growing part of the American musical scene.
Matthews, whose insights are important as he writes from the viewpoint of the years under
discussion, (1889, p.60) says:
After 1840 the course of progress of music in America gathered added impetus. Thanks
to the work of Dr. Mason and his coadjutors, the generous enthusiasm with which those
everywhere who were at all interested in the art threw themselves into the work of
promoting musical knowledge, and the growth of general culture and refinement, there
came soon to be a real musical spirit with the masses, at least in the centres of population
– a spirit instinct with life and vigor, alert to seize and utilize for the advancement of art
every force that made for a higher ideal.
Matthews is not just talking about educating the population and expanding musical
life; he is presenting the reader with the idea that there is a higher ideal in appreciating
European art music, that it is better than other types of music. Those who believed as
Matthews did, went about spreading that idea throughout the population with great zeal.
In addition to the New York Philharmonic Society, there were other groups which
also sought to promote the love of German art music and advance the public’s
understanding and appreciation for it. Levine (1988, pp.110-111) describes a group of
young German players called the Germania Musical Society who arrived in America in
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1848 in order to ‘further in the hearts of this politically free people the love of the fine art
and music through performance of masterpieces of the greatest German composers as Bach,
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Spohr, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann; also Liszt, Berlioz,
and Wagner’.
Levine (1988) goes on to say: ‘Though New York had enjoyed the Philharmonic
Society since 1842, the Germans brought with them a standard of musicianship not yet
regularly experienced in America’ (p.111). One can see the standard of playing that some
audiences were experiencing was continually being raised. The highest standard of playing
heard by Americans was that of European virtuosi and orchestras who toured America
beginning in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
In the mid-nineteenth century, Americans viewed all music as entertainment [see

above] and consumed music through the purchase of musical instruments, sheet music, and
concert performances. Europeans now believe they can provide an American audience for
their best performers if they can present their ‘musical artistry’ as entertainment (Crawford,
2001). The Europeans, and, perhaps, the Americans who viewed European music as
superior, sought to capture the market and educate it at the same time by providing the
public with music it wanted combined with music they thought would be good for them.
Crawford cites social changes such as the ‘touring circuit’ connected by the new railway
lines and canals, growing amounts of ‘leisure time’, and the rise of music teaching and its
resultant participation in music as creating an audience for these highly accomplished
musicians. At this time, Americans as a whole were experiencing all types of music through
both listening and playing while it accompanied recreation such as dancing. While certainly
the virtuosi had an economic agenda, their artistic agenda to spread European art music
coincided with that of wealthier Americans who were beginning to use art music to separate
themselves from the masses.
Crawford (2001) tells us that the virtuosi played concerts in the major cities but also
‘brought their art to communities large and small. Performers specializing in European
classical music were among the day’s leading celebrities’ (p.497). The tours of these
virtuosi may have reached audiences that did not have access to a symphony or other
performing group that played European classical music at a high standard, if at all.
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Ole Bull, the Norwegian violinist, was one of the virtuosi who came to tour the
United States. About his performances Levine (1988, p.109) says:
[One of] the most popular European visitors to the United States in the first half of the
century was the Norwegian violinist Ole Bull. Bull would gladly play “Yankee Doodle,”
“The Arkansas Traveller,” or “The Last Rose of Summer” in the midst of his dazzling
classical solos.
While certainly Bull’s virtuosity would have been important for entertainment
value, it is important to recognize that he also had a sense of what the audience wanted –
familiar tunes – and that he was happy to provide that as well as dazzling them with his
technique in pieces by European composers. The American public liked to be entertained
and to that aim, concert programs were quite varied. Unlike concerts of today which often
feature one artist, concerts in the nineteenth century were ‘variety acts’ during which many
celebrated artists might perform, creating ‘a potpourri of vocal and instrumental numbers’
(Kagan, 1977 p.728).
Ole Bull’s importance to this discussion is twofold. As a touring virtuoso, he

dazzled the audiences with his technique and showed them an extremely high standard of
playing. He also produced a self-instructing violin text in 1845 [see Chapter Seven]. One
can speculate that the publishers wished to capitalize on his celebrity that undoubtedly
helped to sell numerous copies of his text. Even though Ole Bull was a leading virtuoso of
the day, his text is not completely oriented towards teaching virtuoso-style playing. It
contains some explanations of virtuoso techniques but also contains popular tunes, in effect
making it similar to his performances as described above which could both be described as
hybrid.
In addition to the solo performers, orchestras such as the one led by the French
conductor Jullien also toured the United States. At this time, orchestral music was relatively
new in the United States and the public had not yet developed a taste for it. Sousa (1928,
pp.119-120) quoting an article from the San Francisco Argonaut in the 1890s says:
Jullien, who came to New York in 1853, may be said to have created the taste for
orchestral music in the United States. He was…an absolutely perfect judge of public
taste. He used to say of himself that his vocation in life was to popularize music.
The concerts that Jullien conducted were quite different from what one might expect
if one were to go to a symphony concert today. Tickets were cheap, the programming
included ‘overtures, instrumental solos, and plenty of dance music’ and the atmosphere was
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informal, allowing the audience to ‘sit, stand, or stroll’ during the concert (Crawford, 2001,
p.285).
Jullien may have been conducting a symphony orchestra, but notice that the idea
was that of ‘popular concerts’. The cheap ticket price enabled more people to attend, and
the informal atmosphere would have appealed to many as well. In fact the concerts actually
had a name. Preston (1998, p.203) says: ‘Jullien’s wildly successful “Monster Concerts for
the Masses” consisted of dances, overtures, and symphonies by such composers as
Mendelssohn, Mozart, and Beethoven’.
It is clear that Jullien was indeed trying to reach as many people as possible, in part
to help popularize European art music. This was the mission of those who believed that
European art music was more uplifting and better than popular music [see above].
However, Jullien, and others with that agenda, were clearly aware that a program of solely
European art music would not appeal to the general public. Therefore they interspersed the
serious symphonic literature with more popular fare just as virtuosi such as Ole Bull did in
their concert programs. Levine (1988, p.109) says: ‘Jullien included popular dance music,
waltzes, and quadrilles featuring such numbers as the “Katy-did Polka” and the “Prima
Donna Waltz” and led his musicians in a flamboyant manner’.
Certainly, Jullien’s ‘flamboyant manner’ was as calculated to be as entertaining as

the mixture of music. Interestingly enough, his concerts contained the same sort of
programming in places other than America even though other countries may have been
more accustomed to some form of symphonic music. Kaufmann (1937, p.170) says:
In England, then, as in America, Jullien used quadrilles and polkas, in addition to his
stunts, to sugar-coat the unpalatable pills of Beethoven, Weber, et cetera. Mendelssohn,
Mozart and Beethoven jostled schottisches, polkas, and gallops.
Not only was the programming of the concerts different from that of today, but so
were the lengths of the concerts. Compared to the length of today’s concerts they were
extremely long. Lawrence (1988, p.19) indicates that such concerts could last ‘four hours or
more’, and that the programs contained a large variety of mixed repertoire.
While there were undoubtedly purists who were against the idea of mixing genres,
there were those who felt differently. Some held the attitude that mixing the ‘classes’ of
music would attract a bigger audience than a concert of classical music alone, and that
some classical music was better than none (Charosh, 1992).
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As well as helping to educate the public about European art music the mixed
programming reflected the large variety of music to which the public was exposed. For a
public not yet convinced of the entertainment value of European art music, presenting them
with small servings not only helped make the music familiar, but more palatable than an
entire symphony. From the audience perspective, sitting through a movement of Beethoven
would be worth it if they could also hear a number of favorite songs. From the impresario’s
perspective, providing a program with that variety would fill the seats of the theater and
make him more money.
The range of musical entertainment available, particularly to urban Americans was

extraordinary. The description below describes the diversity of musical entertainment
available in New York City during the mid-nineteenth century. While it might sound
similar to what audiences today might experience, it must be remembered that a large
portion of the population was actively engaged in music making in addition to enjoying
music through passive entertainments; the large range of which is remarkable. Lawrence
(1988, p.xi) says the following:
They listened to music – often created by then famous, now forgotten, composers –
performed by hordes of extravagantly ballyhooed visiting supervirtuosos of all
nationalities, by less sensational resident musicians of local and foreign origin, by
singing actors, singing families, singing societies, temperance societies, political
societies, glee clubs, ethnic groups, infant prodigies, visiting orchestras and conductors,
by Italian, French, English, and German opera companies, by vocal and instrumental
blackface entertainers, pop musicians, sacred and secular music societies, by four
successive New York Philharmonic Societies, by military bands, dance orchestras,
musically gifted clockwork automatons, and more besides.
The publishers of America were well aware of the variety of music enjoyed by the
public and sought to gratify them with diverse music. They issued sheet music of Italian
operas, dance music based on ‘favorite operatic airs and choruses’, music from the minstrel
shows, parlor songs such as those written by Stephen Foster, and songs which expressed
political and patriotic sentiments (Sonneck, 1968, pp.341-342).
It is possible to see this trend in the violin instructional books of this time as well.
The repertoire in the majority of the Hybrid texts [see Chapter Seven] remains, to a large
extent that of popular music, including, as Sonneck states above, airs from operas, patriotic
tunes, ballads and minstrel tunes. Indeed, the main selling point of the Ethiopian Instructor
is that it contains tunes made popular by the Christy Minstrels, one of the top minstrel show
performers of the day. However, while the repertoire in the texts from this time may reflect
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popular taste, the instruction itself incorporates principles of European-style training,
including a prerequisite of technical work prior to playing tunes, insistence on and
expectation of improvement, and expectations of accuracy with some provisos of perfection
before moving on. The perception is that not only does one need to develop an appreciation
for European art music by listening to it, but if one is going to play the violin one needs
also to learn to play that type of music or at the very least apply those principles to playing
popular tunes. This idea of applying a particular approach to music making can be seen in
many of the Hybrid texts. It is important to note that the Hybrid sensibility is created more
by the nature of the instruction rather than the inclusion of greater amounts of European art
music.
While it is clear that at this time there was still much active music making, which
necessitated and encouraged the publishing industry, some recognized that the ever-
growing numbers of concerts were creating passive rather than active participation in music
making. There was also a greater distinction between professionals and amateurs, a
distinction that became more pronounced as the century progressed. Levine (1988, p.189)
indicates that it was not just the ‘establishment of permanent orchestras of professional
musicians’ which created passive audiences, but also the exclusion of part-time musicians
in those orchestras in addition to:
the drastic reduction of what had been an abundance of voluntary amateur choral
societies, which often collaborated with the orchestras, signaled the final destruction of a
bridge over which members of the lay public, in the language of the music historian John
Mueller, “had shuttled rather easily back and forth across the footlights”.
Whereas once amateurs participated alongside professionals, the growing
professionalization of music did not allow for the amateur to perform in public in the same
way as before.
At the same time that passivity in musical consumption was becoming prominent,
there is also the sense that the musical life of the nation was slowly becoming less private
and more public, taking place in theaters and concert halls (Mussulman, 1971). People of
the twenty-first century are used to this but in the late nineteenth century there was still
much music making in the home. Our modern view makes us, as Mussulman (1971, p.197)
says: ‘largely unprepared to consider the efficacy of any other mode or medium’.
This idea of a mostly public musical life can be related to the expectations of
students today. A student taking lessons on an instrument is expected to perform in some
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manner. The performance can be a recital for the students in the teacher’s studio, or some
other sort of concert but there is the idea that if one is studying an instrument one must
display ones improvement in some public fashion. Simply playing at home is not enough.
As these decades progressed the tradition of symphonic music continued to grow,

