Why do we express “Science as a Falsification”? Explain.

“We are in various ways hitting the limits of what will ever be
testable.”

As theory pulls further and further ahead of the capabilities of

experiment, physicists are taking this question seriously. “We are in various
ways hitting the limits of what will ever be testable, unless we have
misunderstood some essential point about the nature of reality,” says
theoretical cosmologist George Ellis. “We have now seen all the visible
universe and only gravitational waves remain to test further; and we are
approaching the limits of what particle colliders it will ever be feasible to
build, for economic and technical reasons.”

If a theory doesn’t make a testable prediction, it isn’t science. It’s a basic

axiom of the scientific method, dubbed “falsifiability” by the 20th century
philosopher of science Karl Popper. He believed that scientific knowledge is
provisional – the best we can do at the moment. Therefore, attempting to
refute the classical positivist account of the scientific method, by replacing
induction with the falsification principle. Moreover, The Falsification Principle
is a way of demarcating science from non-science. It suggests that for a
theory to be considered scientific it must be able to be tested and proven
false. Science should attempt to disprove a theory, rather than attempt to
continually support theoretical hypotheses. An example would be the
General relativity that passes the falsifiability test because, in addition to
elegantly accounting for previously-observed phenomena like the precession
of Mercury’s orbit, it also made predictions about as-yet-unseen effects—
how light should bend around the Sun, the way clocks should seem to run
slower in a strong gravitational field, and others that have since been borne
out by experiment. On the other hand, theories like Marxism and Freudian
psychoanalysis failed the falsifiability test—in Popper’s mind, at least—
because they could be twisted to explain nearly any “data” about the world.
As Wolfgang Pauli is said to have put it, skewering one student’s apparently
unfalsifiable idea, “This isn’t right. It’s not even wrong.

In conclusion, observations come from one point of view, and indeed is

colored by our understanding. The world appears to us in the context of
theories we already hold: it is 'theory-laden'. “We need to rethink these
issues in a philosophically sophisticated way that also takes the best
interpretations of fundamental science, and its limitations, seriously,” says
Ellis. “Maybe we have to accept uncertainty as a profound aspect of our
understanding of the universe in”. No matter how many observations are
made which confirm a theory there is always the possibility that a future
observation could refute it.  Induction cannot yield certainty. Additionally,
Science progresses when a theory is shown to be wrong and a new theory is
introduced which better explains the phenomena. It is a sad reality that
Science can help us progressively approach the truth but we can never be
certain that we have the final explanation. Thus, Science is falsifiable.

References
Becker, K. (2015, February 11). Does science need falsifiability? PBS: Public

Broadcasting

Service. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/falsifiability/

Karl Popper - Theory of falsification. (n.d.). Study Guides for Psychology

Students - Simply

Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Karl-Popper.html
How do social and human issues influence science?

Society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction

or a large social group of sharing the same spatial or social territory,
typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural
expectations. This called society is where social and human issues arise.
Whether it's starting from oneself to another, it all starts in the society. But
the main point is, how is it connected to science? How do these issues
influence science?

Science is a study of everything, living or non-living things, so it

comprises the whole human body and also one's thoughts and feelings.
Through the years, science improved so much it formed branches subdivided
by three which are: Formal Sciences, Natural Sciences and Social Sciences.
Formal Sciences focuses on the formal systems, such as those under the
branches of logic and mathematics. This includes Physical Sciences,
Chemical Sciences, Mathematics and Machine Sciences. The Natural Sciences
covers about natural phenomenon including cosmological, geological,
physical, chemical, and biological factors of the universe. Subdivided into
two main branches: Physical Science and Life Science (or Biological Science).
Social Sciences, on the other hand, is mainly about the human behavior in
its social and cultural aspects. These three scientific fields make up the
fundamental sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinary and applied
sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines
that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific
disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertise. Among
the three scientific fields, natural and social sciences are empirical sciences
which means that the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena
and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under
the same conditions. This verifiability may well vary even within a scientific
discipline. Knowing about these branches of science we can now clearly point
out its relativity to social and human issues. Social issues are the problems
that influences many citizens within a society. It is a common problem in
present-day society and one that many people strive to solve. It is often the
consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's control. While
human issues are problems that human beings (men and women) must take
care of and solve. Social and human issues often provide the impetus for
scientific researches. They influence science in the sense that they prompt
scientific studies aimed at solving them. Societal challenges often inspire
questions for scientific research and social priorities often influence research
priorities through the availability of funding for research.

