Accidental Scientists

A A paradox lies close to the heart of scientific discovery. If you know just what you are looking
for, finding it can hardly count as a discovery, since it was fully anticipated. But if, on the other
hand, you have no notion of what you are looking for, you cannot know when you have found it,
and discovery, as such, is out of the question. In the philosophy of science, these extremes map
onto the purist forms of deductivism and inductivism: In the former, the outcome is supposed to
be logically contained in the premises you start with; in the latter, you are recommended to start
with no expectations whatsoever and see what turns up.

B As in so many things, the ideal position is widely supposed to reside somewhere in between
these two impossible-to-realise extremes. You want to have a good enough idea of what you are
looking for to be surprised when you find something else of value, and you want to be ignorant
enough of your end point that you can entertain alternative outcomes. Scientific discovery should,
therefore, have an accidental aspect, but not too much of one. Serendipity is a word that expresses
a position something like that. It’s a fascinating word, and the late Robert King Merton—“the
father of the sociology of science”—liked it well enough to compose its biography, assisted by
the French cultural historian Elinor Barber.

C The word did not appear in the published literature until the early 19th century and did not
become well enough known to use without explanation until sometime in the first third of the
20th century. Serendipity means a “happy accident” or “pleasant surprise”, specifically, the
accident of finding something good or useful without looking for it. The first noted use of
“serendipity” in the English language was by Horace Walpole. He explained that it came from the
fairy tale, called The Three Princes of Serendip (the ancient name for Ceylon, or present day Sri
Lanka), whose heroes “were always making discoveries, by accidents and sagacity, of things
which they were not in quest of’.

D Antiquarians, following Walpole, found use for it, as they were always rummaging about for
curiosities, and unexpected but pleasant surprises were not unknown to them. Some people just
seemed to have a knack for that sort of thing, and serendipity was used to express that special
capacity. The other community that came to dwell on serendipity to say something important
about their practice was that of scientists, and here usages cut to the heart of the matter and were
often vigorously contested. Many scientists, including the Flarvard physiologist Walter Cannon
and, later, the British immunologist Peter Medawar, liked to emphasise how much of scientific
discovery was unplanned and even accidental. One of the examples is Hans Christian Orsted’s
discovery of electromagnetism when he unintentionally brought a current-carrying wire parallel
to a magnetic needle. Rheto-ric about the sufficiency of rational method was so much hot air.
Indeed, as Medawar insisted, “There is no such thing as The Scientific Method,” no way at all of
systematis-ing the process of discovery. Really important discoveries had a way of showing up
when they had a mind to do so and not when you were looking for them. Maybe some scientists,
like some book collectors, had a happy knack; maybe serendipity described the situation rather
than a personal skill or capacity.

E Some scientists using the word meant to stress those accidents belonging to the situation; some
treated serendipity as a personal capacity; many others exploited the ambiguity of the notion. Yet
what Cannon and Medawar took as a benign nose-thumbing at Dreams of Method, other
scientists found incendiary. To say that science had a significant serendipitous aspect was taken
by some as dangerous denigration. If scientific discovery were really accidental, then what was
the special basis of expert authority? In this connection, the aphorism of choice came from no less
an authority on scientific discovery than Louis Pasteur: “Chance favors the prepared mind.”
Accidents may happen, and things may turn up unplanned and unforeseen, as one is looking for
something else, but the ability to notice such events, to see their potential bearing and meaning, to
exploit their occurrence and make constructive use of them—these are the results of systematic
mental preparation. What seems like an accident is just another form of expertise. On closer
inspection, it is insisted, accident dissolves into sagacity.

F The context in which scientific serendipity was most contested and had its greatest resonance
was that connected with the idea of planned science. The serendipitists were not all inhab-itants
of academic ivory towers. As Merton and Barber note, two of the great early-20th-century
American pioneers of industrial research—Willis Whitney and Irving Langmuir, both of General
Electric—made much play of serendipity, in the course of arguing against overly rigid research
planning. Langmuir thought that misconceptions about the certainty and ratio-nality of the
research process did much harm and that a mature acceptance of uncertainty was far more likely
to result in productive research policies. For his own part, Langmuir said that satisfactory
outcomes “occurred as though we were just drifting with the wind. These things came about by
accident.” If there is no very determinate relationship between cause and effect in research, he
said, “then planning does not get us very far.” So, from within the bowels of corporate capitalism
came powerful arguments, by way of serendipity, for scientific spontane-ity and autonomy. The
notion that industry was invariably committed to the regimentation of scientific research just
doesn’t wash.