with more orchestras being established countrywide. Looking to the years after 1860, the
symphony orchestra became ‘the very symbol of art music’ (Broyles, 1998, p.225) and
helped to encourage the growth of art music for supporters who were not necessarily
familiar with or knowledgeable about orchestral music.
Theodore Thomas and his orchestra performed concerts in the manner of Jullien
[see above]. Whereas Jullien brought his orchestra to the United States in the 1850s,
Thomas, already in America, formed his orchestra in the 1860s. Like Jullien’s concerts,
Thomas’s concerts were different from orchestral concerts of today in that they included a
mix of classical and popular repertoire and the audiences socialized as well as eating and
drinking. Where Jullien and the touring virtuosi began this tradition mid-century, Thomas,
a decade later continued it domestically. Thomas believed that ‘such concessions to public
taste chipped away at the barriers between audience and orchestra’ (Crawford, 2001,
p.308).
Like the New York Philharmonic, the musicians of Thomas’s orchestra were mostly
foreign – recent immigrants to the United States. Matthews (1889, p.421) says:
The personnel of his orchestra was largely recruited from young German musicians who
were flocking to this country. These young men, very many of them, were fresh from
Leipzig and Berlin conservatories, and from the famous orchestras of Bilse and other
European conductors. Most of them had studied for solo playing, and it used to be the
boast of the young conductor that every man in his orchestra was a virtuoso upon his
instrument.
He goes on to laud Thomas for his contribution to spreading European art music
across the country.
He has shown the American people a higher type of orchestral interpretation than can be
realized outside one or two European musical centres, and in the opinion of many good
judges he has surpassed the standard of those. He has made orchestral music known in
small cities, as well as in the largest. He has given programmes ranging from the
preludes, fugues and antique fancies of Bach to the latest cogitations of the French ballet
writers, and including everything in between (p.425)
Levine (1988, p.119) points out that Thomas’s purpose was to ‘make good music
popular’ and to that aim he offered different kinds of concerts – summer concerts, young
people’s concerts and workingman’s concerts. Levine (1998, p.114) also points out that in
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seven years of summer concerts, Thomas’s orchestra performed ‘four times as many
concerts as the New York Philharmonic did in its first fifty years’.
While the New York Philharmonic had existed since 1842, and Thomas’s orchestra
was established in the 1860s, it was not until the 1880s and particularly the 1890s that
symphonies began to proliferate in America. The St. Louis Symphony was formed in 1880,
and Matthews (1889) indicates that the Boston Symphony Orchestra was founded in 1881.
The 1890s saw the founding of orchestras in Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and Portland
with the turn of the century seeing even more (Swoboda, 1967; Nicholls, 1998). [see
Appendix XXX] Clearly symphonic music was making its presence felt countrywide. In
some cities, however there were changes in how that music was presented to the public.
Some people were no longer content with having programs that mixed serious symphonic
pieces with the lighter fare that was so popular with a large portion of the public. The
solution was, according to Levine (1988, pp.130-131), to establish a ‘series of popular
concerts’ which included the lighter pieces such as ‘Strauss’s waltzes, Brahms Hungarian
Dances, and Liszt’s Hungarian Dances’ and to ‘arrange the regular programming for those
who preferred to have their culture unsullied by compromise’.
This distinction that occurs here between ‘light’ classical music such as Brahms
Hungarian Dances and ‘serious’ classical music of symphonies is significant. It further
negates the taste of much of the public and creates an even more divisive hierarchy in
music, making the gulf between high and low culture wider than before. These two distinct
types of concerts are still in evidence today with many orchestras – perhaps most notably
that of the Boston Symphony/Boston Pops.
It is possible to see, with the establishment of the conservatories and colleges [see
below] and the founding of full time orchestras, the growing split was not just between high
and low culture but also between professional and amateur musicians. Levine (1988, p.139)
makes a correlation between the two items, citing the ‘sacralization’ of music as a factor in
taking what was an unclear division between popular and art music, and amateur and
professional, and widening it. He indicates that the push towards ‘high art’ helped to bring
about the demise of ‘parlor music’ in the latter half of the nineteenth century because of the
idea that ‘only the highly trained professional had the knowledge, the skill, and the will to
understand and carry out the intentions of the creators of the divine art’.
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Mussulman (1971, p.196) agrees and says about the years around 1900:
the idea of dilettantism, of skillful amateur participation in the performance and criticism
of music, was displaced by the exclusiveness of professionalism. The music of the parlor
became implicitly inferior to the music of the concert hall and the opera house.
This growing divide between the professional and amateur can be seen in the
instructional texts, which in the latter half of the nineteenth century and in the twentieth
century are focused on the development of technique with the ultimate goal the playing of
art music [see Chapter Seven]. The insinuation is that anyone studying the violin should be
taught as if they were going to play art music and/or become a professional.
Over the course of the nineteenth century, while domestic and amateur music
making continued, it was increasingly supplanted by public professional concerts, many in
the European symphonic tradition. This growth of the ‘high’ art tradition created attitudes
towards learning to play the violin which were reflected in the violin instructional material.
Technology also helped to contribute to the divide between amateur and

professional in the form of the development of the phonograph.
9.4 Developments in the Late Nineteenth Century

The phonograph was one of the technological developments which aided and
abetted the growing gulf between professional and amateur musicians. The phonograph
appeared in the late 1880s and had a profound effect on music making in America. Prior to
this time, if people wanted musical entertainment (other than at the theater), they had to
‘actively engage’ with music making whether through playing an instrument or singing
songs (Tawa, 1990, p.12). Crawford (2001, p.227) points out that ‘Before the advent of the
phonograph, musical notation was the key to musical commerce. Not until a piece of music
was written down and circulated in print could it become a commodity to be bought and
sold’. However, with the invention of recording technology a person could simply listen to
a recording. People who considered themselves ‘unmusical’ could now have music
wherever and whenever they wanted without having to learn to play an instrument or sing.
These ‘unmusical’ people were now ‘included in the biggest market popular music had ever
known’ (Nye, 1970, p.323).
Recording did not merely allow people to be passive rather than active participants
in music; Nye (1970, p.323) theorizes that it also changed how music was written and the
audience for which it was intended. He feels that while ‘songs of the nineties and the early
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1900s were written for playing and singing by amateurs at home’, later songs were ‘written
for ‘performance by experts on recordings to be listened to by a nonparticipating audience’.
John Philip Sousa, the March King, was extremely concerned about the effect the
phonograph would have on participation in musical activities. Crawford (2001, p.469)
expresses Sousa’s views as follows:
Sousa considered phonograph recordings an assault on the ecology of musical life.

Testifying at a congressional hearing in 1906, he claimed that the phonograph was
starting to discourage many Americans from singing and playing themselves, a trend that
could ruin the artistic development of music in this country.
He also asserts that Sousa particularly thought, ‘the change was bad for the art of
music’ (p.469) and that people would become dependent on the phonograph if they did not
also learn to actively make music as well. Crawford (2001, pp.469-470) articulates Sousa’s
concerns very clearly:
What worried him about the phonographs was its encouragement of consumption
without participation. For that, he feared, would erode the base of amateur performers
whose love and understanding of music sustained the work of professional musicians,
right up to the highest levels.
It has already been discussed that children learning music including the violin, has
become a larger focus due in part to the idea that one must begin young if one is going to
play European art music. However, the focus on children is not exclusive to European art
music as evidenced by the classes at the Benjamin academies [see above] which taught
popular and dance music to children. The invention and dissemination of the phonograph
meant that adults had even less incentive or need to learn an instrument because they could
have their choice of music played by professionals in their home any time they chose.
Another way this development can be viewed is that now violin music and the
performing of it has become the province of professional players. In order to become a
professional, one (according to the view emerging at this time) must begin as a child. Using
this reasoning, catering to the musical wants and needs of adults assumes less importance
because they will not become professionals by virtue of their late start.
A major development, occurring at the very end of the century, is the appearance of
ragtime and early jazz. Most experts agree that ragtime began sometime in the 1890s. Tawa
(1990, p.143), citing Max Morath (1973), narrows the beginning of ragtime to the years
between the national events of the Columbian Exposition of Chicago and the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition of Saint Louis which took place between 1892 and 1904. Nye (1970,
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p.332) asserts that the ‘evolution of jazz’ was related to the ability of the Negro to acquire
instruments cheaply in the years after the Civil War and to transfer previously improvised
music to ‘conventional notation’.
Whatever its origins, ragtime was a popular music at the turn of the century. While
now ragtime is mostly associated with the piano, it was in the beginning performed by
many different instruments and combinations of instruments. Between the late 1890s and
World War I it was played by numerous instrumental groups including ‘mandolin clubs and
other aggregations of fretted instruments; bands of wind instruments (usually with drums);
and orchestras of mixed instrumentation that featured the violin and cello’ (Hagert, 1985,
p.268).
People interested in playing ragtime in a particular combination of instruments were

able to get music easily. Publishers issued arrangements of ragtime songs for groups with
various instrumentations which enabled ragtime to be performed at ‘concerts, dances, and
as instrumental music at public gatherings’ (Hagert, 1985, p.268). Ragtime appeared in
many places and in many forms, including sheet music, on stage, instrumental
arrangements, and also in ‘mechanical reproductions’ such as ‘cylinder recordings and
piano rolls’ (Crawford, 2001, p.451).
This new popular music did not sit well with the cultural elite, though its popularity
indicates it certainly did with the American public. Schuller (1985, p.80) describes the
conflict as follows:
The see saw battle over the relationship between classical music and its neighbors from
the wrong side of the track, ragtime and jazz, has raged for decades. It certainly was a
point of contention at the beginning of the twentieth century when ragtime reigned
supreme as America’s popular music. The establishment taste makers of that day, well
ensconced in their cultural citadels representing the fine arts, made every effort to avoid
“contamination” by ragtimers and their ilk. Much the same phenomenon occurred a
generation later when jazz was viewed as the new and dangerous intruder.
Interestingly enough, though the Hybrid texts [see Chapter Seven] written during
this era claim to include popular music, none of them contains ragtime. This lack is
especially surprising given that music from other popular entertainments such as minstrel
shows was included in the texts. While this newest of popular music was being published in
many editions for a huge variety and combinations of instruments, it is not included in the
violin instruction books. While the reasons for this lack cannot be stated with certainty, the
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close association of the violin with European art music, and the growing emphasis on
teaching children for whom ragtime might be considered inappropriate may be factors.
9.5 Music Education and its Effect on Violin Instruction