Science continues to widen its range with the help of these social and
health issues. With new issues that is needed to be solved, new researches
and experiments appear. The more advanced science is, the more
complicated and complex the problems are recognized. As long as there's
issues and problems in our environment, there's science which leads to
unending scientific research.

References

How do social and human issues influence science? - Quora. (n.d.). A place

to share knowledge and better understand the

world. https://www.quora.com/How-do-social-and-human-issues-

influence-science?

fbclid=IwAR2XcVoU8_2QWJghQmEMegsKmggTy_Iq90wy6iPbIHp3B81

T38uTIFGqgKU
Science NetLinks. (n.d.). Science

NetLinks. https://sciencenetlinks.com/resources/standards/205/290?

model=resources.Tool&fbclid=IwAR3TqIFohSHqEp25SW3gT-

aOxxaLtUgyZy3pA1QIfqfT4OEe1DRsTlOpe9Y
Describe the historical development of science education in the Philippines.

Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge

in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. It is
a subject that most students have interest on, especially in astronomy. They
are amazed by the vast universe and the things that we cannot see by our
naked eyes. But did you know that this wonderful science that we have is
not a priority before? That this interesting field of science which we have
now is abolished a year after it is introduced?

In the year of 1901, a systematic public school system was organized

and introduced by the United States here in the Philippines. After 3 years of
having this systematic system, science was introduced by the Americans
under the subject matter, nature study, but abolished a year after to give
more time to language arts. They give more time to language arts for it is an
important issue to the United States colonial government since it allowed
cultural values, particularly the English language, to the Filipino people.
Again, in the year of 1935, science was introduced that is focused on nature
and health. As early as decade of the 1950s, the importance of science to
development was only recognized by leading scientists. It is said that the
scientists were concerned with the state of science education in the schools,
so they made the Philippine authorities aware that the teaching of science
from grade school level to college levels in both public and private schools
was very inadequate. The Philippine Association for the Advance of Science
is an annual conference which focuses on the training of science teachers
and teaching of science. It also called the importance of the growth of
science consciousness in the general population and the need to remedy the
shortage of scientist in the country. In the next 7 years, the Philippine
government made the teaching of science compulsory in all elementary and
secondary schools. During this year, science officially became a part of the
curriculum from gr 1 to 6. In 1960s, science textbooks were printed and
distributed by United States Operations Mission National Economic Council
(USOM-NEC) Project for the students. The first generation of these textbooks
were developed by the UP Science Teaching Center. During this project
educators from US, UK, Germany and Australia were consulted. Also, this
year, a group of biological educators at the University of Philippines
organized themselves into a team to adapt the Biological Science Curriculum
Study (BSCS) Green Version introduce to students to the living world and
sought to provide him with biological information as may be necessary and
useful as he lives his life. The government made the Republic Act 5506
which is an act establishing Science Education Center (SEC) as a permanent
unit of the University of the Philippines. This act earn marked 250,000 pesos
annual from the national special science fund for the support of the center
that proves that the government supports science. We even have the
government agency, Department of Science and Technology (DOST), that
specifically responsible for the coordination of science and technology-
related projects in the Philippines and to formulate policies and projects in
the fields of science and technology in support of national development.

As years go by, science improved, and still improves. There's new

invention, new discovery and also theories that is still needed to be proved
everyday because that's science. It's all about trial and error, and as the
coverage of science expands, the idea and thought of the people about it
multiply which leads to more researches. Science continue and still continues
to widens its coverage to everyone around the globe making it more
interesting and exciting to engage with. And with more people that is
enchanted with it, it'll continue to develop day by day and there's no way of
stopping it.
 References

Science education in the Philippine society. (n.d.).

prezi.com. https://prezi.com/uofzaimiiqic/science-education-in-the-

philippine-society/?fbclid=IwAR3-

7wNofFl8ofNr5LK1BkgD_sNtq0cBoH9F9x69sNicuhicPKjVhgI9x0M

Science education in the Philippines 1960s. (2015, February 7). Share and

Discover Knowledge on

SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/LynAgustin/science-

education-in-the-philippines-1960s?

fbclid=IwAR3yeGSfIJmFtzUME4BlidPkHBJXtWjDo1wHynwwX3wBaxjs0

ngE_qKre9M

Science education in the Philippines. (2017, November 26). Share and

Discover Knowledge on

SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/iPagador/science-education-

in-the-philippines?

fbclid=IwAR0W7sd3snY5176xIyujBXFMeWhejPELPLidjkPLy1wEOqNKyl

zK3KiexGo
How did religion influence the development of science?

