G8 Study Material T1

Kashmir Harvard EDUCATIONAL institute
Higher secondary school

www.kashmirharvard.edu.in
Habak, Naseembagh, Srinagar. +91-9070803030
th
[Class: 8 ] Notes
STUDY MATERIAL (3) SESSION 2021-2022
SUBJECT: ENGLISH
Teacher concerned: Ms. Tabasum Zehra : tabasum.zehra@kashmirharvard.org
Lesson No. 1 Topic: Global warming
Pre-reading: Dear students, before we read the chapter ' Global Warming', let's try to answer these questions:
 Can rising temperature on Earth be harmful?
 Which gases cause rise in Earth's temperature?
 What are greenhouse gases?
Summary: The chapter ‘Global Warming’ is an article written about the most hazardous threat faced by
mankind, i.e. the constant rise in the earth’s surface temperature at global level, which is simply termed as
global warming.
Global Warming refers to the gradual rise in the Earth’s surface temperature. It is caused due to increased
concentration of greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as deforestation and burning of fossil
fuels. Global Warming causes the sea levels to rise and changes the rate and pattern of precipitation. Other
likely effects of global warming include extreme weather events like heat waves, droughts, and heavy rainfall.
It is believed that the constant Global Warming will melt all the glaciers in the Himalayan region and change
the livelihood of millions of people living in the subcontinent. Even places like Kashmir will have to face the
consequences of this catastrophe. Infact, several glaciers in Jammu and Kashmir are receding at an alarming
rate. This has resulted in water scarcity and has increased the threat of floods. Global Warming has brought
in high-velocity storms which have caused devastation to the crops and fruits in the valley. The rapid melting
of Kolhai glacier has evoked concern among environmentalists. This is mainly due to rise in temperature
and other anti-environment human activities. The observation made by TERI (The Energy and Research
Institute) has selected Kolhai glacier as one of the index glaciers for long term monitoring so as to come up
with the measures to bring down the glacier’s recession rate.
Global Warming has also brought great changes in climatic pattern. The average temperature has increased
throughout the valley. The research carried out by the University of Kashmir has shown that the average
increase in temperature in the valley by the end of 21st century would be between 2 and 3 centigrade. Erratic
snowfall, hotter summers, climate variability and change in precipitation level will affect livelihoods. So, we
need to come up with a strategy for the sustainable development of water resources in the region. Our children
will curse us if we don’t wake up now.
Glossary:
1) Aptly (Adverb): in a suitable manner.
Sentence: He aptly described the situation in just a minute.
2) Extinction: (noun) disappearance
Sentence: All species of sea turtles are threatened by extinction.
Write the answers in your notebook.
Q1. Why has the earth’s average temperature increased?
Ans. The earth’s average temperature has increased due to the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases
produced by human activities such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels. It is observed that in the last
hundred years, the earth’s average surface temperature has increased by about 0.80C.
Q2. Why is the Himalayan region called the water tower of Asia?
Ans. The Himalayan region has a capacity of providing 8.6 million cubic metres of water annually and thus
supports the economy and livelihood of millions of people living in Asia. This region has a huge glacial
coverage of 33,000 sQ kms and is truly called the Water Tower of Asia.
Q3. What are the main sources of water in the Kashmir valley?
Ans. Himalayan Glaciers, flood plain lakes, perennial rivers of Indus system, wetlands, snow-fed streams,
reservoirs, springs etc. are the main sources of water in the Kashmir valley.
KHEI/G8/SM3/T1/Notes/2021
Q4. Why is water the most precious natural resource?
Ans. Water is the most precious natural resource because it supports the existence of all flora and fauna of
the planet earth. Without water, it is impossible to execute agricultural activities, generate electricity and
support other related human activities to sustain life on the earth.
Q5. How has Kashmir been influenced by global warming?
Ans. Kashmir has been seriously influenced by global warming for the last two decades. Glaciers are receding
at an alarming rate. It has been witnessed that 18% of the Kolhai glacier has shrunk only because of global
warming. Due to global warming, the demarcation between the seasons has vanished. It is now difficult to
distinguish between spring and summer, autumn and winter. Global warming has also reduced the production
of crops in Kashmir valley.
Q6. How is global warming the largest threat to humanity?
Ans. Global warming causes sea levels to rise and it also changes the amount and pattern of precipitation and
probable expansion of subtropical deserts. It leads to extreme weather conditions like droughts, heat waves,
heavy rainfall, extinction of species due to shifting temperature and changes in agricultural yields. This is
how global warming proves to be the largest threat to humanity.
Q7. What do you think is the cause of decrease in snowfall in Kashmir?
Ans. Global warming is the main cause of decrease in snowfall in Kashmir as it has drastically changed the
rate and pattern of precipitation. Thus, it has led to decrease in snowfall in Kashmir.
Q8. What has been the impact of global warming on J&K so far?
Ans. Global warming has unduly impacted J&K. There has been a high reduction in quality and quantity of
water resources. Melting of glaciers and drying up of water bodies have also been witnessed. In the last forty
years, J&K has lost about 18% of Kolhai glacier and 16% of glaciers in the Suru Basin. Global warming has
caused the occurrence of high velocity storms and flood in the valley. There has been a change in the pattern
of precipitation and climate. Thus, it has become difficult to demarcate the different seasons. The period and
rate of crop production has also been disturbed due to global warming. Therefore, Global Warming has
widely altered the flora and fauna of J&K and affected the region severely.
Q9. What role do the scientists play in J&K to deal with the problem of global warming?
Ans. In J&K, The Energy and Resource Institute (TERI) has selected the Kolhai glacier as an index glacier
for assessing the water resource availability to the communities in the valley. The scientific studies conducted
on the glacier will last for five years after which TERI will recommend measures to bring down the glacier’s
recession rate.
Q10. What do we as individuals do to deal with the problem of global warming?
Ans. As individuals, we must make efforts to minimize the concentration of greenhouse gases. This can be
done by limiting the use of fossil fuels and by planting more and more trees. Moreover, we should try to
spread awareness among people about the drastic effects of global warming.
Recapitulation:
1. What are the main causes of global warming?
2. What has Kolhai glacier been selected for?
3. Why have migratory birds changed their cycle?
4. What can be done to recede the impact of global warming?
Book Work
II) Use the following phrases in your own sentences.
● In progress: The construction work of new school building is in progress.
● Uncontrollable rate: Air pollution in Srinagar is increasing at an uncontrollable rate.
● Across the globe: The impact of global warming is felt across the globe.
● In the backdrop: The present Government can’t afford to reject our demand in the backdrop of the coming
elections.
III) Ans
a) Irksome b) Suited c) Repetitive d) Quay
IV)
a) Laughing b) Being c) To go d) Being
e) Having f) Listening g) To read h) To cheat
i) Fishing j) To make
LANGUAGE SKILLS
Skill Area: Reading;
In the 16th century, an age of great marine and terrestrial exploration, Ferdinand Magellan led the first
expedition to sail around the world. As a young Portuguese noble, he served the king of Portugal, but he
became involved in the quagmire of political intrigue at court and lost the king’s favor. After he was dismissed
from service by the king of Portugal, he offered to serve the future Emperor Charles V of Spain.
A papal decree of 1493 had assigned all land in the New World west of 50 degrees W longitude to Spain and
all the land east of that line to Portugal. Magellan offered to prove that the East Indies fell under Spanish
authority. On September 20, 1519, Magellan set sail from Spain with five ships. More than a year later, one
of these ships was exploring the topography of South America in search of a water route across the continent.
This ship sank, but the remaining four ships searched along the southern peninsula of South America. Finally
they found the passage they sought near 50 degrees South latitude. Magellan named this passage the Strait of
All Saints, but today it is known as Strait of Magellan. One ship deserted in this passage, so fewer sailors
were privileged to gaze at that first panorama of the Pacific Ocean. Those who remained crossed the meridian
now known as the International Date Line. During those long days at sea, many of Magellan’s men died of
starvation and disease.
Later, Magellan became involved in an insular conflict in the Philippines and was killed in a tribal battle.
Only one ship and 17 sailors under the command of the Basque navigator Elcano survived to complete the
westward journey to Spain and thus prove once and for all that the world is round, with no precipice at the
edge.
Questions
1. The 16th century was an age of great ______ exploration.
2. Magellan lost the favor of the king of Portugal when he became involved in a political ________.
3. The Pope divided New World lands between Spain and Portugal according to their location on one side or
the other of an imaginary geographical line 50 degrees west of Greenwich that extends in a _________
direction.
4. One of Magellan’s ships explored the _________ of South America for a passage across the continent.
5. In the spring of 1521, the ships crossed the _______ now called the International Date Line.
Skill Area: Loud Reading
Step 1: Watch the video given in the below link and see how loud reading of a passage has been done.
https://youtu.be/DSRQuDPkKF4
Step 2: Read aloud the passage given above
Step 3: Record your reading with proper expression, clarity and pronunciation and mail it to your teacher.
Skill Area: Listening: Watch the video on hazards of global warming via given link and evaluate the
reasons responsible and write down them in the space provided.
https://youtu.be/4Uy9b87cYRscYR
Skill Area: Speaking: Express your views on the catastrophe of Global warming. Record it and mail it to
your teacher.
Skill Area: Writing:
Use the following phrases in your own sentences.
1) At an alarming rate: 2) At irritating change: 3) Bereft of: 4) Dried up:
5) At the global level: 6) Heavy burden:
Skill Area: Grammar
I. Fill the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate compound word/s or phrases from given
options.
White House/white house, Green House/greenhouse, Black box/black box, Strong hold/stronghold,
White-collar/white collar
1. a) We live in a beautiful Green House.
b) My uncle has built a greenhouse next to his house, where he grows vegetables in winter.
2. a) Most PhD’s only prefer__________________ jobs.
b) He was wearing a pink shirt with a _______________.
3. a) We live in the ______________________near the mosque.
b) The president of America lives in the________________.
4. a) My wife keeps her jewellery in a ________________.
b) The ______________has been found. It will now be possible to find out why the plane crashed.
5. a) He has _________________ on his wife.
b) The southern part of the state is a ______________ of the robbers.
TITLE: RUSTUM AND SOHRAB
Pre-reading:
Dear students, before we read the chapter ' Rustum and Sohrab', let's try to Ans these Qs:
 In which continent is Persia located?
 Have you ever heard of a Persian poet famously known as Firdousi?
 What do you call a story having a tragic end?
Things you need to know:
 The tragedy of Rustum and Sohrab forms a part of the 10th-century Persian epic ‘Shahnameh’ by the
Persian poet ‘Firdousi’. It tells the tragic story of the heroes: Rustam and his son, Sohrab.