The 1860s, 1870s and 1880s saw the establishment of conservatories and music
colleges nationwide. Oberlin Conservatory was the first to be founded in 1865, the Boston,
Cincinnati and New England conservatories in 1867, and the Peabody Conservatory in
1868 (Mussulman, 1971, p.100).
Sollinger (1974, p.13) says the conservatories were ‘founded in an effort to raise the
cultural standard of the nation’. These musical institutions were founded in order to allow
American students to achieve European training without leaving America. Before these
institutions were established, an American student serious about performing classical music
would travel to Europe and study there (Keene, 1982). Americans, perhaps rightly, believed
that only in Europe could they learn all they needed to play classical music well. However,
that view began to change towards the end of the century with the establishment of the
conservatories. Classical music was now being taught seriously; the conservatories hired
staff that was trained in Europe, expert teachers established private studios, and amateur
players performed both classical and popular music (Crawford, 2001).
The founders of these institutions were quite serious about their mission. Eben
Tourjee, founder of the Providence and New England Conservatories, went to Europe to
study their methods so he could provide an authentic conservatory education. Matthews
(1889, p.462) says:
With the purpose of giving music to the world, we find him, in 1863, in Europe,
conferring and studying with eminent masters of the old world…and making
examination of the methods and text books used in conservatories of Germany, France,
and Italy, with the purpose fixed so to improve musical education in America, that no
student need cross the ocean to obtain any musical advantages whatever.
It is important to realize that these institutions were not just seeking to give the
students a European education, but were also seeking to be considered on par with the
conservatories of Europe. Speaking of Samuel Kayzer who founded the Chicago
Conservatory of Music in 1885, Matthews (1889, p.486) says:
His ambition was to build up a conservatory upon the best European models, in point of
the standard of excellence in every department, and of the advantages offered for the
development of musical and dramatic culture upon the highest artistic plane – a school,
in short, that would ultimately rank with the best in the world in these respects.
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While both the conservatories and the colleges offered instruction in the European
style, the conservatories at that time were not tertiary institutions. If students had the desire
to teach or play professionally, they would attend the colleges. For example, Matthews
(1889, p.472) tells us that the New York College of Music was founded in 1878 and that its
mission statement was as follows:
The college, has for its object the foundation and the diffusion of a high musical
education, which, based on the study of the classic masters, embraces whatever is good
in modern art. The institution endeavors to attain this end by well grounded instruction
imparted not only to those who wish to devote themselves to music as artists and
teachers, but also to amateurs, whose only object it is to acquire a correct knowledge of
music.
The establishment and proliferation of these institutions had the effect of spreading
the European (Achievement) style approach countrywide. The students who patronized the
institutions learned in the European style with its expectations of achievement, and those
who became teachers likely taught in the way they themselves had learned, which involved
the same expectations of achievement. The spread was so successful that it succeeded in
supplanting other approaches to music and has become the standard practice today.
Along with the establishment and growth of the conservatories and musical colleges
came the growth of the teaching profession and founding of organizations for teachers of
music. Music teaching was not always considered an established profession. Matthews
(1889, p.449) points out that:
Many of the teachers…a hundred years ago were mere amateurs. It would be nearer the
truth to say that a hundred years ago there were no teachers of music in any educational
institutions outside one or two of the larger cities.
In the hundred years since Matthews wrote the above, however, things had changed.
Birge (1928, p.87) cites recognition of private music teaching as a profession, along with
the concerts of the European virtuosi and success of American performers, as factors of
progress in music between the 1860s and the mid to late 1880s.
With the introduction of vocal music education into public schools there were also
many teachers of music in the public sector. Birge (1928) tells us that during the late 1800s
there were many organizations founded. Some were for all teachers such as the National
Education Association founded in 1857, [see below] but there were those such as the short
lived National Music Congress (NMC) in 1869 which were exclusively for teachers of
music. The NMC might not have lasted but the idea was sound, and in 1876 the Music
Teachers National Association (MNTA) was founded. Of this group Birge says: ‘The
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object was to raise the professional standards of music teaching’ (p.232). Tellstrom (1971,
p.28) says:
In the field of music education, a need was recognized not only for more effective music
teaching but also for the creation of some methods and procedures for the sake of
establishing and maintaining suitable standards.
While raising standards and was the main objective, it seems clear that there was
also the drive to create standard ways of accomplishing this goal. These ‘methods and
procedures’ were a way of standardizing music education and leading it towards the system
we have today. The newly established associations were the perfect way to accomplish
those goals. Birge (1928, pp.232-233) says:
At this period the old-time six-weeks normal music institutes were beginning to change
over into permanent music schools, and with the rapid increase everywhere in the
number of private music teachers, the M.T.N.A. became naturally the representative
body of this profession.
The MTNA did not simply remain a national organization, but as Birge (1928,
p.233) says: ‘was considerably expanded during the last quarter of the nineteenth century
by the formation of many state music teachers associations, organized along the same lines
as the National’. The state organizations were better able to disseminate the information
and agendas formulated by the national organizations. While these associations included
members who taught both privately and in the schools of the time, their primary focus was
teaching children.
The National Education Association was important to music in that it, as Tellstrom
(1971, p.191) says: ‘recognized music as part of the scholastic routine and approved it for
credit’. Certainly this had the effect of solidifying music teaching as a profession, which
was, by this time, considered a profession by a reasonable portion of the population. Locke
(1993, p.159) says: ‘The ubiquity of the amateur musician is reflected in the burgeoning
number of music teachers: by 1900 the census category ‘music and music teaching’
numbered ‘8 percent of all professional workers in the country’. The amateur musician may
have been ubiquitous, but at the same time, the group of professional musicians was also
growing due to the expansion of American symphony orchestras.
Coupled with the changes that occurred in the dissemination of sheet music, in the
numbers of concerts and standards of performances, and in the styles of music being
performed, the changes in music education through the 1860s affected attitudes toward
learning the violin. Appearing around this time is the expression on the part of some,
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including Brainard (1863) [see Chapter Five] that the violin is quite difficult to learn.
Trotter (1878) speaks at length about the violin, mostly with regard to the playing of
European art music. He speaks of the facility of the virtuosi such as Vieuxtemps and Ole
Bull then says:
The instrument is so difficult of mastery, that few violin-students may hope to equal
such marvelous players as those mentioned; although long-continued and severe
application may make them good orchestral performers or fair soloists (p.221).
Only with time and ‘severe application’ over the course of their study will students
develop proficiency, and then they will only be good enough for the orchestral tutti. Some
may become ‘fair soloists’ but they will not become good soloists let alone virtuosi.
In speaking further about the difficulties of mastering the instrument, Trotter (1878)
quotes an unnamed source:
The difficulty of thoroughly mastering the violin – the difficulty, that is, of combining
perfect execution with brilliancy of tone and perfect expression – is so vast, that nothing
short of indomitable patience and perseverance, united with those indispensible faculties
which all good players must possess, will succeed in overcoming them (p.222).
Trotter exhibits no sense of perspective; he does not distinguish between different
degrees of facility. His concern is with ‘thorough’ mastery in order to play orchestrally.
Where does this attitude leave those learning the violin not to become this sort of virtuoso
player but to play recreationally? While previously there was room for players of all
interests and abilities, Trotter presents the view that playing the violin means playing elite
art music at a high, if not virtuosic, level. While he is just one writer, he is writing at a time
when the Recreational Model texts, and even the Hybrid Model texts, were on the wane,
suggesting that his attitude was shared by others such as Dwight (1870) and later Carrodus
(1895) and Gibson (1900). While in the previous decades there has been room for two
different approaches, in this era it is clear that the approach that emphasizes achievement is
gaining favor.
Reflected in this discussion of violin playing was the conflict between high and low
culture. European art music began to assume more prominence in the musical life of the
nation, and the influence of this prominence can be seen in the attitude of writers such as
Trotter. After explaining how difficult learning the violin is, Trotter says:
It is, however, far from the purpose of the writer to discourage those who may wish to
become proficient as performers on this delightful instrument, or to do otherwise than
attempt to increase the number of those, who, having carefully listened to master-
players, and having thus learned of the wonderful intonations and of the great refinement
of musical expression of which the violin is capable, have resolved to become far more
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than mere “fiddlers;” and are therefore conscientiously and patiently addressing
themselves to an endeavor to overcome its difficulties, and to take rank as real violinists
(p.223).
Trotter’s statement above demonstrates the growing sense of elitism exhibited
during this time. A ‘real’ violinist plays elite art music and/or is aspiring to be a virtuoso
while ‘fiddling’ is a lower form of playing. By the standards of Trotter and others like him,
none of the students who used the Hybrid self-instructing texts published during this time
would be considered ‘real’ violin players because they are playing popular music rather
than European art music. Brainard (1863) expresses the same view in the introduction to his
text [see Chapter Five].
While the European texts were focused on developing the student’s skills in playing
European art music, the American self-instructing texts analyzed in Chapters Six and Seven
were more focused on providing the student with the ability to play popular tunes and for
the very important social function of dancing. Trotter’s attitude suggests that recreational
playing, unless it involves elite art music, is less edifying.
While one can find information about many aspects of music education during the
nineteenth century, Sollinger (1974, p.20) says that there is a particular lack of information
about nineteenth century instrumental education, and speculates as to the reason. He feels
that much of the music that was used in music instruction was ‘popular and folk music’
because it was ‘the music most people wanted to play’. However, it cannot be stated for
certain because:
Persons interested in popular and folk music were generally not writing in the music
journals…which supplied much of the information for historians who till now have
written about music in the nineteenth century United States.
Journals such as Dwight’s Music Journal certainly placed an emphasis on
championing the cause of European art music, as did Trotter above.
Instrumental music education is still, at this time, a private concern even though
vocal music instruction existed in public schools [see Chapter Eight]. The inclusion of
vocal instruction in schools had the effect of focusing the attention of music educators on
children. While instrumental music education was inclusive of learners of all ages, in the
era currently under discussion, it becomes imperative that a person begin learning the violin
as a child because the violin is now seen as difficult to learn. The rationale behind this idea
seems to be that if the student starts as an adult, that he/she will not achieve the standard
necessary to play elite art music and/or become a good orchestral player.
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Brainard (1863, p.3) expressed this opinion in his instructional text. He felt the child
should begin ‘at as early an age as possible, at all events it should be in the age of
boyhood’. Curwen (1887, p.237) opines that:
Musical education is best begun early, and if our men and women are to be singers and
players, to possess an intelligent appreciation for music, the foundations of taste and skill
must be laid when they are boys and girls at school.
Neither Brainard nor Curwen suggests a particular age at which to begin, but other
authors do. Gibson (1900, p.586) says: ‘The proper age to begin learning the violin is at ten
years’. Carrodus (1895, p.92) has a slightly different view. He says:
I cannot begin my paper better than by urging how very important it is to commence
learning in the earliest childhood. I should recommend, where possible, that the beginner
should commence to play at learning at five or six, and start real study at nine years old.
There is no particular rationale given for choosing these ages to begin the
instrument. This seemingly arbitrary choice of age is similar to the differing amounts of
minimum daily practice given in some of the instructional texts [see Chapter Five]. Certain
amounts (or in this case ages) are chosen with no explanation why the authors believe they
are the best choice. Even though there are differing views on the optimal age at which to
begin the violin, it is evident that there is now a firmly established belief that one needs to
begin to learn the violin as a child. This insistence on a young starting age coincides with
the growing importance of European art music, and the growing professionalism of music.
To reach the high standard required by the elite art music and/or play professionally one
must begin as a child.
During this era, group instruction became common through the auspices of the
Benjamin family who offered group classes at the instrumental academies which were
offshoots of the singing schools. Sollinger (1974, p.9) notes that the academies begun in
1847 in New York and Pennsylvania and in existence into the 1920s, ‘involved mostly
children’ and ‘specialized in instrumental music – particularly for the violin’. The classes
taught by the Benjamins can be viewed as precursors to the classes begun in the public
schools in the twentieth century [see Chapter Ten] in that the students were taught in
groups and the lessons were free if the student had the correct instruction book and a violin.
Indeed, Sollinger points out that ‘These conditions would probably describe most public
school instrumental programs today; but, for the nineteenth century, they were unique’
(p.11).
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Clearly, now music education for children was a growing concern. Vocal music
education was now established in public schools [see Chapter Eight], and with these
academies there was now a way for children to learn instruments in groups as well.
While these academies taught dance tunes rather than championing European art
music (Sollinger, 1974) it is easy to see that instrumental instruction is beginning to focus
on children. Adults did participate, but to a far lesser extent than children.
9.6 Summary/Conclusions
The above chapter has shown that the years 1840-1905 were a time of great change
in how music and music education were viewed in America. The influence of immigrants
from Europe was widely felt, with the establishment and growth of the first American
symphony orchestras with their largely German immigrant personnel. European influence
was also felt through the virtuosi and European orchestras which brought their high
standard of playing to America as they toured the countryside via the expanded railroad
service. A cultural elite, who championed European art music and believed in its
superiority, grew and sought to educate and uplift the masses creating a wider gulf between
high and low culture. Also contributing to the widening gap was the rise of ragtime as a
new form of popular music. The development of the phonograph enabled people to have
professional quality music in their homes on demand, which contributed to the growing
passive consumption of music. Music education became more formalized and standardized
through the establishment and growth of conservatories and colleges which offered
European style training to students. Music teaching became an established profession, and
groups such as the Music Teachers National Association were founded in order to help
standardize music education countrywide.
These various changes in society had profound effects on violin instructional texts
and how learning the violin was perceived. The high standard of playing exhibited by the
touring European virtuosi and the immigrant musicians in the newly established American
symphonies brought the expectation of a higher standard of violin playing for all, which
exhibited itself in a stronger focus on technique within instructional texts. Violin was now
considered difficult to learn, and beginning the violin as a child was considered a necessity
in order to reach a high standard. The establishment of the conservatories and colleges with
their focus on European-style training further focused learning violin on the acquisition of
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technique. The new popular music of ragtime did not feature in the instructional texts
which helped to move the violin away from an association with popular music and towards
a stronger association with European art music which is where the violin firmly stands
today.
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CHAPTER 10: 1905-Present
10.1 Introduction
American music making in the twentieth century continued the trends of the
previous century. Instrumental music education continued to evolve; jazz became popular
and the favored music for dancing; radio was developed and became a commercial concern
further eliminating the need for people to actively make music to fill leisure time or for
home entertainment; media for carrying recorded music proliferated.
These developments brought about changes in attitudes to violin learning, resulting

in the gradual ascendancy of texts reflecting achievement goals. Despite most recent
developments in learning and communication via, for example, the Internet, and the
formation of groups dedicated to adult violin learning, prevailing attitudes remain firmly on
the side of the Achievement Model texts.
10.2 Instrumental Music Education Enters Public Schools