According to the Merriam Webster, Religion is a cause, principle, or

system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith. Religion defined by the Oxford
Languages is the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power,
especially a personal God or Gods, while Science is the intellectual and
practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and
behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and
experiment.
Almost everyone has a religion in which they belong to or classify
themselves, these two having such great influence on humans have helped
shape on who we are right now and will continue for decades more, yet
Science and Religion are often romanticized for being against each other,
while some say they cannot coexist. To break this myth, here are some
interesting things that will change your minds. What is a Calendar. According
to Oxford Languages it is a chart or series of pages showing the days,
weeks, and months of a particular year, or giving particular seasonal
information. Seasons, an annual event which is divided into four categories,
winter, summer, fall and spring. Now that you know what the relation does
these two have. Let me take you back to the 1584 where the Vernal
Equinox, or the first day of spring did not occur on March 21st but on March
10th, so Pope Gregory XIII was worried that Easter might land on the
Passover. For at that time they want themselves to be distinguished
especially from the Jews. That's why the Jesuits came up with the Gregorian
Calendar which is a modification of the Julian Calendar. To deal with the
drift, which added 10 days since the Julian calendar was applied. The
Gregorian Calendar removed 10 days, making the calendar from Thursday 4
October 1582 followed by Friday 15 October 1582, to put back the first day
of spring to March 21st. To avoid this from happening again every 100
years, which is divisible by 4 is not a leap year, but doing this under
corrected the calendar, so to correct this every 400 years is a leap year.
Did you know that a Belgian priest named Georges Lemaître first
suggested the big bang theory in the 1920s, when he theorized that the
universe began from a single primordial atom. Above is an example of an
amazing use of science in religion, to further prove that Science and Religion
are not rivals. As a Christian, I ought to stop the myth and start educating
people that Science and Religion can coexist. Such sayings are only plot to
stories and movies and thus not mean it happens on real life. As I continue
my search unto greater things, I will definitely need Science and Religion.
People should not choose whether to side with Science or Religion but should
choose on how Science or Religion can help deepen our understanding of the
world.
According to Martin Luther King, Jr., Science investigates; religion
interprets. Science gives man knowledge, which is power; religion gives man
wisdom, which is control. Science deals mainly with facts; religion deals
mainly with values. The two are not rivals." Now, if you possess both faith
and the drive to push boundaries of knowledge, knowing these two are
synergies surely great deeds shall be achieved.

References

The origins of the universe, explained. (2017, January

18). https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/universe/ori

gins-of-the-universe/#:~:text=A%20Belgian%20priest%20named

%20Georges,from%20a%20single%20primordial%20atom
(n.d.). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=I2itlUlD10M&feature=share&fbclid=IwAR3_CFgjU5eNslPyecnJOEH_

srXWPkRE_a61EGdmnOAVuxrAhwm-pDZECns

What is the Nature of Science? Explain.

 Occurrence of questioning and critically examining our views and
practices, testing them, and rejecting or revising them accordingly have
enabled us to create improvement. Changing our views in light of new
information isn’t a sign of weakness or cause for embarrassment – it’s why
we have more advanced technologies than we had in the past, why we can
cure diseases that were once incurable, why women can now vote and why
we no longer burn heretics. Over the course of human history, many
interconnected and validated ideas about the physical, biological,
psychological, and social worlds have developed, thereupon enabling
comprehensive and reliable understanding of the unknown.

The Nature of Science lies at the heart of human progress. Science

presumes that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent
patterns that are comprehensible through careful, systematic study.
Scientists believe that through the use of the intellect, and with the aid of
instruments that extend the senses, people can discover patterns in all of
nature.

Science also assumes that the universe is, as its name implies, a vast
single system in which the basic rules are everywhere the same. Knowledge
gained from studying one part of the universe is applicable to other parts.
For instance, the same principles of motion and gravitation that explain the
motion of falling objects on the surface of the earth also explain the motion
of the moon and the planets. With some modifications over the years, the
same principles of motion have applied to other forces—and to the motion of
everything, from the smallest nuclear particles to the most massive stars,
from sailboats to space vehicles, from bullets to light rays.
 Many people viewed science as a body of rigid, unchangeable facts and
it’s hard to blame them. After all, most of us learned science through given
text books and lectured to as if to say “here’s what we know, it’s all true,
just memorize it”. So, what is science then? Here are key points provided by
Dr. William McComas such as Science produces, demands and relies on
empirical evidence; Experiments are not the only route to knowledge;
Science uses both inductive reasoning and hypothetico-deductive testing;
Scientists make observations and produce inferences; There is no single
step-wise scientific method by which all science is done; Science has a
creative component; Observations, ideas and conclusions in science are not
entirely objective; Historical, cultural and social influences impact the
practice and direction of science and Scientific knowledge is tentative,
durable and self-correcting.