 Shahnameh: is a long epic poem written by a Persian poet "Firdousi" between 977 and 1010 CE. It is the
national epic of Iran. Consisting of some 50,000 couplets, Shahnameh is one of the world's longest epic
poems. It tells mainly the mythical and to some extent the historical past of the Persian Empire from the
creation of the world until the Arab conquest of Iran in the 7th century.
 EPIC: is a long narrative poem written in a dignified style about the deeds of a traditional or historical
hero or heroes. Examples are Mahabharata, Illiad, Shahnemah.
Note: Remember that the chapter Rustum and Sohrab in your book is written in prose form.
Summary: Rustum was a great Soldier of Persia. He was called the shield of Persia and nobody dared to
invade Persia because of his fear. The King of Persia, Kaikoos always praised Rustum’s bravery. During one
of his travels, Rustum met a Tartar Princess named Tanimeh and married her. But Rustum was soon called
back by the king. So, he had to leave his expecting wife and return to Persia. Before leaving, he gave Tanimeh
a precious stone telling her to tie the stone on their child’s arm when he was born. Tanimeh gave birth to a
son but she didn’t want her child to follow his father’s path. She sent a message to Rustum telling him that
she had given birth to a daughter.
The son was named Sohrab. He learned the use of the sword and became a skilled warrior. One day, a
challenger came to his country and challenged Sohrab to a single combat with a condition to tell him about
his father. Sohrab didn’t know who his father was. He went to his mother and came to know about his father.
The challenger, on hearing the name of Sohrab’s father, ran away in fear. Sohrab returned home and told his
mother that he would go in search of his father. She was adamant at first, but on being persuaded by Sohrab,
gave in to his demand. Then she gave him the precious stone by which his father would recognize him.
Sohrab marched towards Persia with his army, wishing to find his father and make him the king of Persia.
Kaikoos sent his army to fight Sohrab but were no match to him. Sohrab sent a word to the king that he would
spare the Persian army only if their champion fought with him in a single combat. The King sent for Rustum.
He was hesitant to come at first but after much persuasion came to the battle field in disguise. When he saw
Sohrab, he asked him to come to Persia and be as a son to him. Sohrab asked the warrior if he was Rustum.
But Rustum thought that the young man might withdraw from the fight if he told the truth. So, he didn’t
reveal his identity. The two warriors fought for three days and it seemed that Rustum might lose. Eventually,
he shouted his war cry, ‘Rustum!' and rushed at Sohrab. Sohrab on hearing the war cry was unnerved for a
moment and Sohrab dropped his shield and Rustum’s sword pierced his body.
Then, Sohrab revealed his identity by showing his father the precious stone that his mother had given to him.
Rustum felt very sad to know that he had wounded his own son. He wept bitterly, but Sohrab comforted him
and asked him to carry his body to his home and bury him there so that people who pass by would say that
'Sohrab', Rustum’s son, is buried there.
Glossary:
1) Precious: (Adverb): valuable
Sentence: The pictures in the museum are precious.
2) Rash: (adjective): impulsive
Sentence: The coach called him a rash boy.
3) Mighty: (adjective): powerful
Sentence: She is a mighty wrestler
Note: Read the chapter from page no .100to 105 in your textbook.
Write the answers in your notebook.
Q1. Why was Rustum not able to live with his wife for a long time?
Ans. Rustum was not able to live with his wife for a long time because he was called back by the king of
Persia. The king felt unsafe unless Rustum was there to protect and defend his kingdom.
Q2. Why did Tenimeh sent word to Rustum that their child was a daughter?
Ans. Tenimeh feared that Rustum would take the child away from her if he would come to know that it was
a boy. She did not want to lose her child, so she sent word to Rustum that their child was a daughter.
Q3. What secret did Sohrab learn from his mother?
Ans. Sohrab learnt from his mother that he was the son of a great soldier, Rustum.
Q4. What did Tanimeh want Sohrab to do when he met his father?
Ans. Tanimeh wanted Sohrab to show the precious stone tied on his arm to his father so that Rustum could
recognize that he was his son.
Q5. Why was Rustum at first not ready to fight Sohrab?
Ans. Rustum didn’t want to fight Sohrab in the beginning because he had grown old and had to serve his
aged father in a distant village.
Q6. Why did Rustum not tell Sohrab who he was?
Ans. Rustum didn’t tell Sohrab who he was because he thought if he did so, Sohrab might withdraw from
the battle and make peace with him.
Q7. How was Sohrab wounded?
Ans. When Sohrab heard Rustum’s war cry, he lost his courage. His shield fell off his hand and Rustum’s
sword went through his body wounding him badly.
Q8. What were Sohrab’s last words?
Ans. When Sohrab lay dying he looked at his father’s face and said:
“Father be comforted that you and I have found each other. Do not grieve what fate has brought about. Fulfill
this wish of mine. Carry me to your home and bury me there, so that people who pass by will say: “Sohrab”
the mighty Rustum’s son lies here, whom his great father did in ignorance kill!”
Recapitulation:
1) Who was Tanimeh?
2) What did Tanimeh do when Sohrab was born?
3) Why did Sohrab attack Kaikos' territory?
4) What was Rustum's reaction when he discovered that Sohrab was his son?
Grammar work
B) Find words/phrases from the box for the following expressions.
 Combat  Send for  Chief
 protect  Invader  Bury
 Parting  Distant  Mighty
 Send word  Breakdown
 Determined  Precious
C) Choose the correct option
● The king of Persia ● Rustum
● The challenger ● Sohrab
● Tanimeh
I) Match the words in column A with the explanations given in column B.
 War cry: A word or cry shouted in battle.
 Challenger: One who calls someone to fight.
 Arts of war: Skills in use of weapons and in fighting.
 Champion: One who fights for or defends some other person.
 Swordsmanship: Skill in the use of sword.
 Spirit: Quantity of courage and vigour.
 Terror: Great fear.
 Clasp: Hold tightly.
 Amazed: Extremely surprized.
 Ambition: A strong desire for success, power or wealth.
Textbook Language work-2
I) Combine the following pairs of sentences with “unless”.
● Unless you run fast, you can’t catch the train.
● Unless you work hard, you can’t get first grade.
● Unless you hurry, you won’t catch the bus.
● Unless you do as I tell you, you will regret.
● Unless you tell me about your problem, I can’t give you any solution.
II) Match each clause from column A with a clause from column B and make meaningful sentences.
1. If I had worked harder, I could have got good marks.
2. If the driver in front had not stopped so suddenly, the accident would not have happened.
3. If the weather had not been so bad, we could have gone out.
4. If you had arrived earlier, you could have seen her.
5. If you had moved the injured to hospital directly, you might have saved his life.
6. If you had not lent me the money, I would not have been able to buy a car.
Text book Grammar work
I) Report the following sentences in the indirect speech:
● She said that her father would return from Jammu the next day.
● They said that they would die for the sake of their country.
● The teacher said that Babar won the first battle of Panipat.
● I told him that he had made a false statement.
● They told us that they would play a match the next day.
LANGUAGE SKILLS
Skill Area: Reading:
Read the given passage and Ans the given Questions.
Remembering Stories
The earliest people did not have a written language. Instead, people learned things by telling and listening to
stories. How did storytellers recall everything? Some drew pictures on cave walls to help them remember.
Some made up chants to the rhythm of drums. Other storytellers made belts or necklaces, colored threads,
beads, and special knots stood for different events.
Questions
1) The main idea of the paragraph is?
2) How did people learn things?
3) In this paragraph, the word rhythm means?
4) What were the ways employed to recall things?
Skill Area: Listening:
Listen to the given video on Firdousi's 'Shahnama' and note down the important points.
https://youtu.be/SrroBpUGx3w
Skill Area: Speaking: Speak out your own views on the Epic shahnama; record it and send it to the
teacher.
Skill area writing:
Complete the following passage with the right forms of words given in brackets:
Personality is the ________ (combine) of physical, emotional, spiritual and psychological aspects in a person.
If you ________ (wishing) to enhance your personality, start by respecting yourself and believing in your
ability to win respect from others. In your ________ (interact) with others, be polite and gentle, doing good
to them as far as possible. Speak only when it is ________ (require) and is of utmost necessity.
Skill Area: Grammar
II) Change the following sentences into indirect speech.
1) The employer said to him, “You will be dismissed if you do not attend the office.”
2) Sanjay said, “My brother met with an accident yesterday.”
3) I said to him, “I may not come tomorrow.”
4) The principal said, “Tomorrow will be a holiday.”
5) The teacher said to us, “You are intelligent and hard working.”
TOPIC: THE BROOK
Pre-reading:
Dear students, before we read the poem' Brook', let's try to answer these Questions:
 Can you name a place where you have seen a stream flowing?
 Do you like poetry about nature? Why/why not?
 Write two synonyms for the word "stream"?
Introduction
“The Brook” is a poem written by Alfred Tennyson. The poet has realistically drawn a parallelism between
the journey of the brook with the life of a man. The poet says that, as in childhood, a child is very agile,
energetic and lively, likewise, the brook in the initial stage is very powerful and flows with a great rush and
enthusiasm. It falls from great heights and meanders around the wavy path, and when it approaches the plains,
it becomes very slow. Likewise, man towards the end of his life becomes lethargic in his moves. The poem
also shows the contrast between human life and nature. The brook representing nature continues to flow
eternally whereas, man is mortal and has to die one day.
Summary: Alfred Lord Tennyson's poem "The Brook "is a poem about perseverance and how time may
affect human existence. He also says that nature will still persist even if all other things may change over
time.
In its initial stages, the brook rushes down the hills and valleys, while chattering energetically.
The poet has used words like "chatter", "bubble", "babble" etc. to highlight the playful child-like attitude of
the brook.
Both the human life and the brook encounter and overcome obstacles, make a perilous journey in order to
reach their ultimate destination. The brook goes down to join the river and the human beings see the end of
the circle of life.
The brook crosses a number of villages, hills, valleys etc., carries with it whatever comes in its way (fishes,
flowers, weeds, pebbles/stones) in order to reach where it has to. The human life works in a similar fashion.
The Brook is full of fishes (graylings, trout), an indication of life inside it. This is just like the human body
that too can carry life.
In the final stages of its journey, the brook sobers down, it is described with words like "steal", "slide",
"murmur", "loiter", "linger" etc.. The human life also in the later years shows similar signs. While the brook
flows eternally, the human life is limited to a few years, it is mortal.
In this poem, the poet compares the life of brook with that of the man. He says that the brook, when comes
from haunted places is fresh and lively. It is compared to a man at his young age when he is energetic and
fresh. The brook slows down when it reaches the plains which in compared with a man who has the burden
of his family, his job and surroundings. But the poet concludes that the brook is immortal because it joins the
mighty ocean and becomes a part of it but man takes birth and then dies, thus he is mortal. He compares
different stages of brook with that of the man.
Glossary
1) Sparkle (verb): to shine
Sentence: The stars sparkle in the sky.
2) Brimming (adjective): to be abundantly filled.