In 1905, instrumental music education was still a private endeavor. People wishing
to learn an instrument could do so through a variety of venues including private individual
instruction, self-instruction, or music academies. Those interested in European style
training could study at one of the many conservatories that were established in the late
1800s, and the newly established colleges offered instruction to those who wished to teach
and/or play professionally. Beginning violin study as a child was more important
particularly if the student was going to play European art music. However, children were
not just learning classical music; they also made up the largest body of students at the
music academies that taught dance and popular music.
Sollinger (1974) has pointed out that group violin teaching was not new in the
twentieth century as the violin schools of the Benjamins offered group instruction [see
Chapter Nine]. Conservatories also taught group classes but in a slightly different manner
and with a focus on European art music. As with the schools run by the Benjamins, the
majority of the students were children. Sollinger (1974, p.14) points out that the
conservatories accepted ‘large numbers of students’, both beginners and more advanced
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players, but that while ‘thousands were enrolled and taught, only the very talented were
graduated’.
Both the Benjamin’s academies and the conservatories are the predecessors of and
perhaps influences on the development of instrumental music education in public schools.
In looking at these two precursors, it is possible to see influences of both America and
Europe. The Benjamins – the American influence – were teaching groups of children
popular and dance music. The conservatories – the European influence – were teaching in
groups, but the focus was, as Sollinger (1974, p.13) states: ‘to raise the cultural standard of
the nation’. The conservatories set out to imitate the European style of training exactly and
therefore taught European art music. However, neither the Benjamins nor the
conservatories were the sources that had most influence on the man responsible for
bringing instrumental learning into the public schools: Albert Mitchell. The final
inspiration came from another European source – that of the English Maidstone Movement.
The Maidstone Movement was, as Deverich (1987, p.39) says: ‘a popular British
method of group violin instruction for children [begun] in 1897 and continued in use until
approximately 1939’. The Maidstone Movement was not entirely an altruistic venture, but
was founded by the Murdoch Company, which sold instruments and music and whose
founder was concerned that there was no ‘suitable’ group violin instruction for children.
The company offered a package deal to schools, supplying them with teachers, violins and
instruction books at ‘an all-inclusive price’ (Deverich 1987, p.40).
Both the Benjamins and the Maidstone Movement made it possible for large
numbers of children to learn the violin. Rather than promoting popular music like the
Benjamins, the Maidstone Movement was similar to that of the conservatories in that it
sought to ‘elevate the musical taste of the nation as a whole’ (Deverich, p.42).
It was not until 1911 that these various influences, especially the Maidstone
movement, impacted upon the public school system through the work of Albert Mitchell.
Birge (1928, pp.194) tells us that Mitchell, a music supervisor in the Boston public school
system ‘was given a year’s leave of absence to study the violin class instruction in
England’. The result of his study was the implementation of violin classes in the public
schools of Boston in 1911. Birge (1928, p.194-195) quotes Mitchell as follows:
Upon my return home, in 1911, filled with enthusiasm and with a determination to do
what I could to keep pace with the activities in Europe, I received permission from the
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Boston School Board to organize violin classes upon my own responsibility and in my
own time. They were held after school hours from four to five o’clock. No fees were
asked. Five classes were formed, each having from sixteen to twenty pupils. The text
books came from England. The children brought their own violins.
Rather than looking to the Benjamin’s American model, Mitchell firmly focused on
the European approach, which may have been influenced by his location. Boston, where
Mitchell was based, was a center of European art music and advocates of high culture. It
also had a well established vocal music program in public schools originated by Lowell
Mason whose mission was to educate children and elevate their taste in music [see Chapter
Eight] through learning to read music and refining their sensibility. Mitchell may have
wanted an instrumental program that complemented the vocal program and its goals. He
may have not used the Benjamins as a model because their teaching of popular and dance
music did not fit into the general goals of music education as set out by Lowell and his
disciples.
The Benjamins, while they taught in large classes, appear to have taught the wrong
style of music for Mitchell’s purpose and the conservatories, while they taught the right
style of music only taught in small groups (Sollinger, 1928). In the Maidstone Movement
Mitchell found the perfect solution as it taught the right style of music with the right
mission and did so in large groups. It also came with a text that Mitchell could use for his
own classes in the United States. Regardless of the program chosen, the effect was to
further focus music instruction on children.
Interestingly enough, while Mitchell used the English Maidstone Movement text to
teach his early classes, he was not satisfied with the results. In his own way, perhaps
Mitchell was echoing the feeling of Saunders [see Chapter Seven] in that he felt there was
something unsuitable about using the European Maidstone text with his American students.
His dissatisfaction with the Maidstone book prompted him to write his Class Method for
the Violin published in 1912 which was sold across the country and ‘helped spread the
news’ of his string classes (Sollinger, 1974, p.17-18). While Mitchell’s text was not viewed
for this thesis, the fact that it included a ‘practice card’ to be signed by the parents to show
the student had practiced for a half hour every day, coupled with his concern about pitch
accuracy and his belief that the student should be ‘grounded in elementary technique’
(Wassell, 1954) indicates that it leaned towards Achievement. Understandably, teachers,
hearing about Mitchell’s success expressed interest in his methods.
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Mitchell’s program, and its spread, was to bring about change. Birge (1928, p.196)
indicates that Mitchell’s approach to teaching the violin was adopted not only by teachers
of the violin, but was used to teach both band and orchestral instruments. However, while
Mitchell’s text may have helped standardize violin instruction, Birge tells us that the
implementation of the approach was not necessarily standard, including part-time and full-
time instrumental teachers, and some private teachers taking groups after school hours.
Mitchell’s classes and perhaps his book as well, were the beginning of a new focus
for the publishing industry. While there were some class methods for violin published
before 1911 (Sollinger, 1974) none were employed in the schools. Whereas publishing
houses in the nineteenth century, particularly the first half responded to the need of the
adult amateur by publishing a large number of self-instructing violin texts, now, in the early
twentieth century they responded to the new audience by publishing a large number of class
methods for violin and other orchestral instruments. The publishers also leapt to fill the
need for music for these new ensembles. Birge (1928, p.200) says:
This has been paralleled by large amounts of well edited music for orchestras and bands
in all stages of development. Splendid arrangements of the standard classics have been
published, the value of which to the orchestra director is doubled by the issuing also of a
conductor’s score with each number. Valuable treatises dealing with the subject have
also been published.
The number of class methods published at this time was very large. Sollinger (1974)
provides a comprehensive list. However, the vast majority of these books were specifically
written for children learning in a group situation. The narrowing of the focus of music
education to predominantly the school years has an on-going impact today for adults
wishing to learn the violin.
The focus of violin learning was now on orchestral repertoire rather than on the
ability to play music for dancing. The situation is the same in school music programs of
today where, in most cases, all the string instruments are taught together so as to play as an
orchestra as soon as possible. Not only were new instructional texts needed for these
programs, but ensemble music was needed as well. Notice Birge’s reference to the
orchestral arrangements being that of the ‘standard classics’. These programs were not
teaching popular music, they were teaching the children the appreciation of and the ability
to play, European art music.
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This concern with orchestral playing was not just limited to public schools. Morphy
(1918) wrote an article titled ‘Violin Teaching in its Relation to the Organization of Civic
Orchestras’, alerting the reader to the need for good amateur violin players to play in the
growing numbers of civic orchestras. It is interesting that the Virtuosic Mountain woodcut
[See Appendix II] was published in the same year as Morphy’s article. With the rapid
growth of orchestras throughout the first decades of the twentieth century [see below], the
focus on technical development and achievement makes sense as amateurs playing at a high
level of competency were needed to participate in those orchestras. The 1921 US School
[see Chapter Five] actively encourages the student – even if they are in school – to form an
orchestra in which they can play, and even suggests which instruments will be needed for
the ensemble. To look at very recent history in this regard, the New Horizons Program [see
below], which caters to adult learners, offers instrument instruction within the orchestral
setting just like the public school programs.
There is no mention in articles from this time, or violin instructional texts, of