References

Chapter 1: The nature of science.

(n.d.). https://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/chap1.h

tm

Describing the nature of science. (n.d.). Science Learning

Hub. https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/412-describing-the-

nature-of-science

O'Neill, Q. (2017, December 8). The importance of understanding the

nature of science. 3 Quarks

Daily. https://www.3quarksdaily.com/3quarksdaily/2011/03/the-

importance-of-understanding-the-nature-of-science.html
What are the present worldwide trends in Science Teaching?

Science Teaching, by its nature, is a rapidly-evolving field. The key to

interest and achievement in science lies in experimentation. Nowadays, the
demands are getting higher, therefore, challenging everyone to seek new
solutions and strategies to address key issues and take the pedagogical level
up to a notch. Technology is becoming a major player and has an important
place in the curriculum, making almost everything easy to access, create,
edit and storing. Moreover, may be viewed in several modalities and
available to the chosen many. Plan of actions were established to emphasize
the importance of primary science education, even pre-primary education.
Now, let’s be more specific and enumerate the contemporary trends in
Science Teaching.

Starting in South East Asia, a new approach is implemented to change

from chalk and talk to an inquiry/ practical method, rote memory in the
learning of science no longer being encouraged but rather the spirit of
discovery and scientific thinking is advocated. Less emphasis is given to
theory and factual knowledge, and more to the understanding of basic
scientific concepts and the relevance of science to daily life, industry and
society. In the integrated science syllabus, the various disciplines of science,
mainly biology, chemistry, and physics are integrated into a single course,
although the extent of integration is dependent on the understanding of
integration. Freshwater biology is included as a new section helping students
to know their environment and to acquire an interest in nature and its
conservation. In Hong Kong, the integrated science syllabus has undergone
several noteworthy changes to meet the local needs. Electronics is slowly
being introduced and some attempts to provide for the less able pupils are
being made. In the Singapore system, the lower secondary science syllabus
is based on energy as the linking theme, boosted by the basic concepts
needed for any science course, like units and measurements and
classification. Attempts have been made to introduce a more appropriate
science program at the junior and lower-secondary level related to the local
environment and the science processes. At the lower secondary level,
Malaysian integrated science is offered to all the pupils. The pupils are
exposed to various aspects of scientific investigation, apparatus and the
method used in carrying out the experiment as well as the scientific process
in obtaining the conclusion. With the advent of a new science syllabus at the
lower-secondary level, suitable changes were brought about in the primary
science syllabus to include environmental studies so that the pupils would be
familiar with nature and the language of science. Such innovations where
made to give children the avenue of acquiring first-hand experience.
Additionally, Television sets, video cassette recorders, and Projectors have
become modem tools in presenting science lessons.