G For Merton himself—who one supposes must have been the senior author-serendipity rep-
resented the keystone in the arch of his social scientific work. In 1936, as a very young man,
Merton wrote a seminal essay on “The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action.”
It is, he argued, the nature of social action that what one intends is rarely what one gets: Intending
to provide resources for buttressing Christian religion, the natural philoso-phers of the Scientific
Revolution laid the groundwork for secularism; people wanting to be alone with nature in
Yosemite Valley wind up crowding one another. We just don’t know enough—and we can never
know enough—to ensure that the past is an adequate guide to the future: Uncertainty about
outcomes, even of our best-laid plans, is endemic. All social action, including that undertaken
with the best evidence and formulated according to the most rational criteria, is uncertain in its
consequences.
Questions 1-6
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
Choose the most suitable heading for paragraphs A-G from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate
number, i-x, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i Examples of some scientific discoveries

ii Horace Walpole’s fairy tale

iii Resolving the contradiction

iv What is the Scientific Method

v The contradiction of views on scientific discovery

vi Some misunderstandings of serendipity

vii Opponents of authority

viii Reality doesn’t always match expectation

ix How the word came into being

x Illustration of serendipity in the business sector

1. Paragraph A

Example Answer

Paragraph B iii

2. Paragraph C

3. Paragraph D

4. Paragraph E

5. Paragraph F

6. Paragraph G
REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF FOOD
PROMOTION TO CHILDREN
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-7, which are based on Reading Passage 1 on the following
pages.

This review was commissioned by the Food Standards Agency to examine the current research evidence on:

• the extent and nature of food promotion to children

• the effect, if any, that this promotion has on their food knowledge, preferences and behaviour.

A Children’s food promotion is dominated by television advertising, and the great majority of this promotes
the so-called ‘Big Four’ of pre-sugared breakfast cereals, soft-drinks, confectionary and savoury snacks. In
the last ten years advertising for fast food outlets has rapidly increased. There is some evidence that the
dominance of television has recently begun to wane. The importance of strong, global branding reinforces a
need for multi-faceted communications combining television with merchandising, ‘tie-ins’ and point of sale
activity. The advertised diet contrasts sharply with that recommended by public health advisors, and themes of
fun and fantasy or taste, rather than health and nutrition, are used to promote it to children. Meanwhile, the
recommended diet gets little promotional support.
B There is plenty of evidence that children notice and enjoy food promotion. However, establishing whether
this actually influences them is a complex problem. The review tackled it by looking at studies that had
examined possible effects on what children know about food, their food preferences, their actual food
behaviour (both buying and eating), and their health outcomes (eg. obesity or cholesterol levels). The majority
of studies examined food advertising, but a few examined other forms of food promotion. In terms of
nutritional knowledge, food advertising seems to have little influence on children’s general perceptions of
what constitutes a healthy diet, but, in certain contexts, it does have an effect on more specific types of
nutritional knowledge. For example, seeing soft drink and cereal adverts reduced primary aged children’s
ability to determine correctly whether or not certain products contained real fruit.
C The review also found evidence that food promotion influences children’s food preferences and their
purchase behaviour. A study of primary school children, for instance, found that exposure to advertising
influenced which foods they claimed to like; and another showed that labelling and signage on a vending
machine had an effect on what was bought by secondary school pupils. A number of studies have also shown
that food advertising can influence what children eat. One, for example, showed that advertising influenced a
primary class’s choice of daily snack at playtime.
D The next step, of trying to establish whether or not a link exists between food promotion and diet or obesity,
is extremely difficult as it requires research to be done in real world settings. A number of studies
have attempted this by using amount of television viewing as a proxy for exposure to television advertising.
They have established a clear link between television viewing and diet, obesity, and cholesterol levels. It is
impossible to say, however, whether this effect is caused by the advertising, the sedentary nature of television
viewing or snacking that might take place whilst viewing. One study resolved this problem by taking a
detailed diary of children’s viewing habits. This showed that the more food adverts they saw, the more snacks
and calories they consumed.
E Thus the literature does suggest food promotion is influencing children’s diet in a number of ways. This
does not amount to proof; as noted above with this kind of research, incontrovertible proof simply isn’t
attainable. Nor do all studies point to this conclusion; several have not found an effect. In addition, very few
studies have attempted to measure how strong these effects are relative to other factors influencing children’s
food choices. Nonetheless, many studies have found clear effects and they have used sophisticated
methodologies that make it possible to determine that i) these effects are not just due to chance; ii) they are
independent of other factors that may influence diet, such as parents’ eating habits or attitudes; and iii) they
occur at a brand and category level.
F Furthermore, two factors suggest that these findings actually downplay the effect that food promotion has on
children. First, the literature focuses principally on television advertising; the cumulative effect of
this combined with other forms of promotion and marketing is likely to be significantly greater. Second, the
studies have looked at direct effects on individual children, and understate indirect influences. For
 example, promotion for fast food outlets may not only influence the child, but also encourage parents to take
them for meals and reinforce the idea that this is a normal and desirable behaviour.
G This does not amount to proof of an effect, but in our view does provide sufficient evidence to conclude that
an effect exists. The debate should now shift to what action is needed, and specifically to how the power
of commercial marketing can be used to bring about improvements in young people’s eating.

Questions 1-7
Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Choose the most suitable heading for paragraphs A-G from the list of headings below. Write the
ppropriate number, i-x, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i General points of agreements and disagreements of researchers

ii How much children really know about food

iii Need to take action

iv Advertising effects of the “Big Four”

v Connection of advertising and children’s weight problems

vi Evidence that advertising affects what children buy to eat

vii How parents influence children’s eating habits

viii Advertising’s focus on unhealthy options

ix Children often buy what they want

x Underestimating the effects advertising has on children

1. Paragraph A
2. Paragraph B
3. Paragraph C
4. Paragraph D
5. Paragraph E
6. Paragraph F
7. Paragraph G