playing for dances and little mention of playing jazz or other popular music; the violin is
spoken of only in relation to European art music or orchestral playing. While currently
people such as Lieberman (2000, 2001, 2002) actively encourage violinists to play blues,
jazz, and learn improvisation, the violin’s strongest association is still with orchestral
playing.
The development of instrumental music in the public schools brought with it the
need for a new type of teacher, one who could teach not just one, but all the instruments in
a group with the ability to manage large numbers of students. Birge (1928, p.197) opines
that ‘The large numbers of instrumental teachers who have thus entered the field of school-
music have added strength and balance to the profession’.
Stulberg (1938) and Lazan (1968) were written expressly for this purpose [see
Chapter Five]. They were not concerned with developing performance skills, but with
developing the future teacher’s technical ability so he could teach violin technique to his
students. This focus on technique and achievement extends to most of the modern class
methods. Many of them publish a teacher’s manual in order to help the teacher (who may
or may not be a string specialist) plan and identify the object of each lesson, which may be
some aspect of technique.
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The formalization of violin instruction in the schools, coupled with the perceived
superiority of orchestral ‘classics’ and their built-in ensemble nature, coincides with the
gradual reduction of texts for adults and their change in focus to more achievement-driven
goals. It solidifies the idea, originated in previous decades, of the necessity to begin
instrumental learning in childhood. With this new system of education, came the need for
new materials that suited this new style of learning. Thus, a large body of violin
instructional material was developed and published that catered to the new market of
children learning in school. Orchestral music became the focus of violin learning which
further strengthened the link between the violin and European art music and away from
popular music.
10.3 Jazz
Another major influence on the role and place of the violin in the musical world, as
well as on those who play it, involves one of America’s greatest contributions to music:
jazz. It should be noted that while there is currently a strong fiddling tradition, this will not
be discussed as it is a continuation of an older style rather than a new development. It is
generally accepted that jazz originated in New Orleans around the turn of the century
(Ostendorf, 1979). Roth (1952, p.306) more specifically names Buddy Bolden’s band from
the 1890s as the originators of the jazz style. Magee (1998, p.408-409) points out that
Bolden and his band were not an anomaly, but that there was general development
happening with this style of music, citing changes in repertoire, instrumentation and
playing style as contributing to the shift from ragtime to jazz.
The change in repertoire makes jazz very important to this discussion of the violin.
The violin was important in the social purpose of playing for dancing [see Chapters Six and
Seven], and much of the repertoire in the Recreational Model and Hybrid texts included
music suitable for dancing and/or sets of dances which sometimes included the figures (or
dance steps) to be called. Saunders (1847) devoted an entire part of his text to the purpose
of teaching the student to play for dances.
String groups, or ‘string bands’, played for dancing in New Orleans as they did all
over the country. Jazz, as stated by Magee above, began to combine dance music with
different instrumentation. Before Buddy Bolden’s band was formed, these ‘string bands’
were the exclusive purveyors of music for Negro dancing, and were separate from the brass
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bands found on the streets (Blesh, 1949). Bayles (1996, p.28) considers that jazz is a
merging of the ‘string bands’ and the brass bands, combining the classically trained black
musicians of the orchestras with the poor blacks playing brass in outdoor venues.
Bolden took this new mix of elements and began to play for dancing which up to
this time was, as mentioned above, the exclusive province of the ‘string bands’. This had
the effect of making the ‘string bands’ obsolete as gradually the jazz bands took over as the
main groups to play for dancing (Roth, 1952).
Jazz was now beginning to take over what was traditionally one of the violin’s main
roles. Earlier, it was mentioned that the two-step (and the ragtime music appropriate for it)
was beginning to make some dances outdated [see Chapter Nine]. This trend was to
continue, with one-steps, ‘slow drags’ and the cakewalk becoming popular by the turn of
the century (Southern, 1971, p.343).
This change in the dances that were popular reflects a change that was happening in
all aspects of life. Ostendorf (1991, p.585) indicates the period 1896-1917 as a time of
transition for ‘music and industrial production, and surely in their unique fusion that gave
us American popular music and its cultural history’.
American life was changing, and the music, the dances, and the role of instruments
was changing along with it. Magee (1998, p.403) along with Ostendorf above says that
1917 is an important year in the changing of musical styles. He says: ‘By 1917, the year of
Joplin’s death, American culture had absorbed ragtime. Now it was presented with a fresh
challenge by a new generation of musicians and new media’. Jazz did not stay in New
Orleans, but spread northward. An article in Literary Digest from 1917 titled ‘The Appeal
of Primitive Jazz’ describes jazz’s migration as follows: ‘Ragtime and the new dances came
from there [New Orleans], and not long after jazz crept slowly up the Mississippi from
resort to resort until it landed in South Chicago at Freiburg’s’ (p.29).
The role of the violin in this new popular/dance music began to change. After 1910
the violin, formerly the leader of the dance groups, now had rivals for the melody in the
cornet and the clarinet and had to contend with the banjo and piano wanting a more
prominent role (Hagert, 1985).
More and more the violin was being relegated to the background or at the very least
being forced to share the spotlight with other instruments. Bands in New Orleans
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eliminated the violin altogether and replaced it with saxophones, and the melody, by the
early 1920s, became more and more the province of the cornet player who assumed the role
of leader in the band (Crawford, 2001).
Blesh (1949, p.174) credits the introduction of the brass instruments with making
jazz popular. He says: ‘In any event, once the powerful and rhythmic brass band was used
its fitness was perceived and the idea caught on. Social dancing became the rage’. This may
help explain why jazz tunes were not included in violin instruction books. In this era, the
violin is not as relevant to jazz as it is to European art music. The violin’s prominence in
playing for dancing is now only for the older style dances such as the waltz and quadrille.
Certainly, the violin was able to play jazz tunes, but as it was not playing those tunes in a
social setting the instrument’s association with jazz was weak, and they were not included
in the instructional texts.
Additionally, due to the establishment of conservatories and musical colleges, the

writers of violin instructional material were most likely trained in the European tradition.
The focus of their instruction was therefore on teaching the student how to play European
art music.
There is some discussion about the violin’s involvement and importance in jazz.
Roth (1952, p.307) indicates that the violin was a member of the Spasm Band, which he
calls ‘the original jazz band’, but also says that the violin was ‘Infrequently heard in skiffle
groups, and very rarely in jazz’ (p.311). Lieberman (2002, p.79) says however that some
groups ‘placed the fiddle in a central position’. Even though use of the violin in the jazz
bands was minimal, there were clearly some excellent jazz violinists from this period such
as Eddie South, Robert Edward ‘Juice’ Wilson, ‘Stuff’ Smith and Damell Howard
(Southern, 1971, p.394).
While the violin in jazz was not the most common instrument, the impression is that
there were some very fine violinists who did embrace the style. Blesh (1949, p.269)
acknowledges that there were some violinists playing jazz, but also associates them with
jazz played by whites – and therefore different (and perhaps inferior) from that played by
Negroes. He goes on to indicate that after 1917, the violin played ‘white jazz in small
groups’ led by players such as Joe Venuti, and that bands such as Paul Whiteman’s and
Jean Goldgette’s included violin sections.
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Certainly in bands like Whiteman’s, the violin was in a section rather than a lead
instrument. This can be seen to parallel the role of the violin in the symphony orchestra –
playing in a group rather than one on a part as in the wind and brass sections. Interestingly,
Blesh (1949) describes this type of jazz prominent in the 1930s as ‘Europeanized’, further
associating the violin with European style playing, even in relation to popular music.
One of the reasons that the violin may have become relegated to the background in
jazz music is fact that it simply could not compete with the volume produced by the brass
and other instruments. Hagert (1985, p.279) comments that violinists playing in the
ragtime/jazz orchestras had to change their style of playing using less ‘portamento’,
different bowing techniques, and even metal strings in order to make their playing more
audible to the audience.
Lieberman (2002, p.79) supports the idea that the lack of a means of amplification
for the instrument made it scarce in jazz until more recent times. She says this lack of
volume led a well-known jazz violinist to lose a professional gig. She says: ‘Stuff Smith’s
first major professional engagement was with Jelly Roll Morton. He was forced to leave the
group, though, because his acoustic violin couldn’t be heard over the band’ (p.81). This
problem had the further effect of making the violin less associated with popular/dance
music, a kind of music where it once played a central role.
To the cultural elite, jazz was popular culture and therefore considered to be
lowbrow. Ostendorf (1979, p.596) indicates that while for many it was low culture, it was
no deterrent to enjoyment. He says: ‘No matter how many whites learned to play jazz, for
the larger American audience the music connoted “blackness” and therefore “low culture
plus exciting life-style”. However, the appearance of jazz seems to have heightened the
split between high and popular culture, because as Levine (1989, p.7-8) notes, jazz appears
at the same time as ‘Culture’. Levine sees clear differences between jazz and Culture,
describing jazz as ‘uniquely American’, ‘accessible and spontaneous’, and a ‘new product
of a new age’. Culture however, was ‘traditional’, ‘exclusive and available only through
hard study and training’, and ‘Eurocentric’.
It is possible to look at the violin texts in relation to the differences between jazz
and Culture described above. The Recreational Model texts with their ‘spontaneous’
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approach to learning relate more to jazz; the Achievement Model texts, which stress ‘hard
study and training’ through technical work and practice, relate more to Culture.
The violin has gone from being an instrument which anyone can learn with ease, to
being seen as difficult, and requiring significant amounts of study and training, which one
must preferably begin in childhood particularly if playing European art music. The texts
reflect this change with significant amounts of technical work that the student must do prior
to playing tunes, and with the impression that the student must strive to learn ever-harder
pieces of music and aim for technical perfection. There is an ordered progression to the vast
majority of books, and tunes become standard rather than popular. It seems clear that in
these decades, if Levine is correct in his assessment above, that the violin has become more
an instrument of Culture rather than of jazz and popular music.
10.4 Development of Radio

The invention of the phonograph changed music making, by allowing people to
have professional quality music in their homes at any time without having to make it
themselves or go to the concert hall [see Chapter Nine]. The development of the
phonograph and the radio were part of the development of technology, which was to
escalate as the twentieth century progressed. These technological developments gave
people even more options for passive entertainment both outside and inside the home.
Somers (1971, p.125) says, ‘The United States between 1820 and 1920 experienced a
leisure revolution’, and that the cause of this was the shift ‘from a rural-agrarian to an
urban-industrial society’ (p.126). Fischer (1994, p.453) gives a narrower range of dates for
this ‘leisure revolution’ and gives a list of the new technologies:
between 1890 and 1940, the period when (a) leisure time expanded, and (b) major new
technologies for leisure emerged and won acceptance by the middle-class: bicycles,
streetcars, automobiles, telephones, movies, radio, and so forth.
The development of these technologies was to the early twentieth century what print
was to the nineteenth century. Nye (1970, p.2) says:
Print became pervasive in nineteenth-century society, as machines widened and

cheapened the public’s access to the printed page. The twentieth century opened other
channels of cultural communication to even larger audiences by introducing quite
revolutionary methods of reproducing and transmitting sound and image – the
phonograph, film, radio, television.
Whereas music in the nineteenth century was available only to those who could read
musical notation, the new technologies of the phonograph and the radio made the need for
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reading music less important. A person would not have to buy sheet music and then play an
instrument to produce music in the home; the new technologies could take their place.
While not a commercial concern until the 1920s and 1930s, Biocca (1990, p.2) says:
‘By 1906 the first popular phase of radio was launched as radio telegraphy caught on in a
nation of young scientific amateurs’ and that music was first broadcast on Christmas Eve of
the same year. He says, ‘Fressenden startled the operators by transmitting the first
broadcast replete with a poet, operatic singer, violinist, and a speech’ (p.2). The growing
popularity of radio continued the trend towards turning the ‘consumer-as-participant into a
‘consumer-as-listener’ (Nye, 1970).
Radio was seen by different groups to have a variety of uses. The cultural elite
viewed it as a way to further their agenda of spreading European art music to the masses
and thereby improving their taste. Through this medium, orchestral and other forms of
European art music could reach large numbers of people without the need for them to go to
the concert hall. Radio could be used as a way to improve people, which accorded with the
‘Victorian ideology’ which saw recreational activities not as a means of relaxation, but as a
vehicle for self-improvement (Butsch, 1990).
Biocca, (1990) talks about Fritz Reiner and Walter Damrosch, advocates of
European art music, who saw radio as a tool for music education. He quotes Reiner as
saying ‘One of the beautiful possibilities of radio…is to teach the fundamentals of music to
the people’ (p.6). Damrosch headed a national project involving phonograph companies,
school systems, and the publication of a musical text book which culminated in a series of
broadcasts whose purpose was to create a ‘new musical generation’ (Biocca, 1990, p.7).
However, radio was also used as a way to spread popular songs and music,
particularly beginning in the 1920s. Hansen (1960, p.505) says: ‘every radio, every
phonograph, every sheet music counter was a channel for the standard variety of popular
music’. Americans developed a taste for this popular music and consumed it liberally.
While the major stations had studio orchestras which played everything from opera, to
marches, to light classics, Eberly (1982, p.23) points out that ‘it was dance music that the
station house bands used most often to augment remote pickups from local bistros’.
The ever-growing separation between popular and high culture can be seen in radio
programming. On the one hand there is a studio orchestra that could play a variety of
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European art music, including ‘light’ classics, on its own in addition to accompanying
soloists; on the other there is an increasing use of dance/popular music. Those concerned
with high culture sought to use the radio to further their agenda of improving the taste of
the general public, but found that vehicle helping to spread the newest kinds of popular
music, thus creating a ‘clash of musical cultures’ (Biocca, 1990, p.1).
Both popular and classical music developed an audience, particularly in the years
between World War I and World War II. The adoption of a five day work week allowed for
more time for relaxation and leisure which included going to concerts along with listening
to music on the radio and on records (Horowitz, 1995). Horowitz (1995, p.11) also notes
that: ‘the number of American orchestras increased from 17 before World War I to 270 by
1939’.
John Philip Sousa, writing in 1928, credited radio with an enormous amount of
influence over its listeners. As an advocate of good music he, like Reiner and Damrosch
above, considered radio a tool in order to spread that music. He said: ‘By this medium the
masses are becoming acquainted as never before with the best of the world’s music’
(p.356).
With the growing popularity of records and talking movies in addition to radio
programs, the production of instruments generally declined in the late 1920s (Butsch, 1990,
pp.17-18). Certainly, if there were a growing population listening to music rather than
playing instruments, there would be fewer sales of those instruments. However, while the
manufacturers of instruments may have believed that people might listen to the radio rather
than playing an instrument themselves, Biocca (1990, p.8) indicates that the radio actually
increased the market for particular musical instruments. The purchase of instruments used
in jazz orchestras increased as did the purchase of instruments being taught in the public
school systems (Biocca, 1990, p.8). Any increase in violin sales was more likely to be
because of school orchestra programs rather than its limited association with jazz
orchestras.
The development of radio and other mass forms of passive entertainment did not
just affect the playing of the violin but affected music making in a range of ways. First the
phonograph and now radio make it possible to have music played by professionals of high
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quality in the home. The need for amateur players for dancing and/or home entertainment
declines in response as consumers choose to listen to those with higher levels of skill.
It is likely that the radio also helped to bring the violin into closer association with
European art music rather than popular music. There was a great deal of symphonic
repertoire being played on the radio, and the popular music played by the jazz bands did not
often feature the violin. The fact that the violin was less associated with popular music may
help explain why popular music disappeared from the violin instruction books. This closer
association with classical music combined with the focus on children learning through
school orchestra programs [see above] and the perception that one must begin the violin at
a young age, may help explain why the needs of adult beginning violinists are not highly
considered in the twenty-first century.
10.5 Current Developments which Help Adults Engage with Music