Let’s fly to Europe. All throughout this beautiful place, an abundance of

varied trends in science teaching were present. Even the pattern of school
systems varies widely. Some sciences are applied at the primary-school
level, often as part of environmental studies. In the United Kingdom, it has
been recently established a primary science section with its own membership
and journal, in response to the growing interest in the introduction of
primary science courses throughout the country. In the Netherlands, science
at primary level has been part of the curriculum for more than a century but
has not been effectively taught until quite recently. At the secondary level
many countries have now introduced integrated science at least for the first
two or three years of secondary education. The Dutch course also typifies
trends in other European countries by offering a curriculum that integrates
the traditional disciplines of science as well as providing for the whole ability
range. The Dutch science teachers’ association, NVON. has established (in
1987) a special section, within NVON, for the stimulation and development
of integrated science in the Netherlands, including vocational schools as well
as general secondary schools. In Norway, new curriculum guidelines are
currently being introduced. At the primary level they provide for an
interesting integration of science and social studies, as shown by the
sections for the grades 1 to 6 syllabus: exploration of the surroundings
children’s everyday life collaboration between human being, man and
society, moreover, it highlights the importance that many European
countries are giving to computer technology. In Belgium, an experimental
integrated science course has been introduced in the last two years of senior
high schools (grades 10. 11) within the stream known as ‘human sciences’,
which comprises twelve sections which are supported by books.
For our next stop, America. A Federation of Unified Science Education
(FUSE) focuses on acting as a clearing house for ideas and projects and
providing some in-service training on the philosophy and practice of
integrated or unified science teaching. It is not surprising, therefore, to
report that there are now literally hundreds of projects or courses at primary
or secondary level available for students throughout North America. Some of
these, e.g. the Atlantic Science Curriculum Project, administered by the
University of New Brunswick, Canada, and initiated by the Educators of
Atlantic Science Teachers (EAST), are quite new (1986, 1987). Others are
revisions of well-known earlier projects (e.g. SCIS). Many are based on
commercially published textbooks. Using criteria developed by twenty-three
leading science educators, they identified fifty school science programs most
closely meeting these criteria. These fifty programs, representing
elementary science, biology, physical science, science as inquiry, and
science/technology/society, were studied to determine how they came
about, what they do, and how they are maintained. In Latin America, several
regional and subregional meetings sponsored by UNESCO and by regional
organizations and institutions have been held in Latin America during the
last ten years, but even so, the development of integrated science teaching
is not very great in the region. Consequently, probably due to the fact that
most educational systems have been under the influence of European
curricula dating back to the 1930s. The resistance of some teachers to
change has also been a factor in the lack of more integration in the teaching
of science. Despite all the difficulties, several countries in the region have
undertaken the task of changing curricula. Very briefly one could summarize
the situation of science teaching in Latin America as follows: (a) During the
last ten years some favorable changes have taken place: new curricula are
being implemented, the ranking system for the teachers, in, for example,
Colombia, stimulates more training and some written materials of somewhat
better quality have been produced. (b) The teaching of science is centered,
to some extent, in the processes of science, but integration is not very
great.
Please fasten your seatbelts as we are off to Arab states. In Egypt, an
environmental approach was adopted. The themes ‘Man and His Local
Environment’ (grade 7) ‘Man and Natural Resources’ (grade 8) and ‘Man and
the Universe’ (grade 9) provided the basis for the program development. A
major problem in the teaching of integrated science in Egypt is that the
teachers themselves have usually been taught science as separate
disciplines. Attempts are being made, through in-service training, to help the
teachers cope with this problem. In Qatar, a similar environmental approach
is followed, using comparable integrated themes. The number of students in
classes is relatively small and some practical work is carried out by the
pupils themselves. The problem of teacher training is similar to that in
Egypt, i.e. the teachers have been trained to teach the separate science
disciplines. In-service courses are being conducted. In Saudi Arabia, a ‘unit’
approach is taken to the teaching of science. Most of the units are based on
a single science subject but some integration is attempted in units dealing
with the environment and genetics. Because of relatively small class size,
some individual practical work is possible. In Jordan, the curriculum in
grades 7 to 9 follows a similar ‘unit’ pattern and practical work is mainly of
the demonstration type. The teachers are prepared to teach the individual
science subjects and, at present, there is little attempt at integration.
Approaching our end destination, Africa wherein General Primary level
Science is now included on the timetable for all primary-level classes. But
the time allocated to it varies widely - from forty minutes per week in Sierra
Leone to two or three hours per week in some other countries (e.g.
Lesotho). The approach is, invariably. an integrated one, most often based
on the environment, and in many countries reflects the philosophy and
practice of the Science Education Program for Africa (SEPA) which was
originally introduced as the African Primary Science Program twenty- five
years ago. But in many cases new curricula have been developed within the
last few years. One such example is Lesotho where the new primary science
syllabus comprises eighteen units spread over seven years. Another notable
example is the Nigerian Primary Science Project for the northern states
which is a pupil-centered approach based on topics, including the
environment and applications of science (technology). In the Gambia, the
primary science syllabus has recently been revised so that teaching and
learning are more activity, oriented with additional reading material for
primary-school students. It was not until the second half of the last decade
that the underlying philosophy of teaching science as unity became accepted
as possible by a majority of practicing science teachers with an initial
training in one of the basic sciences. Two patterns of producing the relevant
books emerged: groups of authors got together to produce the texts; the
professional science teachers association assembled some members to
produce books with the approved stamp of the association. A further step in
the development trend involved the provision of resources - both human and
material. It is this step that has presented the greatest obstacle to many of
the Ministries of Education and to classroom interaction.

References

https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?

v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000136673&file=/in/rest/annotationSV

C/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_d07c1c49-5feb-

4371-b50e-f5018536b907%3F_

%3D136673engo.pdf&updateUrl=updateUrl5422&ark=/ark:/48223/pf

0000136673/PDF/136673engo.pdf.multi&fullScreen=true&locale=en#

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%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2C0%2C834%2Cnull%5D
How did the society shape science and how did science shape society?