Sentence: They were struggling to exit the brimming mosque.
3) Mallow (noun): A plant with hairy stem
Sentence: Number of Mallows had grown on that woodland stream.
4) Wilderness (noun): An unsettled and uncultivated tract of land in its natural state.
Sentence: She is passionate about refreshing herself in the wilderness.
Note: Read the chapter from page no .61 to 63 in your textbook
Write the given answers in your notebook.
Q1. Who is "I" referred to in the poem?
Ans: 'I' in the poem is referred to the "Brook". In this poem, the Brook has been personified. So, it narrates
its own story in the first person 'I'.
Q2. Trace the journey of the Brook.
Ans: The Brook rises from a place visited by water birds like Heron and Coot and flows down a valley. It
passes through several villages and a little town. It moves quickly with strong determination and great
enthusiasm. The Brook makes a chattering sound as it flows over stones, high mountains and tough terrains
and finally overcoming all the hurdles of the way, reaches its destination- the overflowing river.
Q3. Explain -
"For men may come and men may go"
"but I go on forever"
Ans: In these lines, the poet wants to convey that the men come to this world, lead their lives consisting of
joys and sorrows and leave it. But the Brook representing nature is ever flowing and eternal. These lines
convey the message that man is mortal while nature is immortal.
Q4. Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in the verse such as "I slip, I slide, I gloom,
and I glance". Pick out more examples of alliteration from the poem.
Ans: Following are some examples of alliteration from the poem:-
 Sudden-sally  Fairy-foreland
 Hills-hurry  Willow-weed
 Fields-fallow  Golden-gravel
Q5. Can the journey of Brook be compared to human life? How?
Ans: Yes, the journey of the brook can be compared to human life. The brook has to pass through various
obstacles like mountains and tough terrains before reaching its destination. Likewise, men also have to face
many difficulties during the journey of their life.
Recapitulation:
Q1. Where from did the brook start its journey?
Q2. How many bridges did the brook cross?
Q3. Which verse is repeated several times in the poem?
Q4. Who does 'I' refer to in the verse “But I go on forever "?
LANGUAGE SKILLS
Skill Area: Reading
Read the poems given below and answer the questions/complete the statements that follow:
Be the Best
If you can’t be a pine on the top of the hill,
Be a scrub in the valley—but be
The best little scrub by the side of the rill,
Be a bush if you can’t be a tree
If you can’t be a bush be a bit of the grass,
And some highway happier make;
If you can’t be a muskie then just be a bass
But be the liveliest bass in the lake!
We can’t all be captains, we’ve got to be crew,
There’s something for all of us here
There’s big work to do and there’s lesser to do,
And the task we must do is the near.
If you can’t be a highway then just be a trait
If you can’t be the sun, be a star,
It isn’t by size that you win or you fail
Be the best of whatever you are!
Questions:
1. What is the poet’s tone in the poem?
2. What should be our attitude towards our work?
3. What is the message of the poem?
4. Winning does not depend on…………………….
5. Which word in the poem means the same as “piece of work"?
Skill Area: Listening & speaking:
Step 1: Listen to the given recitation and pay attention to the recitation skills of the reciter.
https://youtu.be/H6FL_dEcERc
Step 2: Recite the above given poem with proper
rhythm.
Step 3: Record your recitation and mail it to the
teacher.
Skill Area: Writing: Analyse the following picture
and write a brief paragraph using the given words.
POEM TITLE: PRAYER FOR STRENGTH
Pre- reading:
Dear students, before we read the poem ' Prayer for Strength', let's try to Ans these Qs:
 Do you make prayers to the God?
 What do you do to get your prayers heard by the God?
 Do you think making prayers can make you kind and generous?
Introduction:
The poem “Prayer for Strength” is an inspirational poem by a versatile poet Rabindranath Tagore. The poem
is in the form of a prayer in which the poet implores God to give him strength to live a spiritual and fruitful
life. He asks God to give him strength to surrender his will to God’s will.
Summary: The poem “Prayer for Strength” has been written by an Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore (1861-
1941).At the outset, the poet prays to his lord to strike at the penury of his heart. He wants God to remove
the hard heartedness, lack of love and compassion in his heart. He prays to God to give him strength to bear
the joys and sorrows of life. He desires to be loving and compassionate towards the whole creation of God.
He asks for strength so that he never disowns the poor and needy, because they too are the children of the
same God. He wants to spend such a life in which his service to God’s creation would be fruitful.
Further, the poet also prays for the life in which he doesn’t have to bend before obnoxious minds and rude
authorities. He asks for strength to rise his mind high above the daily trifles. In the concluding lines the poet
wants God to give him strength to surrender himself completely to His will.
Glossary:
1) Strike (verb): eliminate
Sentence: oh Lord! Help me strike at the poverty of my heart.
2) Sorrow (noun): unhappiness
Sentence: She expressed sorrow for parting with her mother.
Note: Read the chapter on page no. 59 of your textbook.
Write the Answers in your notebook.
Q1. Why does the poet want God to strike at his heart?
Ans. The poet prays to God to cleanse his heart by removing all the penury in his heart. Penury in heart refers
to the hard heartedness and the lack of love and compassion. He wants God to fill his heart with love and
compassion so that the penury in his heart may get vanished.
Q2. What does the poet want strength for?
Ans. The poet implores God to give him strength to bear his joys and sorrows lightly, to make his love fruitful
in service, to be able to help poor and needy, never to kneel before insolent authorities and to have the potency
to surrender all his strength before His will.
Q3. How can love be made meaningful in one’s life?
Ans. The blessing of love can be made meaningful in one’s life when it is utilized to serve the creation of
Almighty.
Q4. What should be our attitude towards the poor?
Ans. Our attitude towards the poor should be generous and serviceable. We should never disown them as
they are the creation of the same God who has created the rich.
Q5. What does ‘bend my knees’ signify?
Ans. The expression ‘bend my knees’ signifies to kneel down or to surrender before somebody and to accept
his/her supremacy.
Q6. Why does the poet want to raise his mind high above ‘daily trifles’?
Ans. The poet wants to make his soul noble with love and compassion and this isn’t possible when his heart
is obsessed with ‘daily trifles’ or in other words ‘materialistic desires’. Therefore, he asks God to give him
strength to raise his mind high above the ‘daily trifles’ so that he can spend his life in service of mankind.
Q7. Why does the poet ask for strength to surrender his will to God’s will?
Ans. The impacts of human desires are so powerful that they can make people cruel and ruthless. Such people
are not able to spend their life according to God’s will. That is why poet asks for strength to surrender his
will to God’s will.
Recapitulation:
1. What prayer does the poet make to the God?
2. What does penury of heart mean?
3. Who are insolent might?
4. What is last prayer made by the poet?
LANGUAGE SKILLS:
Skill Area: Reading:
On an average, we eat almost three to four times the quantity of food than we actually need. A lot of body’s
energy is used up for digesting the excess food. It is said that after a particular level of food intake, the ‘food
actually eats one up’.
It is always good to eat a little less than your ‘full-stomach’ capacity. Besides, never eat food unless you are
really hungry. To have dinner at 8 or 9 pm after a heavy snack around 5 or 6 pm in the evening is asking for
trouble. In fact, skipping a meal is always good if the stomach is upset. There are varying views on the
benefits of fasting, but we will not discuss them here. However, giving a break to one’s stomach, at least once
a week, by having only fruit or milk, etc. may be worth a try.
While a little bit of water taken with meals is all right, drinking 30 to 60 ml of water with food is not advisable.
Water, taken an hour or so before or after meals, is good for digestion. One’s diet must be balanced with all
the required nutrients for a healthy living.
Also remember, excess of everything is bad. Related to the problem of stress, excessive intake of salt is
definitely out. Too much of sugar, fried food and chillies are not good either. Over-indulgence and excessive
craving for a particular taste/type of food generates rajasik (aggressive) or at worst, tamasik (dull) tendencies.
An even more important aspect of the relationship between food and stress lies not so much in what or how
much we eat but how the food is taken. For example, food eaten in great hurry or in a state of anger or any
other negative state of mind is bound to induce stress. How the food is served is also very important. Not
only the presentation, cutlery, crockery etc. play a role, the love and affection with which the food is served
is also significant. Finding faults with food while it is being eaten is a bad habit. It is better not to eat the food
you do not like, rather than finding faults with it.
It is good to have regular food habits. Workaholics who do not find time to eat food at proper meal time invite
stomach ulcers. One must try to enjoy one’s food, and therefore, eating at the so-called lunch/dinner meetings
is highly inadvisable. Every morsel of food should be enjoyed with a totally peaceful state of mind. Food and
discussions should not be mixed. There are accepted ways to ‘charge’ the food we eat. Prayer is perhaps ‘the
best method for energizing the food and it does definite additional good at no extra cost.
Questions:
Generally what incorrect belief do people practice at the table?
The writer says that the “food actually eats one up” because
What does ’induce’ mean?
Give an appropriate title to the passage
Skill Area: Listening: click on the given link and listen to the prayer song.
https://youtu.be/eLDtyNCFK2c
Skill Area: Speaking:
Sing the above given prayer song in your voice and forward it to the teacher.
Skill Area: Writing:
There is an old saying, "You can't really understand someone until you walk a mile in their shoes." Do you
think that this is true? Express your ideas.
SUBJECT: MATHEMATICS
Teacher Concerned: Mr. Suhail Hussain : suhail.hussain@kashmirharvard.org
Topic: Comparing Quantities
Module 04
Prerequisite Knowledge The learner should be aware about these concepts :
a) Ratio
b) Percentage
c) Simple Interest
Warm up Activity My report card
This chapter is about Comparing quantities, finding the increase or decrease
Synopsis Of The Lesson percent, different types of prices, discounts, profit %, loss % , sales tax/ Value
Added Tax and compound Interest.
After studying this lesson, learners will be able to explain
Teaching Learning a) Comparison through ratio and percentage
Outcome b) How to find increase or decrease percent
c) Compound Interest.
Wrap up Activity Debate on interest.
Warm up Activity:
The teacher will ask some basic questions about ratio and percentage like why we find percentage in a report
card?
Introduction
1. Discount is a reduction given on marked price. Discount = Marked Price – Sale Price.
2. Discount can be calculated when discount percentage is given. Discount = Discount % of Marked Price
3. Additional expenses made after buying an article are included in the cost price and are known
as overhead expenses.
CP = Buying price + Overhead expenses
4. Sales tax is charged on the sale of an item by the government and is added to the Bill Amount. Sales tax =
Tax% of Bill Amount
5. GST stands for Goods and Services Tax and is levied on supply of goods or services or both.
6. Compound interest is the interest calculated on the previous year’s amount (A = P + I)
7. (i) Amount when interest is compounded annually
n
 R  P is principal, R is rate of interest, n is time period.
 1  
 100 
ii) Amount when interest is compounded half yearly
2n  R 
 R   is half yearly rate 
 P  2 
 200   2n  number of half years 
 