The development of audio recording technologies such as audiotapes and CDs and
visual recording technologies such as videotapes and DVDs can be seen as a natural
extension of the older technologies of the phonograph and radio. These more recent
technologies may be viewed as helping to re-enfranchise somewhat the adult beginning
violin student. The purpose of this section is not to discuss the development of these
various technologies, but rather to discuss their relevance to some of the violin instructional
texts analyzed in Chapters Five and Seven.
Duncan (2002), Silverman (2000), and Stosur (2006) all use CDs in combination
with the written text, and Silverman and Seidel (2008) use DVDs. Most modern self-
instructing texts utilize audio or video recording in some form. Today, it is not just self-
instructing texts that use audio and video recording; many kinds of texts use this
technology to aid the learning process. For example, Essential Elements 2000, a text
designed for use in school string programs, contains both CD and DVD technology.
Modern violin tune books often include a CD with full orchestral or rock band
accompaniment instead of a piano part. Many of these include two versions of the tune –
one just the melody line, the second the melody line plus the accompaniment.
When self-instructing, these technologies are useful, allowing the student to see and
hear a professional demonstrating both skills and repertoire. If self-instructing before these
technologies were available, the student could only rely on written descriptions included in
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the text, the occasional illustration, and his own experience of seeing and hearing people
play the violin. The use of CDs and DVDs could be viewed as taking the place of the
enculturation process which was in place in the nineteenth century, but which no longer
exists in the same form today. The new technologies can be more or less helpful depending
on how they are used. In the case of videos or DVDs, sometimes the angle at which the
teacher is filmed is not optimal for showing the student what is most useful. For example, if
the teacher is filmed only straight on, the student may not be able to see particular details of
the left and right hands. It is how the technology is used which is most important.
Many instructional texts include CDs, which can be helpful, particularly when
learning unfamiliar repertoire. The nineteenth century texts included popular music of the
day with which students might expect to be familiar. Once the basics were learned, they
could turn to a favorite or familiar tune and commence playing. Being familiar with the
tune would help students learn it more quickly because they would know how it was
supposed to sound. However, modern instructional texts do not include current popular
music and many of the melodies may not be familiar to the student. The CD can give them
the reference they need to help them learn the unfamiliar tunes more quickly and easily.
Some texts, such as Duncan (2002), use the CD as a tool to show the student what
the tunes sound like, and also as accompaniment. One problem that arises in playing with
the CD is that the student needs to be able to play the piece at the tempo recorded by the
professional players, which may be difficult, particularly early in the learning process if fast
pieces have been recorded at their proper tempo. Playing with the CD may be equally
difficult if the melodies are recorded under tempo and the student wishes to go faster.
Another issue with using the CD as accompaniment is that very often it has someone
playing the melody line quite prominently. It is meant to help the student, but for a listener
it might prove distracting. The problem is that the CD is not flexible, unlike a live
accompanist who could adjust to the student.
The development of the Internet has also made a difference in violin instruction.
Chat groups allow people worldwide to communicate about their experiences, including
learning the violin. The chat group BAVs [see Chapter Three, 3.5] is a good example. This
group was founded in order to let adults beginning violin study to discuss their learning
experiences, ask questions, and share their excitement and frustrations with learning the
violin.
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Some BAVs members are violin teachers interested in helping adult students or in
the adult learning experience. They participate in a variety of ways: offering advice on
technique and repertoire, explaining terms and answering questions. Not only does this help
the students, but teachers can glean much information about the concerns and priorities of
adult violin students which in turn can inform their own teaching practice. BAVs allows
this dialogue between beginning adult violin students and teachers to occur globally. Given
how infrequently adult violin learning is discussed, the fact that there is some discussion
happening is important. Those participating in this dialogue are helping to shape the
learning experience for a group of adult violin students and providing support and
camaraderie for learners who may well feel isolated without this community.
The development of the Internet has also led to the proliferation of websites offering
violin lessons. Whereas previously an adult wishing to learn the violin could learn either
with a teacher or self-instruct with a text or a combination of text and other media such as
the CD or DVD, now they also have the option of self-instructing or getting extra help via a
number of online websites. Deverich (1998) was concerned with developing this form of
distance education for adult violinists [see Chapter Three, 3.5] and her idea has become
reality. Her website www.violinonline.com offers basic instruction as well as historical
information and sheet music. Links to other sites that offer instruction can be found at:
http://musiced.about.com/od/violinlessons/Online_Violin_Lessons_for_Adults.htm.
However, many of these sites offering free lessons encourage the student to study with a
private teacher, continuing the mixed message given to adult students [see Chapter Three].
Learning the violin via self-instruction is possible because it is offered, but at the same
time, because instruction with a teacher is recommended, there is the suggestion that one
really needs a teacher to learn, perhaps in order to play ‘properly’.
Some sites contain lessons by well-respected teachers. For example,

www.violinmasterclass.com showcases the students and teaching of Kurt Sassmannshaus
who is based at the Cincinnati College Conservatory of Music. This website offers help
with basic skills, but also instruction in more advanced skills such as vibrato. Certainly the
quality of instruction varies from site to site, but what is important is the availability of
information for adults wanting to learn the violin via this medium. Other opportunities for
adults to learn the violin are found under the auspices of the New Horizons program.
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In a discussion about adults learning music, the New Horizons Band and Orchestra
program is important as it was developed to cater specifically and exclusively to adults
interested in playing and learning instruments. Roy Ernst began this program in 1991 at the
Eastman School of Music, realizing that older adults were not only interested in playing
music, but had the time to do so (Freiberg, 2002). According to the New Horizons website
www.newhorizonsmusic.org, at the inception of the program a person had to be fifty years
of age or older to join, though many groups now offer membership to adults of any age.
While the original group was a band, the program has expanded to include strings as well.
The founder, Roy Ernst, has become one of the strongest advocates of adult music
education. He says that there is a large population eligible to participate in his program. In
an article from 2001 he quotes U.S. Census statistics:
The leading edge of the Baby Boomer generation (with seventy-four million people) is
just now reaching retirement age, increasing the population in which the number of
people over sixty-five is already greater than the number of people under eighteen
(p.47).
He feels that adults, particularly those of retirement age are, in some ways, the
perfect group to begin the study of an instrument. He says:
Numerous retired adults have ideal conditions for learning music…time that they can
devote to new interests…many can afford to pay for instruction and purchase
instruments. A full schedule of music activities often helps to fill the void left after
leaving careers. Most want challenging and rewarding activities. For many people their
new music activities become one of the most important aspects of their lives (p.48).
Ernst is not alone in feeling that way; others also believe that adults are interested in
and capable of learning musical instruments. Jantzen (1998, p.63) says: ‘For years I heard
comments and complaints from adults who had missed the opportunity to play an
instrument…the ideal solution would be to offer a beginning band course for adults’.
Clearly there is interest on the part of adults to learn instruments. About his band, Jantzen
(1998, p.63) says: ‘the heart of this 50-piece concert band remains the same with an
enthusiastic core of adult musicians who thought they would never play music but quickly
learned they could’. Here is the mention of the enthusiasm that adults bring to learning
music, but also the implication that they didn’t think they would (or perhaps could) learn.
There also seems to be the perception that if they missed learning in childhood that they
were not easily going to get another opportunity. Providing the opportunity is what the New
Horizons groups are all about.
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Conductors of New Horizons groups are very aware that working with adults is
different from teaching children, yet also similar. Coffman (2002, p.138) says:
I can attest that teaching adults is much like teaching those elementary school children
and high school adolescents whom I used to teach, but with three differences. First, these
older adults all want to be there – no one’s “mom” is making a band member come to
practice. They are attentive, generous, and responsible. Of course they are “adults,” and
it’s true that kids can be attentive, generous, and responsible, but my rehearsals never
approach the contest of wills I sometimes witness in school bands.
Coffman and Levy (1997, p.19) say: ‘While children often have to be pushed to
practice, these seniors commonly lament and apologize for not having been able to practice
as much as they wished’. Freiberg (2002, p.92) indicates that the differences are not just
attitudinal. About the string players in her group she says: ‘adult beginners have distinctive
needs. Physically they may not be as responsive as children’.
While many of the conductors speak of the differences between adults and children,
some are also aware that there is little research to help guide them in working with adults
learning music. Coffman (2002, p.135) says: ‘I have immersed myself in the adult
education and gerontology literature, for virtually no research currently addresses music
making in older adults’. Calls for research to be done in the area of adults learning music is
not a recent phenomenon [see Chapter Three]. Ernst (2001, p.51) has definite ideas about
what is needed for the adult audience. He says:
Many opportunities exist for research and development in music education for adults.
We need additional research about musical and nonmusical outcomes. We need to know
more about how adults learn music. Leadership is needed to create new professional
organizations and networks. Instruction books geared to adults. Events are needed that
bring adults together for music making such as music camps, Elderhostel programs, and
classes in collegiate settings are needed.
Ernst makes a point of mentioning that instruction books are needed for adults.
Again, it must be stated that if one wishes to learn piano as an adult that there are numerous
texts for adults from which to choose [see Chapter Three]. However, for band and
orchestral instruments there is nothing specifically designed for the adult market. The New
Horizons program is, to a large extent, modeled on instrumental music programs used with
children in schools, and while it is clear that the conductors/teachers are aware of the
differences between child and adult learners, it seems difficult to utilize a different
approach. For example, Andrew Dabczynski runs a New Horizons orchestra in Utah and
uses his String Explorer text with his orchestra even though it was designed for children’s
school music programs. Freiberg (2002, p.93) quotes a participant in a New Horizons
orchestra saying this about the instruction:
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In New Horizons, they teach us just like they do in elementary school. Before too long,
some colleagues and I went off to take private lessons, because we became fired up and
wanted to learn faster.
It is likely that for the speaker above, the group-learning situation is what reminds
her of elementary school. However, other factors could be at play, such as the instructional
materials used and the manner of the teacher. Even in a group that is specifically for adults,
learning an instrument is still equated with the school years.
The New Horizons program is dedicated to engaging adults in music making. The
people involved in this group are uniquely placed to generate materials specifically for the
adult audience and to develop an approach that is suited to the adult beginning student.
However, this has not yet happened, which highlights the difficulty of changing a system
that has become entrenched.
10.6 Conclusion
This chapter has shown that many of the technological developments of the
twentieth century influenced the violin instructional texts and therefore the view of adults
learning the violin. The advent of music education in public schools created a large
audience of children and materials were developed to help them learn the violin. The focus
for these children learning the violin was that of orchestral music rather than dance and
popular music. Jazz appeared and became not only popular, but the preferred music for
dancing, taking over the violin’s role. While the violin was central in early jazz, it became
relegated to the background as the brass instruments took the lead, further distancing it
from popular music. Radio brought professional quality music into the home lessening the
need for people to supply their own entertainment. While radio programming encompassed
both popular and classical music, the violin was not heard prominently in the popular music
of the time and became more closely associated with orchestral playing and classical music.
In the later twentieth century, there have been new developments which can be seen
to help the adult amateur. CDs and DVDs make self-instructing easier and the development
of the Internet allows online lessons and a way for beginning adult violinists to
communicate with each other and share their learning experiences. The development of the
New Horizons program, which caters exclusively to adults who want to learn to play
musical instruments, serves as recognition that adults want to and are capable of learning
such skills and gives them an outlet.
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While certainly these modern developments do help in some ways to engage adults
in music making, they are not necessarily as effective as what was occurring in the
nineteenth century. While CDs and DVDs can help the student know unfamiliar repertoire,
it is not the same as playing a tune which the student already knows well and has relevance
to the student. The Internet is a good source of information and through a group such as
BAVs brings adults together in order to share knowledge and offer support, but it cannot
take the place of enculturation – of having others around to observe and learn from in that
way. Groups such as New Horizons do offer a social aspect to learning and playing, but it is
within a highly structured environment which offers only orchestral playing. None of these
modern developments supports or encourages music making of various kinds within the
home for family and friends as happened in the nineteenth century, which encouraged
adults to engage in music in a variety of ways.
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CHAPTER 11: Conclusion
This thesis has provided an in-depth, detailed study of violin instructional materials
from 1800 to 2008 as a means of considering why adult beginner violin instruction is not a
feature of modern music education. An exhaustive search revealed a range of texts
representative of the two hundred-odd years under examination. With texts drawn from
such a broad span of time the research was by necessity historical in nature. An in-depth
qualitative study of these texts ensued using discourse analysis as a means of reviewing the
texts in detail across a range of elements, not limited to text alone. In using discourse
analysis on repeated viewing of the instructional material it was possible to identify a
number of opposing themes related to violin instruction which were present in the different
texts. These ideas were developed into two models named the Achievement Model and the
Recreational Model reflecting the general tenor of the instruction. The violin instructional
material was then examined again with reference to these two opposing models in order to
ascertain which model each text represented.
The analysis showed a clear delineation between the models, with some reflecting
the Achievement Model, some the Recreational Model, and others which exhibited mixed
characteristics rendering them Hybrid in nature. It became clear that there was a general
relationship between each model and the era of publication of sample texts. In the early
nineteenth century, the texts generally reflected the Recreational Model, from the mid-
nineteenth century the majority of the texts were Hybrid in nature, and in the twentieth and
twenty-first centuries the majority of the texts reflected the Achievement Model.
This finding was supported by a wide-ranging survey of socio-musical conditions

