Deductive reasoning, also known as deduction, is a basic form of reasoning.

It starts out
with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific,
logical conclusion. In deductive reasoning there is a first premise, then a second premise and
finally an inference (a conclusion based on reasoning and evidence). A common form of
deductive reasoning is the syllogism, in which two statements — a major premise and a
minor premise — together reach a logical conclusion.

For example, "All spiders have eight legs. A tarantula is a spider. Therefore, tarantulas have
eight legs."
For deductive reasoning to be sound, the hypothesis must be correct. It is assumed that the
statements, "All spiders have eight legs" and "a tarantula is a spider" are true. Therefore, the
conclusion is logical and true. In deductive reasoning, if something is true of a class of things
in general, it is also true for all members of that class.

Inductive Reasoning
While deductive reasoning begins with a premise that is proven through observations,
inductive reasoning extracts a likely (but not certain) premise from specific and limited
observations. There is data, and then conclusions are drawn from the data; this is called
inductive logic. In short, we proceed from specific truth to general truth in Inductive
reasoning

For Example: "A tarantula is a spider. Tarantulas have eight legs. Therefore, all spiders have
eight legs. "

Data: I see fireflies in my backyard every summer.

Hypothesis: This summer, I will probably see fireflies in my backyard.
Data: I tend to catch colds when people around me are sick.
Hypothesis: Colds are infectious.
Data: Every dog I meet is friendly.
Hypothesis: Most dogs are usually friendly.

Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument.
Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified
because they lack evidence that supports their claim. Avoid these common fallacies in your
own arguments and watch for them in the arguments of others.

Slippery Slope: This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually
through a series of small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating
A and Z. So, if we don't want Z to occur, A must not be allowed to occur either. Example:
If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment eventually the government will
ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers.

In this example, the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all cars, which is not
the same thing.

Hasty Generalization: This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other

words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Example:

Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.

In this example, the author is basing his evaluation of the entire course on only the first day,
which is notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for most courses. To make a fair
and reasonable evaluation the author must attend not one but several classes, and possibly
even examine the textbook, talk to the professor, or talk to others who have previously
finished the course in order to have sufficient evidence to base a conclusion on.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc/Causal Fallacy: This is a conclusion that assumes that if 'A'
occurred after 'B' then 'B' must have caused 'A.' Example:

I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick.

In this example, the author assumes that if one event chronologically follows another the first
event must have caused the second. But the illness could have been caused by the burrito the
night before, a flu bug that had been working on the body for days, or a chemical spill across
campus. There is no reason, without more evidence, to assume the water caused the person to
be sick.

Genetic Fallacy: This conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea,
institute, or theory determine its character, nature, or worth. Example:

The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler's army.

In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the character of the people
who built the car. However, the two are not inherently related.

Begging the Claim: The conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the
claim. Example:

Filthy and polluting coal should be banned.

Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should be banned would be logical. But the very
conclusion that should be proved, that coal causes enough pollution to warrant banning its
use, is already assumed in the claim by referring to it as "filthy and polluting."

Circular Argument: This restates the argument rather than actually proving it. Example:

George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.

In this example, the conclusion that Bush is a "good communicator" and the evidence used to
prove it "he speaks effectively" are basically the same idea. Specific evidence such as using
everyday language, breaking down complex problems, or illustrating his points with
humorous stories would be needed to prove either half of the sentence.

Either/or: This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only two
sides or choices. Example:

We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.

In this example, the two choices are presented as the only options, yet the author ignores a
range of choices in between such as developing cleaner technology, car-sharing systems for
necessities and emergencies, or better community planning to discourage daily driving.

Ad hominem: This is an attack on the character of a person rather than his or her opinions or
arguments. Example:

Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies.

In this example, the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green Peace has
suggested, much less evaluate those strategies on their merits. Instead, the author attacks the
characters of the individuals in the group.

Ad populum/Bandwagon Appeal: This is an appeal that presents what most people, or a

group of people think, in order to persuade one to think the same way. Getting on the
bandwagon is one such instance of an ad populum appeal.

Example:

If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever
vehicle they want.
In this example, the author equates being a "true American," a concept that people want to be
associated with, particularly in a time of war, with allowing people to buy any vehicle they
want even though there is no inherent connection between the two.

Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding
opposing arguments rather than addressing them. Example:

The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their
families?

In this example, the author switches the discussion away from the safety of the food and talks
instead about an economic issue, the livelihood of those catching fish. While one issue may
affect the other it does not mean we should ignore possible safety issues because of possible
economic consequences to a few individuals.

Straw Man: This move oversimplifies an opponent's viewpoint and then attacks that hollow
argument.

People who don't support the proposed state minimum wage increase hate the poor.

In this example, the author attributes the worst possible motive to an opponent's position. In
reality, however, the opposition probably has more complex and sympathetic arguments to
support their point. By not addressing those arguments, the author is not treating the
opposition with respect or refuting their position.

Moral Equivalence: This fallacy compares minor misdeeds with major atrocities, suggesting
that both are equally immoral.

That parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as bad as Hitler.

In this example, the author is comparing the relatively harmless actions of a person doing
their job with the horrific actions of Hitler. This comparison is unfair and inaccurate.