Textual Exercises
Exercise 8.1
Q1. Find the ratio of the following
i. Speed of a cycle 15 km per hour to the speed of scooter 30 km per hour.
Sol. The required ratio =
Speed of cycle
Speed of scooter
15 1
 
30 2
 1: 2
ii. 5 m to 10 km
Sol. We know that
1 km = 1000 m
KHEI/T1/SM3/2021-22
10 km  10  1000
 10000 m
5m
The required ratio 
10 km
5m

10000 m
1

2000
 1 : 2000
ii. 50 paise to Rs 5
Sol. We know that
Re 1 = 100 paise
Rs 5  5  100 paise  500 paise
50paise
The required ratio 
Rs 5
50 paise

500 paise
50 paise

500 paise
1

10
 1 : 10
Q2. Convert the following ratios to percentages.

i. 3:4
Sol. 3:4
3
=  100
4
 75%
ii. 2:3
Sol. 2:3
2
 100
3
2
 66 %
3
Q3. 72% of 25 students are good in mathematics. How many are not good in mathematics?
Sol. Total number of students = 25
Number of students who are good in maths =72% of 25
72
  25  18
100
Number of students who are not good in maths =25 -18 = 7
Q4. A football team won 10 matches out of the total number of matches they played. If their win
percentage was 40, then how many matches did they play in all?
Sol. Number of matches that football team won = 10
Winning % = 40%
Let the total number of matches that football team played be x
As per condition
40% of x  10
40
  x  10
100
2x
  10
5
 2 x  10  5
10  5
x
2
 x  25
Total number of matches played = 25
Q5. If Insha had Rs 600 left after spending 75% of her money. How much did she have in the
beginning?
Sol. Let the money that Insha had in the beginning be x
Spent % = 75%
Saved %  100%  75%  25%
As per condition
25% of x  600
25
  x  600
100
x
  600
4
 x  600  4
 x  2400
The money Insha had in the beginning = Rs 2400
Q6. If 60% people in a city like cricket, 30% like football and the remaining like other games than
what percent of the people like other games? If the total number of people 50 lakh, find the exact
number who like each type of game.
Sol. Total number of people in a city = 50,00,000
% of people who like cricket = 60%
% of people who like football = 30%
% of people who like other games = 100% - 90% = 10%
Number of people who like cricket = 60% of 50,00,000
60
 50,00,000
100
 30,00,000
Number of people who like football =30% of 50,00,000
30
  50,00,000
100
 15,00,000
Number of people who like other games =10% of 50,00,000
10
  50,00,000
100
 5,00,000
Exercise 8.2
Q1. A man got a 10% increase in his salary. If his new salary is Rs 1,54,000, find his original salary?
Sol. Let the original salary be= Rs x
New salary = Rs1, 54,000
As per condition
110% of x = 1, 54,000
110
  x  1,54,000
100
 11x  1,54,000  10
 11x  1540 ,000
1540000
x
11
 x  1,40,000
 The original salary  Rs 1,40,000
Q2. On Sunday 845 people went to the zoo. On Monday only 169 people went. What is the percent
decrease in the people visiting the zoo on Monday?
Sol. Number of people on Sunday = 845
Number of people on Monday = 169
Decrease in number of people = 845 – 169
= 676
676
Decreasing % =  100  80%
845
Q3. A shopkeeper buys 80 articles for Rs 2,400 and the sells them for a profit 16%. Find the selling
price of one article?
Sol. Cost price of 80 article = Rs 2400
Cost price of 1 article = 2400  Rs 30
80
Gain% = 16%
Selling price of 1 article = 116% of 30
116
  30
100
348
  Rs 34.8
10
Q4. The cost of an article was Rs 15,500. Rs 450 were spent on its repairs. If it is sold for a profit of
15%, find the selling price of the article?
Sol. Cost price of an article = Rs 15,500
Repairing charges = Rs 450
New cost price = 15,500 +450 = Rs 15,950
Selling price of an article = 115% of 15,950
115
  15950
100
36,685
  Rs 18342 .5
2
Q5. A VCR and TV were bought for Rs 8,000 each the shopkeeper made a loss of 4% on the VCR
and a profit of 8% on the TV. Find the gain or loss percent on the whole transaction?
Sol. Cost price of VCR = Rs 8,000
Loss on VCR = 4% of 8000
4
  8000  Rs 320
100
Cost price of TV = Rs 8,000
Profit on TV = 8% of 8000
8
  8000  Rs 640
100
Over all gain = 640-320 = Rs 320
Gain percentage on whole transaction  320  100  2%
16,000
Q6. During a sale, a shop offered a discount of 10% on the marked prices of all items. What would a
customer have to pay for a pair of jeans marked at Rs 1450 and two shirts marked at Rs 850 each?
Sol. Cost price of jeans and two shirts = 1450 + 1700 = Rs 3150
Discount percentage = 10%
Selling price of jeans and two shirts = 90% of 3150
90
  3150  Rs 2835
100
Customer has to pay = Rs 2835
Q7. A milkman sold two of his buffaloes for Rs 20,000 each. On one of he made again of 5% and on
the other a loss of 10%. Find his overall gain or loss. (Hint: Find CP of each)
Sol. Let the cost price of first buffalo be=R x
Selling price of first buffalo = Rs 20, 000
Gain % on 1st buffalo = 5%
As per condition
105% of x = Rs 20,000
105
  x  20,000
100
 21x  20,000  20
 21x  4,00,000
4,00,000
x
21
 x  19047 .62
Gain  20,000  19047 .62
Gain  Rs 952 .38
Let the cost price of second buffalo be y
Selling price of second buffalo = Rs 20,000
Loss % = 10%
As per condition
90% of y = 20,000
90
  y  20,000
100
 9 y  20,000  10
2,00,000
 9y 
9
 y  22,222 .22
Loss  22,222 .22  20,000
 Rs 2222 .22
Overall loss  2222 .22  952 .38  1269 .84
Q8. The price of a TV is RS 13,000. This sales tax charged on it is at the rate of 12%. Find the
amount that Faheem will have to pay if he buys it?
Sol. Cost price of TV = Rs 13,000
Sales tax (%) = 12%
Sales Tax = 12% of 13,000
12
  13000  Rs 1560
100
Amount That Faheem will pay = 13,000 + 1560 = Rs 14560
Q9. Akram bought a pair of skates at a sale where the discount given was 20%. If the amount he
pays is RS 1,600, find the marked price?
Sol. Let the marked price of a pair of skates be x
Discount % = 20%
Amount that Akram paid = Rs 1600
As per condition
80% of x = 1600
80
  x  1600
100
 8 x  1600  10
16,000
x
8
 x  2000
The marked price of skates = Rs 2000
Q10. I purchased a hair dryer for RS 5,400 including 8% VAT. Find the price before VAT was
added?
Sol. Let the price of the hair dryer before VAT be x
Price of hair dryer after VAT = Rs 5,400
VAT% = 8%
As per condition
108% of x = 5,400
108
  x  5,400
100
 108x  5,400  100
 108x  5,40,000
5,40,000
x
108
 x  Rs 5,000
The price of hair dryer before VAT = Rs 5,000
Exercise 8.3
Q1. Calculate the amount and compound interest on
i. Rs 10.800 for 3 years at 12 1 % per annum compound annually.
2
Sol. Principal (P) = Rs 10,800
Rate of interest (r)= 12 1 % per annum = 25 % per annum compounded annually
2 2
Time (t) = 3 years
Number of conversion periods (n) = 3
n
 r 
Amount  P1  
 100 
3
 25 
 10,8001  
 2  100 
3
 1
 10,8001  
 8 
 8  1
3
 10,800 
 8 
9 9 9
 10,800   
8 8 8
9984150

64
 Rs 15377 .34
Compound interest = Amount – principal
= Rs 15377.34 – 10800
= Rs 4577.34
ii. Rs 18,000 for 2 1 years at 10% per annum compound annually.
2
Rate of interest (r)= 10% per annum compounded annually
Time (t) = 2 1 years
2
Number of conversion period (n) = 2
n
 r 
 100 
2
 10 
 18,0001  
 100 
 10  1 
2
 18,000 
 10 
11 11
 18,000  
10 10
 Rs 21,780
21780  10  6
Interest for 6 month 
100  12
= Rs 1089
1
Rest of the parts (Self attempt)
Amount after 2 year  21780  1089
2
 Rs 22,869
Compound interest  22869 - 18000  Rs 4869
Q2. Shahnaz borrowed Rs 26,400 from a bank to buy a scooter at rate of 15% per annum
compounded yearly. What amount will she pay at the end of 2 years and 4 months to clear the loan?
(Hint: Find A for 2 years with interest is compounded yearly and then find 81 on the 2 nd year
4
amount for years.)
12
Sol. Principal (P) = Rs 26400
Rate of interest (r)= 15% per annum compounded yearly
Time (T) = 2 years and 4 months
n
 r 
 100 
2
 15 
 26,4001  
 100 
 100  15 
2
 26,400 
 100 
2
 115 
 26,400 
 100 
115 115
 26,400  
100 100
 Rs 34914
34914  15  4
Interest for 4 month 
100  12
= Rs 1745.7
Amount after 2 year and 4 month  34914  1745 .7
 Rs 36659 .7
Q3. Sabina borrowed Rs 12,500 at 12% per annum for 3 years at simple interest and Rabiya
borrows same amount for the same time period at 10% per annum compounded annually who pays
more interest and by how much?
Sol. In case of Sabina
Principal (P) = Rs 12,500
Rate of interest (R)= 12% per annum
Time (T) = 3 years
Simple interest = P  R  T
100
12,500 12  3
  Rs 4500
100
In case of Rabiya
Rate of interest (r)= 10% per annum
Time (T) = 3 years
n
 r 
Amount  P  1  
 100 
3
 10 
 12 ,500 1  
 100 
3
 10  1 
 12 ,500 
 10 
3
 11 
 12 ,500 
 10 
11 11 11
 12 ,500     Rs 16637.5
10 10 10
Compound interest  16637.5 - 12500  Rs 4137.5
Sabina pays more int erest than Rabiya
More interest = 4500 – 4137.5 = Rs 362.5
Q4. I borrowed Rs 12,000 from Javaid at 6% per annum simple interest for 2 years. Had I
borrowed this sum at 6% per annum compound interest, what extra amount would I have to pay?
Sol. In case of simple interest
Rate of interest (R)= 6% per annum
Time (T) = 2 years
Simple interest = P  R  T
100
12,000  6  2
  Rs 1440
100
In case of compound interest
Principal (P) = 12,000
Rate of interest (R) = 6% per annum
Time (T) = 2 years
n
 R 
Amount  P 1  
 100 
2
 6 
 12,000 1  
 100 
(100  6) 2
 12000
1002
(106) 2
 12,000
1002
106 106
 12,000   13483.2
100 100
Compound interest  Amount - principal
 13483.2- 12,000  1483.2
More int erest  1483.2  1440  43.2
Q5. (Self attempt)
Q6. Asif took a loan of Rs 80,000 from a bank. If the rate of interest is 10% per annum, find the
difference in amount he would be paying after 1 years if the interest is.
1
2
i. Compounded annually
Rate of interest (r)= 10% per annum compounded annually
Time (T) = 1year and 6 months
r n
Amount  P(1  )
100
10 1
 80,000 (1  )
100
(10  1)1
 80,000
10
11
 80,000   88,000
10
88,000  10  6
Interest for 6 months 
100  12
 Rs4400
Total amount = 88000 + 4400 = Rs 92400
ii. Compounded half yearly
Rate of interest (r)= 10% per annum compounded half yearly
Time (T) = 1 1 years
2
r n
Amount  P(1  )
100
3
 10 
 80,0001  
 2  100 
 1  20 
3
 80,000 
 20 
3
 21 
 80,000 
 20 
21 21 21
 88,000   
20 20 20
 Rs 92,610
Difference in amounts = 92610 – 92400 = 210