across the period under discussion. This survey helped illuminate a range of possible
factors that may have influenced the changes observed in the texts. The growth of more
formal music education; the influence of immigrants from Europe and Africa; technological
developments such as the phonograph and radio; the expansion of the railways; the
development of the symphonic tradition; the rise of new popular musics such as ragtime
and jazz; the professionalization of music; and the widening gap between ‘high’ and ‘low’
culture were all shown to be possible influences on the violin instructional texts and the
subsuming of the Recreational Model into the Achievement Model. More recent
234
developments, such as the Internet, DVDs and CDs, and the establishment of programs
such as New Horizons and chat groups such as BAVs, appear to offer opportunities to
engage or re-engage adults in violin playing. These developments, however, have not yet
countermanded the current dominance of the Achievement Model.
There are two important findings to emerge from this research, one that has
implications for consideration of contemporary violin instruction and one that has broader
implications. In terms of violin instruction, it has been shown that current violin
instructional methods focus on aspects of violin playing that prioritize the development of
technique and accuracy – the Achievement Model of playing. In broader terms, the deep
analysis and identification of themes has assisted in the definition of two opposing models,
the Achievement Model and the Recreational Model which potentially form an ‘instrument’
of analysis that may have relevance in the larger music education domain. Below, these two
basic findings are elaborated in relation to possible ways ahead for adult violin instruction,
possible ways ahead for music education generally, and the type of research that might
arise from practical developments in these two fields.
11.1 Ways Ahead for Adult Violin Instruction

Between 1800 and the present day changes occurred in violin instructional material
and how violin learning was viewed, which has had the effect of disenfranchising the adult
beginning violin student. From the early nineteenth century when the Achievement and
Recreational Models co-existed we have arrived in the twenty-first century where the
Achievement Model is dominant. Current teaching is reflective of Achievement objectives,
despite recent developments which can be viewed as helping to engage or re-engage adults
with violin playing. The focus on technique and high level playing coupled with the
professionalization of music making and the lack of opportunities for social playing, have
all contributed to the current social attitude that makes the learning of the violin by adults
an uncommon occurrence.
For those adults who do begin to learn the violin, the Achievement route is the most
obvious and well-trod path. In the US, the growth of the symphonic tradition, European-
style pedagogy, the view that beginning the violin as a child is necessary in order to play
European art music and the development of materials for that market have all combined to
bring violin instruction to its current Achievement focus. In countries such as England,
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Australia and Canada the Achievement route is characterized through systems of musical
exams which stress Achievement objectives. While participating in the exam system is not
mandatory, adults may well end up on this route, or be influenced by its values.
As was shown, there are recent initiatives that seem to be designed to encourage
adults to play the violin, for example the New Horizons program and the establishment of
chat groups such as BAVs. However, the social conditions are no longer as conducive to
less Achievement-driven opportunities due to the many changes that have occurred in
music making over the last 100 years.
Given the reputation that the violin now enjoys as a ‘difficult’ instrument used most
commonly for serious orchestral repertoire; given the popular prejudice that beginning
violin students, whatever their age, do not make pleasant sounds; and given, too, the
cultural changes that have seen the removal of many social playing opportunities for such
players, one might well ask why does it matter if adults don’t, in fact, learn to play the
violin in greater numbers? Alternatively, one might ask why should they not? Internet
groups like BAVS indicate that there is an interest that might have remained hidden without
these methods of communication. Perhaps there are more who could be interested, given
suitable, adult-directed opportunities, a possibility given weight by the burgeoning New
Horizons movement. The economic possibilities for violin teachers who enthusiastically
embrace the idea of sharing music making with the ever growing group of senior citizens
with time and money to spend should also be considered. And one might also ask: must the
violin be seen as a difficult, unpleasant sounding instrument for the beginner? Certainly, if
teachers are to provide more successfully for adult violinists their unique goals and needs
could be more effectively accommodated.
The question becomes then what can be done in order to help adults become more
engaged with the violin? Three basic suggestions can be made. First, consideration should
be given to the development of an approach based on the Recreational Model as an
alternative to the currently dominant Achievement-driven approach. Secondly, a
Recreational Model approach should be disseminated to teachers of violin to encourage a
dialogue about violin teaching practices. Thirdly, more research needs to be undertaken into
modes of adult engagement in violin study and playing.
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Attempting to repackage Recreational Model precepts for a modern audience is not
without problems, both in terms of teachers and students as well as prevailing social
conditions that bear little resemblance to those that gave rise to the nineteenth century
Recreational Model. Indeed, as was shown, it is changing, modern social conditions that
saw the slow demise of this alternative model of violin instruction. However, there are
some Recreational Model characteristics which can be incorporated by teachers, for
example ideas like choice and ‘music for playing’.
Providing more choice in the learning process, particularly for adults, seems so
obvious as to be what, in colloquial terms, is called a ‘no-brainer’. The fact that choice
needs to be mentioned as an option is an indication of just how deeply embedded the idea
of ‘teacher knows best’ is in music education, whatever the age of the student. Allowing
adults to choose repertoire they would like to play, with due account given to issues of
simplicity and ease, seems an eminently logical way of promoting self-directed learning, a
feature of andragogy in other disciplines (Meyer, 1977; Knowles, 1977; Merriam, 2001a).
Choice of repertoire would direct when and what technical work is required, incorporating
Price’s (2008) idea of ‘just in time’ learning. Students could also have choice in how they
learn a piece, whether by conventional musical notation, rote, or alternative notation.
The related idea of ‘music for playing’ can also be easily incorporated: the music
would not be purpose-designed to improve or develop technical skills. On the contrary, the
repertoire could be designed for the ease of playing and the lack of development of skills.
Perhaps such an approach would help answer the problem of the quality and listenability of
the playing. The current approach to improving early tone quality usually involves playing
numerous exercises on the open strings of the instrument before the student is given a
melody; the implication being that they cannot or should not play a tune until they sound
‘good’. One could argue however, that tone production issues could just as easily be
overcome by playing simple tunes which would be more enjoyable for the adult learner in
addition to helping them build their range of repertoire.
Teachers could focus on what they consider to be the simplest ways in which new
violin players can play ‘real’ music and provide numerous examples at this simple, straight
forward level. Adults playing for non-professional or recreational purposes would have the
choice of playing, in essence, non-progressive repertoire on an on-going basis if this idea
appealed to them. An obvious outcome of this idea is that it would be difficult to prevent
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improvement from occurring, even if only at a relatively basic level of development. Indeed
part of the ‘development’ for the adult could be in the realm of style and genre, with a
variety of repertoire including folk tunes, jazz standards, songs from the 1920s to the
present, classical melodies etc.
The above characteristics could not only be incorporated by teachers but could also
be included in texts, specifically written for adult beginners, based on a Recreational
approach. In addition, these texts would be not only adult in language, manner of
instruction, and include appropriate repertoire, but could be focused specifically on the
amateur player rather than a professional or potential professional. It may well be that the
production of such texts would hasten consideration, by teachers of an alternative approach.
Certainly texts need to be marketable in our current market-driven economy but alternative
means of dissemination of materials could include cheaper avenues such as the Internet.
Another difficulty in developing a modern Recreational Model approach is that the