According to Oxford Languages, Society is the aggregate of people

living together in a more or less ordered community. Whether big or small,
science is greatly affected by its society, for it aims to explain and
understand. The effect on how society can sometimes change and improve
science has been seen all around the world, and it only takes one event. The
next sentences will show you how 1 event greatly improved their approach
on science.

According to Roger D. Launius the senior curator of the Smithsonian's

National Air and Space Museum that "The driving reason was Cold War
competition with the Soviet Union," Launius said. "Without that, it wouldn't
have happened." The Moon Landing happened because of a competition and
war this is an example on how society affects science. Everyone knows the
9/11 attack. Such events lead to another improvement in science. With the
attacks happened at the World Trade Center, the whole world was shocked.
The public worrying about their security, and safety. They had no choice but
to tend to science, their budgets were increased. Thus, making more
laboratory. They researched pathogens that can be used by the terrorists
this was all to avoid another massive blow to their community. This
showcase another event on the demands of the society in their safety, and
well-being, massively improved science

Science is futile, and research is important. This is what the pandemic

informed us. In the Philippines the pandemic created a new normal with
social distancing, and face masks. Science is often disregarded by the
society, focusing on military and national defense. Research was always
teased by the Government. The ongoing pandemic shows how they apply
science. A vaccine will make it to headlines in just a day. A product of
research and science proved vital in these trying times. The sentences
mentioned shows how the relationship between society and science are.

Science improves life and society funds science, the importance of one
community can be seen through results. According to Isaac Asimov, the
saddest aspect of life right now is that Science gathers knowledge faster
than Society gathers Wisdom. Science will always improve and move
forward, but the society can choose to change or remain. Discipline is one of
the main players during this pandemic. The ability of one to endure in this
new normal and to follow protocols. As an individual who experiences the
harsh products of these pandemic, we can only stay disciplined and follow
protocols in these new normal, as part of the society following such rules will
prove beneficial to science. Knowing that science and society greatly affect
each other, one must improve science, for society takes advantage of
science.

References

DNews. (2010, October 7). Why did we go to the

moon? Seeker. https://www.seeker.com/why-did-we-go-to-the-

moon-1765122661.html

Reich, E. S. (2011, September 1). Science after 9/11: How research was

changed by the September 11 terrorist attacks. Scientific

American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-research-

was-changed-by-september-11-terrorist-attacks/?

fbclid=IwAR06Xu9ewfoHdcGpxfQcjXbCGbEaedz31cqT5x5hL3zJNha6K

Gq62uCqwmQ
 According to the "unity of science" thesis, the various special sciences
can be reduced to more fundamental sciences, as biology has been reduced
to chemistry and chemistry to physics. What does it mean to say that one
science has been reduced to another? Has biology been reduced to
chemistry, or chemistry to physics? Explain.

Unity of science is the idea that all fields of science are in some way
united. Consequently, Reduction was primarily understood to be a way to
unify the sciences. The English verb ‘reduce’, derives from the Latin
‘reducere’, whose literal meaning ‘to bring back’, informs its metaphorical
use in philosophy. It expresses the idea that if an entity x reduces to an
entity y then y is in a sense prior to x, is more basic than x, such that x fully
depends upon it or is constituted by it. Saying that x reduces to y typically
implies that x is nothing more than y or nothing over and above y. For
example, a reductionist regarding mathematics might take any given
mathematical theory to be reducible to logic or set theory. Or, a reductionist
about biological entities like cells might take such entities to be reducible to
collections of physio-chemical entities like atoms and molecules. The type of
reductionism that is currently of most interest in metaphysics and philosophy
of mind involves the claim that all sciences are reducible to physics. This is
usually taken to entail that all phenomena (including mental phenomena like
consciousness) are identical to physical phenomena.