Q7. Maria invested Rs 8,000 in a business. She would be paid interest at 5% per annum compound
annually. Find
i. The amount credit against her name at the end of the second year.
Rate of interest (r)= 5% per annum
Time (T) = 2 years
r
Amount  P(1  )n
100
5
 8,000(1  )2
100
( 20  1) 2
 8,000
20 2
( 21) 2
 8,000 
20 2
21 21
 8,000    Rs 8820
20 20
ii. The interest for the third year
Sol. Interest for third year  8820  5  1
100
= Rs 441 Q8, Q9 (Self attempt)
Q10. The population of a place increased to 54,000 in 2003 at a rate of 5 % per annum
i. Find the population in 2001
Sol. Let the population in 2001 be P1
Population in 2003 = 54,000
Rate of increase = 5% Per annum
As per condition
2
 5 
54000  P1 1  
 100 
2
1 1 
 54,000  P1   
 1 20 
(20  1) 2
 54,000  P1
20
(21) 2
 54,000  P1
20
21 21
 54,000  P1  
20 20
441
 54,000  P1 
400
441
 54,000   P1
400
400
 54,000   P1
441
 48980 (approx)  P1
 Population in 2001  48980
ii. What would be its population in 2005?
2
Sol. Population in 2005 = 54,000  5 
1  
 100 
2
 1 
 54,000  1   Q11 (Self attempt)
 20 
 20  1 
2
 54,000 
 20 
2
 21 
 54,000 
 20 
21 21
 54,000    59535
20 20
Q12. A scooter was bought at Rs 42,000 its value depreciated at the rate of 8 % per annum. Find its
value after one year?
Sol. Cost price of scooter =Rs 42,000
Rate of depreciation (r) = 8% per annum
Time = 1 year
Value after 1 year = 42,000 r
(1  1
)
100
8 1
 42,000 (1  )
100
 100  8 
1
 42,000  
 100 
92
 42,000 
100
 Rs38,640
MCQS
i) Discount is a reduction given on the ___________ of the article.
a) Selling Price b) Marked Price c) Cost price d) None of these
ii) Out of 40 children in a class, 10 are boys. What is the percentage of boys?
a) 10% b) 40% c) 4% d) 25%
iii) Profit % is equal to
a) ( CP / Profit ) × 100 c) ( Profit / SP) × 100
b) ( SP / Profit ) × 100 d) ( Profit / CP ) × 100
iv) Amount when interest is compounded annually is equal to
a) P ( 1 + r/100)n c) P ( r + 1/100)n
b) ( 1 + r/100)n d) None of these
v) The time period after which the interest is added each time to form a new principle is called the
____________
a) Conversion period c) Principal
b) Rate d) None of the these
Answer key
i) b ii) d iii) d iv) a v) a
HOTS
Q1. Find the value of x if x% of x = x.
Q2. If price of tea increased by 20% by what percent must the consumption be reduced to keep the expense
the same?
Q3. Basharat had five chapatti's and Saima had three chapatti's. They sat together to take these chapatti's. A
stranger passed by and he too was asked to take chapatti's. They shared the chapatti's equally. At the end
stranger paid rupees eight to them. How many should Basharat and Saima receive?
Q4. A shopkeeper sold two radio sets for Rs. 990 each. On one he made a gain of 10% and on the other a loss
of 10%. Find his overall gain or loss.
Q5. The population of a town decreases to 100000 in the year 2010 at a rate of 5 % per annum. Find the
population before 5 years in the year 2005.
CHAPTER TEST:
Q1: 72% of 25 students are good in mathematics. How many are not good in mathematics?
Q2. A man got a 10% increase in his salary. If his new salary is Rs 1,54,000, find his original salary.
Q3. A milkman sold two of his buffaloes for Rs 20,000 each. On one he made a gain of 5% and on the other a
loss of 10%. Find his overall gain or loss.
Q4. The population of a city was 20,000 in the year 1997. It increased at the rate of 5% p.a. Find the
population at the end of the year 2000.
Q5. Waseem invested Rs 60,000 at an interest rate of 12% per annum compounded half yearly. What amount
would he get
i) After 6 months ii) After 1 year
Wrap up activity:
Conducting a debate on interest where we will discuss advantages and disadvantages of interest
Chapter Name: Square and Square roots
Module 02
Prerequisite The learner should be aware about multiplication and division.
Knowledge
Warm up Activity Identical numbers
This chapter is about Square and Square roots, properties of square number,
Synopsis Of The Finding the square of a number, Pythagorean triplets, finding square root
Lesson through repeated subtraction, finding square root through prime factorisation,
finding square root by division method.
After studying this lesson, learners will be able to explain
Teaching Learning ● Square and square roots.
Outcome ● Properties of Square numbers.
● Pythagorean triplets.
● How to find square number.
● How to find square root by various methods.
Wrap up Activity Beat the calculator.
Warm up activity: Some simple questions based on multiplication and multiplication of two same
numbers.
Introduction
1. If a natural number m can be expressed as n2, where n is also a natural number, then m is a square
number.
2. All square numbers end with 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9 at units place.
3. Square numbers can only have even number of zeros at the end.
4. Square root is the inverse operation of square.
5. There are two integral square roots of a perfect square number.
Positive square root of a number is denoted by the symbol .
For example, 32 = 9 gives 9=3
Textual Exercises
Exercise 6.1
Q1. What will be the unit digit of the squares of the following numbers.
i. 81
Sol. The unit digit of the square of 81 is 1.
ii. 272
Sol. The unit digit of the square of 272 is 4
iii. 799
iv. 3853
v. 1234
vi. 26387
vii. 52698
viii. 99880
ix. 12796
x. 55555
Q2. The following numbers are obviously not perfect squares. Give reason.
i. 1057
Sol. It is not a perfect square Number because all those numbers that end with digit 2, 3, 7, 8 or odd
number of zeroes are not perfect square numbers. Rest of the parts (Self attempt)
Q3. The square of which of the following would be odd numbers?
i. 431
Sol. The square of 431 is an odd number because square of an odd number is always an odd number.
Rest of the parts (Self attempt) Q4, Q5, Q6 (Self attempt)
Q7. Without adding, find the sum
i. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9
Sol. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 52 = 25 Rest of the parts (Self attempt)
Q8.i) Express 49 as the sum of 7 odd numbers
Sol. 49 = 72 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 Rest of the parts (Self attempt)
Q9. How many numbers lie between squares of the following numbers?
i. 12 and 13
Sol. The number of non perfect square numbers between 122 and 132 = 12  2=24
Exercise 6.2
Q1. Find the square of the following numbers.
i. 32
Sol. (30  2) 2
 (30  2)(30  2)
 30(30  2)  2(30  2)
 900  60  60  4
 1024
Q2. Write a Pythagorean triplet whose member is
i. 6
Sol. The general form of Pythagorean triplet = 2m, m 2  1 and m 2  1
Let 2m  6
6
m 3
2
The other two numbers are
m 2  1  32  1  9  1  8
m 2  1  32  1  9  1  10
The required Pythagorean triplet is 6,8 and 10
Here, 6 2  8 2  10 2 Rest of the parts (Self attempt)
Exercise 6.3
Q1. What could be the possible ‘ones’ digit of the square root of each of the following numbers?
i. 9801
Sol. The possible one’s digit of the square root of 9801 is either 1 or 9
iii. 998001
Sol. The possible one’s digit of the 998001 is either 1 or 9 Rest of the parts (Self attempt)
Q2 (Self attempt)
Q3. Find the square roots of 100 and 169 by the method of repeated subtraction.
Sol. 100 – 1 = 99
99  3  96
96  5  91
91  7  84
84  9  75
75  11  64
64  13  51
51  15  36
36  17  19
19  19  0
Number of steps = 10
 100  10
b )169
169  1  168
168  3  165
165  5  160
160  7  153
153  9  144
144  11  133
133  13  120
120  15  105
105  17  88
88  19  69
69  21  48
48  23  25
25  25  0
Number of steps = 13
 169  13
Q4. Find the square roots of the following numbers by the prime factorisation method.
i. 729
Sol. 729  3  3  3  3  3  3
 729  3 2  3 2  3 2
 729  32  32  32
 729  32  32  32
 729  27

Q5. For each of the following numbers find the smallest whole number by which it should be
multiplied so as to get a perfect square number. Also find the square root of the square number so
obtained.
i. 252
Sol.
252  2  2  3  3  7
252  2 2  32  7
The smallest whole number by which 252 should be multiplied to get a perfect square number is 7
252  7  2 2  32  7 2
 1764  2 2  32  7 2
 1764  2 2  32  7 2
2
 1764  (2  3  7)
 1764  42
Q6. For each of the following numbers find the smallest whole number by which it
should be divided so as to get a perfect square. Also find the square root of the square
number so obtained.
i. 252
Sol.
252  2  2  3  3  7
252  2 2  32  7
The smallest whole number by which 252 should be divided to get a perfect square number is 7
252 2 2  32  7

7 7
36  2 2  32
 36  2 2  32
 36  22  32
 36  2  3 Rest of the parts (Self attempt)
 36  6
Q7. The students of class viii of a school donated Rs 2401 in all, for prime Minister’s National Relief
Fund. Each student donated as many rupees as the number of students in the class. Find the number
of students in the class?
Sol. Let the number of students in a class be x
Money contributed by each student = Rs. x
Total amount = Rs. 2401
As per condition
x  x  2401
 x 2  2401
x 2401
x 7777
 x  72  72
 x  49
The number of students = Money contributed by each student = 49
Q8. (Self attempt)
Q9. Find the smallest square number that is divisible by each of the numbers 4, 9 and 10?
Sol. LCM of 4 , 9 and 10 = 2  2  3  3  5  180
Prime factorisation of 180 = 2  2  3  3  5
 180  2  2  3  3  5
 180  2 2  32  5
 180  5  2 2  32  52
900  2 2  32  5 2
900 is the smallest square number that is divisible by 4, 9 and 10
Q10. (Self attempt)
Exercise 6.4
Q1. Find the square root of each of the following numbers by division method.
i. 2304
Sol.
 2304  48
Q2. Find the number of digits in the square root of each of the following numbers (without any
calculation)
i. 64
Sol. 64
Number of Bar(s) in 64=1
Number of digits in the 64  1
Q3. Find the square root of the following decimal numbers.
i. 2.56
Sol.
 2.56  1.6
Q4. Find the least number which must be subtract to each of the following numbers so as to get a
perfect square. Also find the square root of the perfect square so obtained?
i. 402
Sol. 402
The least number which must be subtracted from 402 to get a perfect square number is 2
402-2=400
 400  20

Q5. Find the least number which must be added to each of the following numbers so as to get a
perfect square. Also find the square root of the perfect square so obtained?
i. 525
Sol.525
The least number that should be added to 525 to get a perfect square number is 4
525 + 4 = 529
 529  23

