QUARTER 3 MODULE 2C: WRITING TECHNIQUES (ARGUMENTATIVE)

Argumentative Essay Formats:

The Toulmin model – begins with an introduction, follows with a thesis/claim, and gives data and evidence to support
that claim. This style of essay also includes rebuttals of counterarguments.

The Rogerian model – analyzes two sides of an argument and reaches a conclusion after weighing the strengths and
weaknesses of both sides.

Problem, Opposing View, Validation of Opposition, Your Position, Validation of Your Position, Benefits of Your Position

There are 6 Strategies in Writing Arguments

1.Distinguishing Argumentation from Persuasion - argumentation relies on logic and evidence while persuasion appeals
to readers’ emotions

2. Forming an Opinion Statement - an effective argument starts with a clear opinion statement, also known as a claim or
proposition.

Use this simple formula to craft your opinion statement. Remember that the statement will serve as the thesis for your
writing.

Debatable Topic (Who or what am I writing about?)

+ Focus (What specific feeling or belief do I have about my topic?)
_________________________________
= Opinion Statement

Opinion statements fall into three categories: statements of truth, statements of value, and statements of policy.

 Statements of truth claim that something is or is not the case.

Despite what you might think, most hunters (topic) are friends of the environment (focus).

 Statements of value claim that something does or does not have worth.

Podcasts (topic) have become the media of consequence in the 21st century (focus).

 Statements of policy claim that something should or should not be done.

What we need most of all isn't mourning but action (focus) to lower the toll of guns in America (topic).

3. Appealing to the Audience

Aristotle outlined three types of rhetorical appeals. The first two work best in argumentation and the third in persuasion.

 appeal to logos means providing clear thinking and solid reasoning to support claims (using logic).
  appeal to ethos means building trust by citing reputable sources, providing factual evidence, and fairly
presenting the issue (using ethics).
 appeal to pathos means persuading by connecting to readers’ emotions (tugging "heartstrings").

4. Connecting with Anecdotes

An anecdote is a brief story used to make a larger point. Anecdotes can add a storytelling touch to your explanatory and
persuasive writing—connecting your ideas to real life and real people.

Beginning: To Introduce a Topic

In the ocean, two hungry dolphins pick up speed when they spot a school of flying fish. Sensing danger, the fish dart
ahead. Soon they are cruising through the deep blue water at 20 miles an hour. As the dolphins get closer, the flying fish
break through the surface, spread their fins like wings, and take off. Amateur explorers have called them “dragonflies of
the deep” but flying fish are most definitely fish.

Middle: To Support an Idea

The bleachers in the gym are unsafe. Some of the boards are cracked, which makes them hard to navigate. Just last a
week, a student was walking up the bleachers when she tripped on a crack, spilled her popcorn, and banged her wrists .
She wasn't seriously hurt, but the next person who trips on the bleachers might not be so lucky.

Ending: To Make a Final Point

On the third turn of the 111th lap at Bellville Speedway, racer Keith Sweat lost control of his vehicle and slammed into a
new shock-absorbant wall. After a caution flag cleared the track, Sweat unbuckled his new head and neck braces and
walked out of his mangled race car without so much as a scratch or limp. At least for today, the new mandatory safety
measures triggered by a year-old tragedy fulfilled their promise: to keep drivers safe.

5. Answering Objections
Arguments lose steam key opposing ideas are ignored. Addressing readers' disagreements does not weaken
arguments, but in fact strengthens it.
There two ways to respond to opposing points of view.
Counterarguments point out a flaw or weakness in the objection (without belittling the person who is objecting).
Concessions admit the value of an opposing viewpoint, but quickly pivot back to the writer's side of the argument.

6. Avoiding Logical Fallacies

Logical fallacies are forms of "fuzzy thinking" that some people accidently use (weakening their arguments) and
others intentionally use (manipulating others)
Ad hominem attacks focus on the opponent rather than the opposing position. (Ad hominem is Latin for ―to
the man.)
If he wants anyone to consider his proposal, he should stop whining and try brushing his teeth occasionally.

Appeals to ignorance suggest that something is true until it has been disproven, unfairly shifting the burden of
proof.
No one has studied how aspartame relates to the modern epidemic of autism, which demonstrates what a
dangerous substance it is.
Appeals to pity try to evoke sympathy for someone rather than taking a hard look at an issue based on its own
merits.
Students who have to work after school and then stay up late studying should never be marked tardy the next
day.

Gaslighting refers to confidently and repeatedly stating a falsehood until it is accepted as fact. It leads to
denialism and conspiracy theories.
The earth is flat. NASA routinely alters images to hide that fact.
Either-or thinking consists of reducing a solution to two extremes, eliminating every possibility in the middle.
Either our city approves this light-rail project, or we will never expand in the future.
Oversimplification presents a complex situation in deceptively simple terms. Beware of phrases like ―It all boils
down to . . . ‖ or ―It’s a simple question of . . . ‖
Capital punishment is a simple question of protecting society.
The straw man fallacy sets up a false position for the opposition and then knocks it down. (It defeats a straw
opponent rather than a real one).
The other candidate wants to destroy America. I want to save it.
Bandwagoning supports a position by saying that most people agree with it. This fallacy avoids the real
question: ―Is this position good or not?‖
Many top-level executives have left this company, so those who remain are obviously in the wrong.
Broad generalizations take in everything and everyone at once, allowing no exceptions and ignoring complexity.
 Millennials care more about their digital lives than about their actual lives.
Circular reasoning assumes the very point it is trying to prove.
Racism is bad because it is racist. (Racism is bad because it unjustly disadvantages people based on their race.)
Genetic fallacies assume that the origin of something dictates its modern reality.
Hitler built the first modern interstate highway system, which explains why freeways are so dangerous and
aggressive.
Half-truths present only part of the story. They are true and dishonest at the same time.
The new work-for-welfare bill is good because it requires recipients to work for the aid they receive. (What about
those who receive welfare because they are unable to work?)
Slanted language uses strongly positive or negative words to distract from valid arguments.
People in their right mind would never agree to anything so ridiculous.

Testimonials use quotations from famous people who often have no real expertise or experience in an area.

“As a doctor on Grey’s Anatomy, I’ve treated many colds, and—believe me—no cold medicine works as quickly or
as effectively as Temptrol.”