Reductionism is based on the scientific assumption of parsimony- that

complex phenomena should be explained by the simplest underlying
principles possible. Moreover, a term of natural language, and, building upon
its common metaphoric. Thus, philosophers use it to designate relations of
particular philosophical importance in a number of closely related fields,
especially in the philosophy of science, the philosophy of mind, and
metaphysics. Kemeny and Oppenheim (1956) regard the idea that
reductions somehow relate to scientific progress as being crucial for
understanding. The label ‘reduction’ has been applied to a certain type of
progress in science wherein it may be subdivided into two types, first, an
increase in factual knowledge, by the addition to the total amount of
scientific observations; and an improvement in the body of theories, which is
designed to explain the known facts and to predict the outcome of future
observations. An especially important case of the second type is the
replacement of an accepted theory (or body of theories) by a new theory (or
body of theories) which is in some sense superior to it. Reduction is an
improvement in this sense. (Kemeny & Oppenheim 1956: 6f.) Reductionism
works at different levels. The lowest level of reductionism offers
physiological explanation: these attempt to explain behavior in terms of
neurochemical, genes and brain structure. At the highest sociocultural level,
explanations focus on the influence on behavior of where and how we live.
Between these extremes there are behavioral, cognitive and social
explanations. Science is unity, such that all empirical statements can be
expressed in a single language, all states of affairs are of one kind and are
known by the same method. (Carnap 1934: 32)

References

Reductionism and holism. (n.d.). Study Guides for Psychology Students -

Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/reductionism-

holism.html

Reductionism. (n.d.). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | An encyclopedia

of philosophy articles written by professional

philosophers. https://iep.utm.edu/red-ism/
Scientific reduction (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy). (n.d.). Stanford

Encyclopedia of

Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-

reduction/#RedMec
What is Constructivism? Explain.

The initial curiosity from infancy to toddler hood gives rise to the
amount of learning and understanding of their surrounding environment.
Those early years provide the basis for language, physical dexterity, social
understanding, and emotional development. All of this knowledge is acquired
before even going to school. The child is learning by gathering information
and through experience. This is an example of constructivism. It emphasizes
the importance of knowledge, beliefs, and skills an individual brings to the
experience of learning.

Many specific elements and principles of constructivism that shape the

way the theory works and applies to students are given in the succeeding
points. Knowledge is constructed. This is the basic principle, meaning that
knowledge is built upon another knowledge. Students take pieces and put
them together in their own unique way, building something different than
what another student will build. The student’s previous knowledge,
experiences, beliefs, and insights are all important foundations for their
continued learning. People learn to learn, as they learn. Learning involves
constructing meaning and systems of meaning. Each thing we learn gives us
a better understanding of other things in the future. Learning is an active
process and involves sensory input to construct meaning. Learners need to
engage in the world so they are actively involved in their own learning and
development. Learning is a social activity. Learning is directly associated to
our connection with other people. Our teachers, our family, or peers, and
our acquaintances impact our learning. Learning is contextual. Students
don’t learn isolated facts and theories separate from the rest of our lives—
we learn in ways connected to things we already know, what we believe, and
more. The things we learn and the points we tend to remember are
connected to the things going on around us. Knowledge is personal. Because
constructivism is based on your own experiences and beliefs, knowledge
becomes a personal affair. Learning exists in the mind. Hands-on
experiences and physical actions are necessary for learning, but those
elements aren’t enough. Engaging the mind is key to successful learning.
Learning needs to involve activities for the minds, not just our hands. Mental
experiences are needed for retaining knowledge. Motivation is key to
learning. Students are unable to learn if they are unmotivated. Without
motivation, it’s difficult for learners to reach into their past experience and
make connections for new learning.

Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and

scientific study -- about how people learn. It says that people construct their
own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things
and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we
have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing
what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In
any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must
ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

References

Constructivism as a paradigm for teaching and learning. (n.d.). THIRTEEN -

New York Public

Media. https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivis

m/
(2019, December

14). Exploratorium. https://www.exploratorium.edu/education/ifi/cons

tructivist-learning

(2020, July 13). Western Governors

University. https://www.wgu.edu/blog/what-constructivism2005.html
What are the most important contributions of biology/chemistry in the
development of science? Explain.

Science is valued by society because the application of scientific

knowledge helps to satisfy many basic human needs and improve living
standards. Finding a cure for cancer and a clean form of energy are just two
topical examples. Similarly, science is often justified to the public as driving
economic growth, which is seen as a return-on-investment for public
funding. Such influences like chemistry and biology framed and produced
multiple scientific breakthroughs.