Q6. Find the length of the sides of a square whose area is 441 m2?
Sol. Let the length of each side of the square be l
Area of the square = 441m2
 l  l  441
 l 2  441
 l  441
 l  (21) 2
 l  21
 The length of each side of the square is 21m.
Q7. In a right triangle ABC, B  90 0
i. If AB=6cm, BC=8cm, Find AC
Sol. AB = 6 cm
BC = 8 cm
AC = ?
By Pythagoras theorem,
( AC ) 2  ( AB ) 2  ( BC ) 2
 ( AC ) 2  (6) 2  (8) 2
 ( AC ) 2  36  64
 ( AC ) 2  100
 AC  100
 AC  (10) 2  10
Part b (Self attempt)
Q8. A gardener has 1000 plants. He wants to plant these in such a way that the number of rows and
the number of columns remain same. Find the minimum number of plants he needs more for this?
Sol. Total number of plants = 1000
Gardener wants to plant them in such a way that the number of rows will be equal to number of
columns.
By long division method
Gardener needs 24 more plants. Q9. (Self attempt)
MCQS
i) Which of the following is a perfect square number?
a) 5678 c) 6897
b) 5462 d) 4225
ii) Sum of first 100 odd numbers is equal to
a) 10000 c) 89007
b) 54980 d) 90005
iii) Square of an even number is always
a) Odd c) May be even or odd
b) Even d) None of these
iv) Among the following triplets, choose Pythagorean triplet
a) 7, 9 and 10 c) 5, 6 and 7
b) 8, 15 and 17 d) None of these
v) _____________is the inverse operation of square.
a) Prime Factorisation c) Square root
b) Pythagorean triplet d) None of the these
Answer key
i) d ii) a iii) b iv) b v) c
HOTS
Q1. Find the smallest number by which 24843 must be multiplied so that it becomes a perfect square
number. Also find its square root.
Q2. Find the least number which must be added to 10078 so that it becomes a perfect square. Find its square
root.
Q3. Find the least number which must be subtracted from 15252 to make it a perfect square.
Q4. Find the smallest four digit number which is perfect square. Also find the largest four digit number
which is a perfect square.
Q5. In a class a collection was made. Each student paid the amount equal to the number of students. On first
day they collected Rs. 930. How much minimum money more can they collect?
CHAPTER TEST:
Q1: Write a Pythagorean triplet whose one member is.
i) 6 ii) 16
Q2. Find the smallest square number that is divisible by each of the numbers 4, 9 and 10.
Q3. Find the square roots of the following numbers by the Prime Factorisation Method.
i) 9604 ii) 7744
Q4. Find the square root of each of the following numbers by Division method.
i) 3249 ii) 3136
Q5. Find the length of the side of a square whose area is 441sq.m.
Wrap up activity
Finding the square of any two digit number verbally within 5 seconds.
How to Square 2-Digit Numbers Ending with 5
Let’s start by talking about the special case of squaring a two-digit number that ends with 5. For example,
what’s the square of 35? Well, it turns out that the result of squaring any 2-digit number that ends with 5
starts with the number you get by multiplying the first digit of the number you’re squaring with the next
highest digit and ends with the number 25. Which means that the answer to 35 x 35 must begin with the
number 3 x 4 = 12 (since 3 is the first digit in 35 and 4 is the next number higher than 3) and ends with the
number 25. So, as you can check for yourself by hand (just to make sure it works!), the answer to 35 x 35 is
1,225. Let’s take another example of 75.
How to Square any 2-Digit Number

Squaring any two digit number in your head, let’s say 32 × 32. The first step is to figure out the distance
(more accurately the absolute value) from the number you are squaring to the nearest multiple of 10.
In our example, the nearest multiple of 10 to 32 is 30, and the distance between 32 and 30 is 2. If you were
instead squaring 77, the nearest multiple of 10 is 80, and the distance between 80 and 77 is 3. Now that
we’ve figured out this distance, all that we have to do to find the answer to the problem is multiply the
number we get when we subtract this distance from the original number by the number we get when we add
this distance to the original number, and then add the square of the distance to the result. In our example,
the method says that 32 x 32 must be equal to 30 (that’s the original number minus the distance of 2) times
34 (that’s the original number plus the distance of 2) plus 4 (that’s the square of the distance of 2). In other
words, 32 x 32 = (30 x 34) + 4. Wait, that actually looks ! How exactly is it better? Because as long as you
use the fact that 30 = 3 x 10 to make the multiplication problem easy (as in 30 x 34 = 3 x 10 x 34 = 3 x 340
= 1,020), this is now an easy problem to solve! Practice at it a bit, and you’ll see that the beauty of this
method is that it turns a single problem that’s hard to solve in your head into multiple easy problems.
Chapter Name: Cube and cube roots

Module 03
Prerequisite Knowledge The learner should be aware about square and square roots
Warm up Activity Story of a Hardy Ramanujan Number.
Synopsis Of The This chapter is about Cube and Cube roots, finding the cube of a number,
Lesson finding cube root through prime factorisation.
Teaching Learning After studying this lesson, learners will be able to explain
Outcome ● Cube and cube roots.
● How to find cube number.
● How to find cube root by prime factorisation method.
Wrap up Activity Beat the calculator
Warm up Activity
The teacher will narrate the story of a Hardy Ramanujan Number with students.
Introduction
1. Numbers like 1729, 4104, 13832, are known as Hardy – Ramanujan Numbers. They can be expressed
as sum of two cubes in two different ways.
2. Numbers obtained when a number is multiplied by itself three times are known as cube numbers.
For example 1, 8, 27, ... etc.
3. If in the prime factorisation of any number each factor appears three times, then the number is a perfect
cube.
4. The symbol 3 denotes cube root. For example 3 27  3
Textual Exercises
Exercise 7.1
Q1. Which of the following numbers are not perfect cubes?
i. 216
Sol. 216  2  2  2  3  3  3
216  23  33
 3 216  3 23  33
 3 216  3 23  33
 3 216  3 (2  3) 3
 3 216  6
 216 is a perfect cube number.
Q2. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be multiplied to obtain a
perfect cube.
i. 243
Sol. 243  3  3  3  3  3
243  33  3  3
The smallest number by which 243 should be multiplied
to get a perfect cube number is 3
243  3  33  33
 729  33  33
Q3. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be divided to obtain a
perfect cube.
i. 81
Sol. 81  3  3  3  3
81  33  3
The smallest number by which 81 should be divided to get a perfect cube
number is 3
81 33  3