socio-cultural conditions of today no longer provide the same avenues for social playing
that were present in the early nineteenth century. As was noted, Sloboda (1999) suggests
that societal scaffolding no longer provides a comprehensive series of levels for all kinds of
players. The authors/publishers of early nineteenth century instructional texts assumed a
wide variety of possible playing opportunities embedded in the culture: players could play
for dancing, for/with friends and family, and ensemble playing might spontaneously occur
as part of normal social activities.
In very recent times, there have been positive trends in the direction of re-
establishing these ‘missing links’ in the scaffolding, a trend which teacher and institutions
should encourage in their own interests, as well as that of potential students. West’s (2007)
work has shown one example of a recreation of societal music making that is not designed
for expert performance outcomes nor for one-off community engagement that has little on-
going benefit. Artificial creation of such opportunities does not have to be sterile or
impractical but can develop its own momentum over time. Institutions such as community
music schools, conservatoriums or universities, along with private teachers could establish
a variety of groups for adult violinists, both beginners and more experienced players, which
are taught in an adult manner and focus on playing a variety of non-orchestral music with
no specific expectation of performance. Such initiatives may, as with West’s initiative,
develop a community following that sees the very adults who felt disengaged from music,
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take over and help others engage. Likewise, intermediate and experienced players whose
intent is to encourage engagement may contribute to a growing culture of players at all
sorts of levels that becomes self sustaining. Our tertiary institutions could certainly show
more leadership in this domain, with the possibility of pragmatic outcomes in terms of a
wider student body as well as potential research and development.
What might a practical model look like? Rather than simply concentrating on elite
performance and/or educational outcomes, tertiary music institutions could embrace the
adult amateur violinist and establish programs specifically for them. They could offer
instruction for adults in both individual and group situations, and in addition offer a variety
of social playing opportunities in the form of small ensembles. If programs were
established at multiple universities and conservatoriums, social playing opportunities could
occur between institutions thereby widening the adult student’s circle of ‘musical friends’
which would both validate and encourage their decision to learn the violin, thus resulting in
continued engagement. Tertiary institutions, having established their own adult violin
programs might offer training in a Recreational approach to interested teachers and
potential teachers, expanding the employment opportunities for those teachers in the
community domain. Both violin performance majors and music education majors may
benefit from a broader attitude towards violin playing. Of course there are amateur groups
for adults in most major cities but these groups tend to be for adults who have learned as
children and generally focus largely on performance outcomes.
Another program idea would be to set up an intergenerational group that puts adult
beginners and children together. Many tertiary institutions have pre-tertiary programs and
an intergenerational group would be a way to bring their adult students together with their
younger students. The group could also include children and adults from other institutions
such as conservatoriums and music schools. Children and adults could learn and/or
rehearse separately and also rehearse and/or learn together. The adults and children would
not only be making music together but would also be helping each other learn and engage
with music. Band programs that combine and make use of relationships between children
and adults exist in the US, but this idea has not been developed to its fullest extent possible,
nor has it been extensively applied to string instruments.
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11.2 Ways Ahead for Music Teaching in General
The development of the two opposing models showing diametrically opposed pairs
relating to various aspects of violin playing may be helpful in the future not only for violin
teachers but also for music education in general. They form a potential ‘instrument’ for
examining content of materials but also attitudes of teachers to what and how they teach.
The way in which the models can be used to examine violin materials has been
amply demonstrated in this study. The models can also provide an objective way for violin
teachers to view their teaching practices, consider where these practices originated, and
deepen the thought processes associated with these practices, leading to a potential to
expand, develop and/or change. However, the models have been designed in such a way
that they are not necessarily exclusive to violin instruction or teaching. They could also be
used by teachers of different instruments.
While this thesis has been involved with adult beginners, the idea of two models of
music education for adults may well have some thought-provoking ideas to consider with
regard to our approach to children and their music education. In the face of increasing
demands for good quality music education, coupled with the problems of the ‘over-
crowded’ curriculum the models might have a wider application as a tool to examine music
education curricula of school systems and States. To what extent do these curricula
prioritize Achievement goals and Recreational goals? The Achievement/Recreational
contrast may provide a framework within which to consider the many issues related to
school-based music. Perhaps a more Recreationally focused curriculum does not have to be
out-of-step with the general aims of academic learning in general and school-based music
achievement in particular. More research would obviously need to be undertaken in this
regard, which leads us to a consideration of the many research possibilities for the future.
11.3 The Future

It is one thing to suggest that our current methods of approaching violin teaching are
biased in one direction – towards Achievement – and another to provide evidence that a
different approach based on Recreational Model characteristics might be beneficial in a
range of ways. As was shown, much current research in music education is also biased in
the direction of Achievement goals: the detailed work, for example, done by researchers
such as McPherson in Australia, who has looked at the relationship between achievement
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and continued engagement across several school years [see Chapter Three, 3.2]. If there is
an argument to suggest that the re-creation of a Recreational Model might be beneficial, at
least to adult learners, how might teachers go about combining programs like those
suggested above with evidence-based research?
A strong feature of the Recreational Model is the idea of choice: in this model,
various options are provided that allow the adult to develop his/her own pathways forward.
This feature would be a good starting point both to trial practical programs and evaluate
their efficacy. By trialing a Recreational approach with a small group of adult violin
beginners data might be generated that could be used more widely in the field of violin and
then, potentially, in other areas of music education.
Another fruitful avenue of research would be to explore ways in which playing

opportunities can be generated for adult players that mimic earlier conditions, while also
having some sort of potential for sustainability away from formal learning structures.
Bearing in mind the related ideas of choice and self-directed learning, adults may well
become active and enthusiastic partners in developing ideas and testing them out. Perhaps
the developing players could, themselves, develop ‘scaffolding’ not only for their own
musical lives but for those of others. Another avenue for providing social networks for
playing could involve the use of the technology that saw the demise of some of these
networks through websites and databases.
It was shown that past Recreational practices included the idea of individuals
playing together with different levels of skill, the more skilled helping the less skilled, a
feature of more participatory music cultures (Turino, 2008). Our culture tends to ‘grade’
players on the Achievement hierarchy and place together those at the same level. In a
Recreational framework, perhaps this general ‘rule’ could not only be altered but more
explicit ways could be considered of encouraging the more skilled to help the less skilled.
Certainly in terms of school based singing, West’s model, working in just this way, is
proving successful in increasing engagement and skill levels of both students and teachers.
These types of projects would be useful in the violin arena but could conceivably trialed
more broadly.
Obviously I am focusing on ways of developing the Recreational Model

characteristics, on the basis that the Achievement Model still exists strongly. The idea of
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comparing the characteristics of each and the outcomes that ensue would be another
interesting area of research, if somewhat more problematic to create. Two groups, each
taught according to a ‘classic’ model on one side or the other could be compared in terms
of skill development and engagement over time. Perhaps part of the idea of choice
embedded in the Recreational Model includes the notion that students need a choice to
follow more Achievement Model goals, like exams, when and if they wish.
Given the possible concerns about the quality of sound beginner violinists make,
research based on consideration of this issue would be useful. While we might have
difficulty considering a ‘pure’ Recreational Model approach with children (who might
therefore have their musical future affected by lack of technical development) we need not
have the same concerns with adults. Trialing a ‘non-developmental’ approach, as suggested
above, could be evaluated not just from the point of view of the players, but from the
musical point of view. Is it possible to help a group of adults play at a simple level with an
adequate tone quality? How much technique is actually required, outside of playing pieces,
in order to develop finger facility and accurate intonation? A range of questions along these
lines would be worthy of exploration.
One of the reasons I began this study some years ago was because I had had
problems locating suitable, published materials for my adult students. Clearly, the
development of more materials for adults, whether Achievement or Recreation-based, is a
possibility and may be related to the research outlined above. From the Recreational point
of view, providing choices in a modern context might include the option for self-instruction
as well as use with a teacher; a format that did not rely on step-by-step progression and a
variety of tunes of many styles of music which could be written in both traditional and non-
traditional notation. Repertoire could be chosen with regard to what adults may wish to
play and what might be useful to them in a social situation rather than what will help them
improve. A CD could be included to provide the adult student with help in learning
unfamiliar tunes, rather than relying on the development of reading skills alone. Tunes
could include not only chord indications for instruments such as the guitar to provide
accompaniment, but also duet parts that could be suitable for various instruments such as
flute or cello. Materials could also be subject to on-going evaluation to determine how well
they were meeting the needs of the target audience.
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The future should also include the development of a variety of musical
arrangements for adults to use in social music making. One of the problems with social
music making opportunities today is that they are mostly orchestral in nature, often with the
expectation of a high level of competency on the part of the players. These community
orchestras program and perform major classical repertoire which is difficult and the
outcomes are often less than optimal. Developing arrangements for both large and small
adult ensembles, for mixed or like instruments, which are designed to help amateur
ensembles of mixed abilities sound good should be a priority. Including aspects of simple
improvisation and playing by ear could be important aspects to encourage players to play
together even where suitable music does not yet exist.
As an ‘instrument’ it would be instructive to see whether the application of the

Achievement/Recreation dichotomy is useful in determining features of other instrumental
approaches, especially for adults but perhaps also for children. For example, while the
Suzuki approach is based on the idea of fun and enjoyment as well as achievement, does
this particular instrument have anything to say about the relative weighting of these
elements in the instructional texts, compared to written comment about the program? The
Recreational/Achievement ‘instrument’ might help us consider the relationship between our
‘walk’ and our ‘talk’ more closely. It would also be useful to ascertain if this delineation
was exclusive to America or whether the same changes in instruction occurred in other
countries such as Australia and England.
Finally, as alluded to above, a more serious look at our instructional processes with
children could arise from these models. There is no real reason why the Recreational
approach could not also be trialed with children other than our current preoccupation with
the child’s musical future. We appear to struggle with ideas that might radically alter the
child’s progress especially if it may affect technical progress (i.e. achievement). It is not
just that the Recreational approach could be viewed as sacrificing Achievement for
enjoyment; rather that some may not expect that enjoyment or, indeed, any outcome will
accrue from such an approach. Finding families who are willing to engage with an
alternative, radical approach would be central to ascertaining whether such an approach can
offer a real alternative to the current single-minded focus.
It is hoped that this thesis and the research that will arise from it will help to provide
adults beginning the violin, teachers, and those adults learning other instruments, with a
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different view of music learning that will ultimately both encourage and sustain recreational
amateur music making.
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A MODEL VIEW:

ACHIEVEMENT, RECREATION AND ADULT BEGINNING

A thesis submitted in fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Australian National University

From the seventeenth century through a portion of the nineteenth century, it is

With thanks and gratitude to those friends who have helped me on my

Dr. Susan West (Supervisor)

SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1

Regardless of the focus on children in music education, there is a significant amount

While the development of music education is of great importance, the range of

SECTION ONE: Introduction

SECTION TWO: Analysis of the Texts

SECTION THREE: Parallels in Cultural, Education and Social Sources.

Chapter 1, Setting the Stage, discusses my background. This chapter is necessarily

Chapter 4, Description of the Models, describes the characteristics of the two

SECTION THREE contains an overview of socio-educational-musical life in

These chapters offer a chronological summary of relevant events and sociological

Through working with these students, I began to question my teaching practices.

2.2 Qualitative Research

Looking at the phenomena in a broad context is another aspect of qualitative

2.3 The Importance of the Texts

An in-depth study of this ‘entry level’ adult violin instructional material is

2.4 The Search for Texts

1. An initial search which uncovered a body of material currently available

2. A search for historical texts based on listings by Pulver (1923/24) and

3. The uncovering of texts as a result of secondary research on other factors

2.5 Discourse Analysis

A text is commonly thought of as consisting of written or printed words on a page; but a

2.6 Historical Research

past-oriented research which seeks to illuminate a question of current interest by an

Historical research, some writers argue, can be applied to questions of education

the testimony of an eyewitness, or of a witness by any other of the senses, or of a

Discussion of violin instructional books as ‘texts’, should not be confused in this

2.7 Literature Review

• In Section One, Chapter Three: Contemporary Music Education, adults

• In Section Two: Literature relating specifically to the texts and their

2.8 The Development of Models

2.9 Scope of the Thesis

2.10 Researcher Perspective

My desire is to make this discussion accessible to and understandable by the

3.2 Music Education

Generally speaking, the goals of children’s instructional material focus on

This focus on technique is seen as problematic by some writers (Schafer, 1973;

In setting standards of technical proficiency that non-professionals cannot begin to

Wright (1998, p.75), in discussion of a holistic view of music education says:

This development notwithstanding, it is clear that music education is not yet

Adults beginning or returning to music making are unlikely to have a professional

Intent is described as being of ‘central importance’ in this new paradigm:

Identity is described by West (2007) as ‘the development of an individual musical

West’s paradigm is designed to build on the enthusiasm of the learner to encourage

3.3 Music Learning and Adults

Two contrasting messages are conveyed by these different writers’ opinions.

literacy programs, vocational training, rural education, cooperative extension, university

Adult learning theorists consider adult learning to be andragogy. Knowles (1977,

3.4 Adult Piano Instruction

On the negative side, perfectionism renders many adults severely unforgiving of

Adults, as a general rule, do not seek to learn an instrument as a profession. Neither

3.5 Adults and the Violin

While Kuutti’s approach may be seen as fairly typical in organization of the

Deverich (1990) chose to develop a framework of distance education for adult

Rosenthal (1986) developed a comprehensive curriculum for adult amateur string

The forthcoming in-depth analysis notwithstanding, one major impression one