In many ways, the history of civilization is the history of chemistry —

the study of matter and its properties. In many ways, the history of
civilization is the history of chemistry — the study of matter and its
properties. Humans have always sought to identify, use and change the
materials in our environment. In the eighth century A.D., Jābir ibn Hayyān,
became one of the first to use scientific methods to study materials. Also
known by his Latinized name, Geber, he is known as the "father of
chemistry." He is the author of 22 scrolls describing methods of distillation,
crystallization, sublimation and evaporation. Additionally, invented the
alembic, a device used to distill and study acids and developed an early
chemical classification system. Robert Boyle studied the behavior of gases
and discovered the inverse relationship between volume and pressure of a
gas. Moreover, stated that “all reality and change can be described in terms
of elementary particles and their motion,” an early understanding of atomic
theory. Joseph Priestley disproved the idea that air was an indivisible
element and showed that it was, instead, a combination of gases when he
isolated oxygen and went on to discover seven other discreet gases. Joseph
Proust studied pure chemical compounds and stated the Law of Definite
Proportions (a chemical compound will always have its own characteristic
ratio of elemental components). Water, for instance, always has a two-to-
one ratio of hydrogen to oxygen. Antoine Lavoisier helped to develop the
metric system in order to insure uniform weights and measures. His
insistence on meticulous measurement led to his discovery of the Law of
Conservation of Mass. Amedeo Avogadro stated that equal volumes of gas at
the same temperature and pressure have the same number of molecules.
The number of molecules in a 1-gram molecular weight (1 mole) sample of a
pure substance is called Avogadro’s Constant in his honor. John
Dalton determined the relative masses of particles for six of the known
elements: hydrogen (the lightest and assigned a mass of 1),
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorous. Furthermore, explained
his findings by stating the principles of the first atomic theory of matter.
Dmitri Mendeleev was known for developing the first Periodic Table of the
Elements. He listed to 92 naturally occurring elements and 26 synthesized
elements. Chemistry is often described as the central science. It is the
science that connects all the others and helps them to achieve what they do.
Thus, the science that made the modern world.
Biology studies every living thing in the universe, from the simplest
and smallest single-celled organisms to the complexity of the human brain.
For this reason, breakthroughs in biology have a huge impact on our world.
The science of biology shapes everything from agriculture to psychology.
And like most sciences, biology is rapidly advancing due to advances in
technology, which are changing the field forever. Here are biology’s
contributions: Aristotle’s work on the classification of living things was
revolutionary. Referred to as the 'Ladder of Life'. His classification system
was in use up until the 19th century. The life work of Greek physician,
Galen, revolutionized the way in which medical research is conducted. He
had major influence on the development of many fields of medicine including
anatomy, pathology, physiology and neurology. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is
well known for his contributions to microscopy, and how he applied this to
the field of biology. He revolutionized a technique for creating powerful
lenses, which some speculate were able to magnify up to 500 times and was
used to find out more about the living world. Carl Linnaeus came up with the
system of naming, ranking and classifying organisms that we still use today.
It was his vast collection of specimens of plants, animals and shells that led
him to think up a way of grouping and naming species. Thereupon,
separating all living things into three kingdoms – animals, plants and
minerals – subdivided into classes, then into orders and finally into genera
and species. Charles Darwin established that all species of life have
descended over time from common ancestors, the existence of new species
occurring via the process of natural selection. He was disputing the long-held
belief that all species had been created by God at the beginning of the world.
Gregor Mendel's extraordinary contribution didn't receive its just recognition
until long after the friar's death. He used peas to discover and demonstrate
the laws of genetic inheritance, coining the terms ‘dominant’ and ‘recessive’
genes in the process. Barbara McClintock developed a technique for
identifying and examining chromosomes individually. Despite it not being
immediately recognized, her work made it possible for us to map human
genomes. Jane Goodall discovered that the animals are omnivores and tool
users. Keith Campbell and Ian Wilmut cloned a mammal, famously named
Dolly the Sheep. The pair cloned Dolly using a single adult sheep cell and a
process of nuclear transfer. Dolly died after only six years but cloning
continues – although still not perfected and certainly not ready for human
application – yet
As science and technologies continue to advance, more breakthroughs
in biology and chemistry become possible every day. Some are experiments
made possible by new technologies, while others are totally new ideas being
explored for the first time. The possibilities are endless and who knows what
we will discover next?

References

5 groundbreaking breakthroughs in biology. (2017, May 26). Brainscape

Blog. https://www.brainscape.com/blog/2015/06/biology-

breakthroughs-and-discoveries/

Bagley, M. (2014, May 31). History of chemistry | Famous chemists.

livescience.com. https://www.livescience.com/46020-chemistry-

history.html

Chemistry’s contribution. (2015, September 30). Chemistry

World. https://www.chemistryworld.com/opinion/chemistrys-

contribution/8997.article

Rasheed, R. (n.d.). Top ten biological discoveries. Complete University

Guide - University Rankings, Guides and

Courses. https://www.thecompleteuniversityguide.co.uk/student-

advice/what-to-study/ten-famous-biological-discoveries