3 3
 27  33
Q4. Dimensions of a cuboid are 5cm, 2cm and 5cm
L.C.M of 5, 2 and 5 = 10
In order to make length (5cm) 10 cm, we need 2 cuboids.
In order to make Breadth (2cm) 10 cm, we need 8 more cuboids.
In order to make height (5 cm) 10 cm, we need 10 more cuboids.
Imtiyaz needs 20 (2+8+10) cuboids to form Cube.
Exercise 7.2
Q1. Find the cube root of each of the following numbers by prime factorisation method.
i. 64
Sol. 64  2  2  2  2  2  2
64  2 3  2 3
 3 64  3 (2  2) 3
 3 64  2  2
 3 64  4
Q2, Q3, (Self attempt)
MCQS
i) S. Ramanujan was a/ an ..................... mathematician.
a) Persian b) Indian c) African d) Italian
ii) ................... is the smallest Hardy-Ramanujan number.
a) 4104 b) 7129 c) 1729 d) 9087
iii) Numbers obtained when a number is multiplied by itself three times are known as
a) Square numbers c) Odd numbers
b) Even numbers d) Cube numbers
iv) Cube of an odd number is always .................
a) Odd b) Even c) May be even or odd d) None of these
v) .................. is the inverse operation of cube.
a) Prime Factorisation c) Cube root
b) Pythagorean triplet d) None of the these
Answer key
i) b ii) c iii) d iv) a v) c
HOTS
Q1. Express 32832 as a sum of two cubes in two different ways.
Q2. How many cuboids of dimension 3 meters, 4 meters and 5 meters are required to form a smallest
perfect cube ?
Q3. State true or false : for any integer m, m2 < m3.Why ?
CHAPTER TEST:
Q1. Which of the following numbers are not perfect cubes?
i) 1000 ii) 128
Q2. Imtiyaz makes a cuboid of plasticine of sides 5cm, 2cm, 5cm. How many such cuboids will he need to
form a cube.
Q3. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be multiplied to obtain a
perfect cube.
i) 72 ii) 675
Q4. Find the smallest number by which each of the following numbers must be divided to obtain a perfect
cube.
i) 704 ii) 192
Q5. Find the cube root of each of the following numbers by prime factorisation method
i) 110592 ii) 46656
Wrap up activity: Finding the cube root of a number verbally within 5 seconds.
If you know that the given number is a cube number then following method can be used.
Step 1 Take any cube number say 857375 and start making groups of three digits
857 375
2nd Group 1st Group
We can estimate the cube root of a given cube number through a step by step process.
We can get 375 and 857 as two groups of three digits each.
Step 2 First group i.e. 375 will give you the one’s (or unit’s) digit of the required cube root.
The number 375 ends with 5. We know that 5 comes at the unit’s place of a number only when its cube root
ends in 5.
So, we get 5 at the unit’s place of the cube root.
Step 3 Now take another group i.e. 857.
We know that 92 = 729 and 102 =1000. Also, 729<857<10000. We take the ones place of the smaller
number 729 as the tens place of the required cube root. So, we get 3 857375 =95.
SUBJECT: COMPUTER
TOPIC: CREATING WEB PAGES USING HTML
Teacher concerned: Ms. Romaisa : romaisa.hameed@kashmirharvard.org
Learning objective:
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
 Define, create and run a Query
 Explain the Query Window
 Set relationship between tables
 Define, create and format a Form
 Define and create a Report
Warm-Up activity: Students will discuss the advantages of database and various data types.
Points to remember:
 Data simply refers to facts and figures.
 When data is processed for some meaning it becomes information
 Database is collection of related tables with data.
 A relational database is a collection of data items organised as a set of formally described tables. Data can
be accessed or re-assembled from these tables in different ways without a need to reorganise the database
tables.
 Table is a part of the database where the actual data is stored. MS Access stores the related entries in its
row. The row is called a record. Each type of detail in a record is stored in its columns known as fields.
 Primary key uniquely identifies each record. Table structure is created in the design view of a table.
 To enter data into a table, use datasheet view.
 A relationship works by matching data in key fields, usually a field with the same name in both tables.
 Manipulation means to make changes in the data. We can double click on the Click to Add heading and
rename the field.
 A Query displays specific records from a table that meet a certain criteria.
 The query window is divided into two panes. The top pane displays the tables selected for the query. The
bottom pane displays a design grid where we can add fields to the query and also specify the criteria.
 A Form is a graphical representation of a table.
 There are three views in which a form can be displayed: Form View, Layout View and Design View.
 To switch between views, click the View command from the Views group of Design tab.
 A report is a presentation of data in a printed format.
 There are four views in which a report can be displayed: Report View, Print Preview, Layout View and
Design View.
Keyboard Shortcut:
 Press Ctrl+S to save a database.
 Press Ctrl+O to open an existing database.
 Press F2 to rename a table.
 Press Alt+F4 to quit MS Access.
Textual Questions
NOTE:
 Maintain index and write all the questions on your notebook
 Bookwork to be done on book only.
Answer the following
1. Name the three views in which a form can be displayed.
Ans. The three views in which a form can be displayed are: Form View, Layout View and Design View.
2. Define the terms: record, forms and query.
Ans. Record: Records refer to rows of table in a database that stores the related entries.
Form: A form is a way to enter data into the database. It is nothing more than a graphical representation of a table.
Query: A query is used to extract information from a database. It displays specific records from a table that meets a
certain criteria.
3. How do you create a form?
Ans. To create a form, select the table for which we want to create the form and follow the given steps
Step-1: Click the Create tab on the Ribbon.
Step-2: Click the Form command from the Forms group.
Access creates a form and places all the fields of the selected table on the form.
4. Explain the design grid of the query window.
Ans. The Query window is divided into two panes. The top pane displays the tables selected for the query. The
bottom pane displays a design grid where we can add fields to the query and also specify the criteria.
The design grid shows the following headings:.
● Field row displays the fields from the selected table.
● Table row displays the name of the table.
● Sort row is used to filter the data in ascending or descending order.
● Show row displays a check mark which indicates that this field will be visible when the query is executed.
● Criteria row is used to specify the condition on the basis of which the records will be filtered.
● Or row is used to specify multiple criteria.
5. How do you apply multiple criteria on the same table? Explain with an example.
Ans. When you type two criteria on the same line, only records where both criteria are met will be displayed. This
is called AND condition.
When you type first criterion on the Criteria row and the second criterion on the Or row, the records where either
criteria are met will be displayed. This is called OR condition.
In the example, the criteria Age > 12 and Result = "Pass" are typed in the ‘Criteria’ row. Thus the result of this
query displays those records where both the criteria are met.
In the above example, Age>12 is specified in the criteria row and results = “Pass” is specified in the ‘or’ row.
The result of this query displays those records where either of the two conditions are met
HOTS: 1. Define a Query.
2. Name the different views in which a report can be displayed.
3. Write the shortcut key to save a database.
Wrap-Up activity: Create a student table with the fields - Roll Number, Name, Age and Result. Create a
query displaying the following:
● Students who have failed
● Students with roll number 7
Lesson 9 Topic: Ethics and Safety measures in Computing
Learning objective: At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
● List the advantages and disadvantages of internet
● Define search engine
● Define computer ethics
● List major unethical practices
● Define software piracy and its types
● List the various safety measures
● Explain digital footprints
Warm-Up activity: Students will discuss the use of computers in various fields.
Points to remember:
● Internet is a network of computers that connects the computers worldwide.
● Search engines are used to gather relevant information over the Internet
● Ethics are beliefs and rules stating what is right and what is wrong.
a. The rights related to literary or artistic work, inventions and discoveries are called intellectual property
rights.
b. Copyright © means All Rights Reserved.
c. Software Piracy is the illegal reproduction and distribution of software applications.
d. A hacker is a person who breaks into computer system to get illegal access to the information stored there.
e. A cracker is a person who breaks into a computer system with the intention to steal passwords files and
programs for unauthorised use.
f. YouTube is one of the most popular platforms to access and share online videos.
g. The unethical practices like threatening or humiliating others on the Internet and causing harassment to
others by posting some humorous or wrong remarks is called cyberbullying.
h. Computer security includes procedures and techniques that are designed to protect a computer from
accidental or intentional theft, unauthorised access or manipulation.
i. Digital footprints refers to the impressions or traces left behind by the users when they perform any online
transaction or activities like registering on a website, sending emails, e-shopping, uploading or downloading
the information, etc.
TEXTUAL QUESTIONS
NOTE:
 Maintain index and write all the questions on your notebook
 Bookwork to be done on book only.
Answer the following
1. What are the advantages of Internet?
Ans. The advantages of Internet are as follows:
(i) Source of Information : Internet gives us access to a vast pool of information.
(ii) Mode of Communication : Using internet, we send emails very quickly. We can talk to others using
audio and video call facilities. We can text messages or do voice chat.
(iii) E-shopping: Today, we use Internet facility to do shopping online. We can buy anything from anywhere
within the comfort of our homes.
(iv) E-banking: We can access our bank accounts on our computing devices to perform any type of financial
or non-financial transactions.
(v) Entertainment: It can be used to watch movies, TV shows, listen to music and play games.
(vi) Education: We can access e-books on the Internet free of cost or at a very nominal subscription fee. We
can register for online courses and get certified by reputed colleges and universities.
2. Write down the safety measures while using computers and Internet.
Ans. The safety measures while using computers and Internet are:
(i) Install Protective Software: Install protective (Antivirus) software and set it to scan all the files and
folders for viruses on a regular basis.
(ii) Choose Strong Passwords: Use a combination of letters, numbers and special characters to create a strong
password. Create a different password for each important account and update it regularly.
(iii) Back up on regular basis: Make a practice to take regular backups of the important data.
(iv) Control access: Do not leave your computer unattended or logged on, especially in public places.
(v) Use e-mail and Internet safety: Do not open the e-mail with an attachment or links from strangers.
(vi) Protect sensitive data : Remove all the sensitive data files from the hard disk especially when recycling
or repurposing your computer.
(vii) Use firewall : Firewall is the easiest way to safeguard our computer from being accessed by a burglar,
especially via Internet.
3. Write a short note on the following (a) Phishing (b) Spamming
Ans. (a) Phishing : This is a fraudulent act of collecting sensitive information of the user like his bank account
details, credit card information, net banking passwords, etc. using authentic looking emails. Such emails
appear to be genuine and sent by the banks which collect information to perform fraudulent activities.
(b) Spamming: This refers to unwanted emails sent in bulk to multiple users for promoting products or
services. This type of emails are sent forcefully to the people who otherwise do not want to receive them.
Most of these emails are harmless but they exhaust the storage space and make it difficult for us to identify
the important emails received.
4. List the ways to protect your privacy.
Ans. The ways to protect our privacy are:
(i) Never share the account details like login ID or passwords with others.
(ii) Avoid keeping any confidential information in the system.
(iii) Cookies stored in the system by other websites cause leakage of information. Delete them on a regular
basis.
5. Define intellectual property rights.
Ans. The rights related to literary or artistic work, inventions and discoveries are called Intellectual Property
Rights (IPR).
6. Define plagiarism. What steps can be taken to prevent it?
Ans. Plagiarism deals with stealing of ideas and thoughts of other people on the Internet and projecting them
as one's own work, without the permission of the original author. This is considered as cybercrime and is a
punishable act.
HOTS: 1. What are ethics?
2. Define Cyberbullying.
3. Name some of the popular search engines.
Wrap up activity: Prepare the given poster in MS Word to show the importance
of ethics
SUBJECT: SCIENCE
Teacher Concerned: Ms. Nowsheen : nowsheen.niyaz@kashmirharvard.org
Topic: Force and Pressure
Teaching objectives
 To provide the opportunity to develop scientific skills in students.
 To develop a scientific attitude and observation among the students.
 To clarify their doubts and form a correct concept of force and pressure.
 To make them understand that forces are due to an interaction.
 To make them explore more interesting facts about the nature of force.
 To make them investigate about the different effects of force on the state, shape, speed and direction
of an object.
 To enable them to relate and apply their knowledge about force and pressure and its effects in real
life situations
Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit students would be able to:
 To establish a relationship between force and state of motion.
 Explain the different types of forces.
 To investigate the effect of forces on state of motion, direction, shape, speed.
 To relate and apply their knowledge about force and its effect in real life situations.
Concept Map
Warm up activity: Give some examples of situations involving motion of objects. Try to identify action
involved in each case as a push or a pull and record your observations.
Action can be grouped as
S.No Description of the situation
Push Pull
1 Moving a book placed on a table
2 Opening or shutting a door
3 Drawing a bucket of water from a well
4 A football player taking a penalty kick
5 Cricket ball hit by a batsman
6 Moving a loaded cart
7 Opening a drawer
Introduction: Force is a push or pull which when applied on a body changes or tends to change its state of
rest, direction of motion, shape and speed. It is denoted by letter F and its S.I unit is Newton (N).
Force is a Vector quantity which has magnitude as well as direction.
Direction and Magnitude of Force:
(i) The measurement of strength and amount of force is called magnitude of force.
(ii) Two or more forces on the same object can be applied in the same direction and opposite direction.
a. When two or more forces are applied over an object in the same direction: When two or more forces
are applied in the same direction, then the total or net force is the addition of magnitude of both the forces.
Example: When two persons push the box in the same direction with the magnitude of forces of each 2 u, then
resultant force will be-
Net force:- 2u + 2u= 4u (In the direction of applied force)
2u Direction of motion
Body
2u Direction of motion
Direction of applied force
b. When two forces are applied over an object in the opposite direction: When two forces are applied
over an object in the opposite directions, the total effective or net force is the difference of magnitude of two
forces.
Example:
(i) When two persons push the box in the opposite direction with the magnitude of forces of each 2 units,
then resultant force will be-
Net force:- 2u – 2u= 0N (Box will not move)
2u Body 2u
Net force = 2u - 2u= 0

(ii) If one person is applying a force of 6 unit in one direction and another person is applying force of 8 unit
in opposite direction,
Then the resultant force: 8u – 6u= 2u (In the direction of higher magnitude of force)
In this case, force will act in the direction of higher magnitude of force.
8u Box 6u
Net force 8-6= 2u

Effects of Force: Force cannot be seen but can be judged by the effects it can produce in various objects
around us .A force can produce the following effects.
a. A force can move a stationary object: In this case, the body which is at rest can be put into motion.
For example: If a football placed on the ground is at rest, when you kick the football, it moves (comes in
motion). We can also say that it changes the state of the body from rest to state of motion.
b. A force can stop a moving object: In this case, if the body is in a state of motion it can be stopped by
applying force on it. Example: When the goalkeeper dives or jumps up to save the Goa, he applies a force to
the moving football and saves a goal from being scored. Thus the stopping of a moving football by a
goalkeeper demonstrates that the force can stop a moving object.
c. A force can change the speed of a moving object: When the applied force is in the same direction as
direction of motion, there is an increase in the speed of an object. e.g. Bicycle moving with certain speed is
pushed from behind the speed of bicycle increases.
When the applied force is in opposite direction of motion, there is a decrease in the speed of object. The object
may also come to rest when the applied force is in opposite direction to the direction of motion. If bicycle
moving with certain speed is pulled from behind, then the speed of bicycle decreases.
d. A Force can change the direction of a moving object : In the cricket game, a batsman can push a fast
moving ball in the same direction or in opposite direction or change the direction of movement of the ball
because of the force being applied from his bat. Thus a force can change the direction of motion of a moving
object.
e. A force can change the shape and size of an object: Force can change the shape of an object. When force
is applied on a ball of dough, there is a change in the shape of dough. Similarly, a potter changes a lump of
clay into pots by applying force. When air is filled in a balloon; the shape & size of the balloon changes
because of the applied force.
TYPES OF FORCE: There are two main types of forces, viz. contact force and non-contact force.
Contact Force: A force which can be exerted by an object on another object only through ' Physical Contact
is called a contact force. The examples of a contact forces are
1.Muscular Force: It is the force applied by muscles of the body
Example. A bullock is able to pull a cart because of muscular force, when we push the object or lift the bucket
of water we use muscular force. Since muscular force can be applied to an object only when our body is in
contact with it .Therefore muscular force is a contact force.
2.Frictional Force: The force which always opposes the motion of one body over another body is called
frictional force. Friction always opposes motion because it acts in opposite direction of motion. Force of
friction arises due to contact between two surfaces. If there is no contact between two surfaces there would be
no friction e.g. A ball moving on the ground slows down gradually and stops after covering some distance
because of the frictional force exerted by the ground on the moving ball which opposes its motion & makes it
to stop.
Non Contact Force: A force which can be exerted by an object on another object even from a distance
(without touching each other) is called a non-contact force. The examples of a non-contact forces are
1.Magnetic Force : The force applied by a magnet is called magnetic force. A magnet can exert its force on
an object even from a distance and does not need to touch that object. e.g The force between magnet and iron
nails . Magnetic Force can be attractive or repulsive. There is magnetic force of attraction between two unlike
poles of magnet (N& S) .On other hand there is magnetic force of repulsion between two like poles of magnet
(N & N,S & S).
2.Electrostatic Force: The force exerted by an electrically charged object is called electrostatic force
e.g. Force exerted by an electrically charged comb on uncharged pieces of paper.It can be either between same
charges (repulsive, this means they repel each other) or between opposite charges (attractive, this means that
they both attract each other).
3. Gravitational Force: Every object in the universe exerts a force on another object. This force is called
gravitational force. it is the force exerted by earth's gravity on all objects. It is attractive in nature. For example:
Falling of apple from tree or falling of any object towards ground when we throw it up.
Pressure: Pressure is the force acting on per unit area of an object in the direction perpendicular to the surface.
Pressure = Force/Area on which it acts
In this equation, force is the numerator and area is the denominator. This means that pressure is directly
proportional to the applied force but inversely proportional to the area on which it is acting
Following examples illustrate this effect:
 It is easier to push a nail into a wooden door through its pointed end than through its blunt end, because
small area of the pointed end helps in creating more pressure and it becomes easier to insert the nail.
 Shoulder straps of your school bag are wide. A larger area helps in reducing the pressure on the shoulder
and makes it less painful to carry the bag.
The S.I unit of measuring pressure is 'newton per square metre ' ( N/m 2) which is also called Pascal (Pa)
Pressure =
1Pa = N / m2
Applications Of Pressure
1. A heavy truck is fitted with six to eight wheels because increased area reduces the pressure on wheels so
they do not burst or damage on the road. That is why truck has broad tyres so that there is less pressure on the
ground and the tyres do not sink in the soil.
2. Skiers use long and flat skis to slide on the snow. A large area of the cross-section of skis reduce the pressure
on the snow and prevents the skiers from sinking into the soft ground. So, the skiers easily slide over snow
without sinking their feet into the ground.
3. The tyres of the tractor are made broad so as to reduce the pressure exerted on the ground.
4. The tip of the needle of the sewing machine is pointed so as to reduce the area of contact between needle
and cloth and increase the pressure.
Pressure exerted by fluids ( Liquids and gases )
 Pressure exerted by fluids i.e liquids & gases is called Fluid pressure or Drag.
 Liquid and gas can also exert pressure on inner walls of container in which they are kept
 Pressure on the bottom of container depends on the height of column of gas or liquid. Due to this, divers
have to withstand a large pressure at the bottom of the sea.
 When air is filled, a rubber balloon gets inflated from all sides .This happens due to pressure exerted by air
or gas over inner walls of the balloon.
 Pressure exerted by a liquid increases with increasing depth.
Atmospheric pressure: Atmospheric pressure also called as barometric pressure is due to the weight of air
present in the atmosphere above us. Atmospheric pressure is expressed in millimeter of mercury (mm of Hg)
Note:
 Maintain index at the beginning of each chapter.
 Go through the chapter thoroughly and complete the bookwork
 Textual Questions to be done on note book by yourself.
Wrap Up Activity: Perform the activities given in the table to study the effects of force .Fill in the columns
with the type of force that is used and what the end result will be
Activity Action Done Type of Force in Use

Throwing a basketball into a a. Ball thrown
basket b. Ball falls on the court
a. Hitting the ball

Batsman hitting a ball
b. Ball goes to the boundary
Compass needle pointing North 1. Compass shows direction
A man pushing a crate to move a. Gets it moving
it b. Moves it by 5 m.
A current passing through a coil a. The coil picks up metal paper
wound round a nail. clips.
Surfing Activity: To know more about the chapter, click on the link below
https://youtu.be/IJWEtCRWGvI
https://youtu.be/9tg3csrFVJw
TOPIC: METALS AND NON-METALS
Learning objectives
 Enable students to use domain-specific vocabulary to describe elements categorize elements into three
categories ,explain the organization of the periodic table
 Students will be engaged in activities that will help them understand the organization of the periodic table.
They will learn about the physical properties of metals and non-metals
 Enable the students to learn the meanings of new terms & develop the skill of writing project report of
various reactions of metals & nonmetals with air, water, acid & base.
 Enable the students to investigate the physical properties of a given set of materials and categorize the
materials as metals and non-metals.
Learning Outcome:
At the end of this unit students would be able to
 Understand the position of elements in periodic table and know about their symbols.
 Study the physical properties of metals & nonmetals highlighting the exceptions
 Identify the substances around them as metals & non-metals
 Differentiate between the physical properties of metals & non-metals
 Investigate the effect of air, water, acids & bases on metals & non-metals & compare the properties
 Define displacement reactions
 Differentiate metals from each other on the basis of their reactivity.
 Recognize the use of metals & non-metals in day to day life
 Investigate the factors causing corrosion of metals.
Concept Map
Warm up activity: In the exercise below write the names of the substances in the table under the
appropriate headings.
Iron Aluminum Wood Rubber Mercury Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water
Hydrogen Gold Sugar Nitrogen Chlorine Table salt
Elements Compounds
Introduction:
Elements
 A substance which cannot be broken down into two or more simpler substances by chemical reactions (by
applying heat, light or electricity) is called an element.
 Elements themselves are the simpler substances e.g. Hydrogen, Helium, Carbon, Nitrogen, Silicon,
Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine etc.
 Every element is represented by a symbol. All the elements have separate symbols e.g. Hydrogen is
represented by H, Oxygen by O, Magnesium by Mg and so on. The symbol of an element represents one atom
of that element.
The smallest part of an element is atom. A sample of an element contains only one kind of atoms. So an
element can also be defined as, “An element is a substance which is made up of only one kind of atoms and
cannot be broken down into simpler form by any physical or chemical process”. Different elements are made
up of different kind of atoms, e.g. Sulphur is made up of only sulphur atoms, oxygen is made up of only
oxygen atoms.
There are 118 chemical elements known at present. There are similarities as well as differences in the
properties of these elements. On the basis of their properties elements can be divided into three main groups,
Metals, Non Metals and metalloids
Metals: Metals are defined as elements which loose the electrons from their outermost shell to form the
positive ions i.e. they are electropositive elements. For e.g. Sodium is a metal with atomic number 11, i.e. it
has 11 electrons revolving around its nucleus with the electronic configuration of 2, 8, 1, with only one electron
in its outermost shell, it will donate one electron to some other element to form the positive Sodium ion.
i.e Na . Na+ + e-
2,8,1. 2,8
Examples of metals are Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (ca), Aluminium (Al),
Copper (Cu), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag) etc
Physical properties of Metals:
1. Metals in their pure state possess shiny surface known as metallic lustre. Most of the metals lose their
brightness when exposed to air for a long time and acquire dullness due to corrosion
2. Metals are highly malleable i.e. metals can be drawn into sheets when beaten (hammered) without
breaking. Gold and silver are highly malleable metals.
3. Metals are highly ductile i.e. metals can be drawn into thin wires. Gold and silver are most ductile metals.
4. Metals are good conductors of heat i.e. metals can allow heat to pass through them. Silver is the best
conductor of heat. The poorest conductor of heat is Lead.
5. Metals are good conductors of electricity, i.e. metals allow the electric current to pass through them. Silver
and copper are the best electrical conductors. Mercury is poor conductor of electricity.
6. Metals are solids at room temperature with the exception of mercury. Gallium has melting point of 30˚C
i.e. room temperature. It melts when held in the hand.
7. Metals possess high tensile strength.
8. Metals possess high densities. Among metals, Osmium is the heaviest metal (with density of 22g/cm3) and
Lithium is the lightest metal with the density (0.5g/cm3).
9. Most of the metals are hard except Sodium, magnesium and potassium which can be cut easily with a
knife.
10. All metals generally have high melting and boiling points except Mercury and Gallium. Among metals
Tungsten (W) has the highest melting point (3422˚C) and mercury has the lowest melting point (-38.8˚C).
11. Metals are generally sonorous i.e. they produce ringing sound when struck with hard object.
Non Metals: Non-Metals are defined as the elements which gain electrons to form negative ions, i.e. they are
electronegative elements. Since large amount of energy is needed to remove one or more electrons from non-
metals, so they do not form positively charged ions, e.g. Chlorine is a non-metal with atomic number 17, i.e.
it has 17 electrons revolving around the nucleus in their orbits with electronic configuration 2,8,7 with 7
electrons in its outermost shell. It has to gain an electron from some other combining element to complete its
outermost shell to form negative chlorine ion. i.e.
Cl+ . Cl + e
2,8,7. 2,8,8
Examples of Non-Metals are: Hydrogen(H), Nitrogen(N), Chlorine(Cl), Bromine(Br), Sulphur(S) Carbon(C) etc.
Physical properties of Non-Metals:
1. Non-metals do not possess any lustre except Iodine, Diamond and Graphite are lustrous.
2. Non-Metals are neither malleable nor ductile i.e. Non-Metals cannot be drawn into sheets and thin wires.
3. Non-Metals are soft and brittle and break into pieces when hammered except Diamond which is the hardest
known substance.
4. Non-Metals are generally bad conductors of heat and electricity except graphite which is a good conductor
of electricity due to presence of free electrons in it.
5. Non-Metals are non-sonorous i.e. they can’t produce sound when hit with a hard object.
6. Non-Metals generally have low melting and boiling points except Boron, Diamond and Graphite which
have high M.P. and B.P.
7. Non-Metals have generally low densities. Sulphur has lowest density of 2g/cm3.
8. Non-Metals have low tensile strength i.e. they can break easily.
9. Non-Metals can exist in Solids, Liquids and Gaseous states at room temperature. E.g. Carbon, Sulphur,
Phosphorous and Iodine are solids. Bromine is Liquid, while Hydrogen, Oxygen, Chlorine exist in gaseous
state at room temperature.
Chemical properties of Metals: Metals in general have tendency to lose one or more electrons present in the
Valence shell of their atoms to form positive ions. E.g.
Na Na+ + e-
Mg Mg2+ + 2e-
Al Al3+ + 3e-
Greater the tendency of the metal to loose electrons, more will be the reactivity of metal. On the basis of this
tendency some metals are chemically very reactive whereas other metals are less reactive. The arrangement
of metals in a vertical column in the order of decreasing reactivities is called the reactivity series of metals. In
this Reactivity series’ most reactive element is placed at top whereas least reactive metal is placed at bottom.
The reactivity series of some common metals are below:
Potassium (K) → Most reactive Metal
Sodium (Na)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Aluminium (Al)
Zinc (Zn)
Iron (Fe)
Lead (Pb)
Hydrogen (H)
Copper (Cu)
Silver (Ag)
Gold (Au)
→ Least reactive Metal
a. Reaction with Oxygen (Formation of Oxides)
All metals combine with Oxygen to form their respective metal Oxides
Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide
 Metal oxides are basic in nature i.e. they turn red litmus paper blue.
 Metal oxides are ionic compounds formed by transference of electrons from metal atom to oxygen atom.
4Na (s) + O2 (g) 2Na2O (Sodium Oxide)
2Mg + O2 (g) 2MgO (Magnesium Oxide)
Iron is comparatively less reactive. It reacts with oxygen but doesn’t burn.
3Fe+ 2O2 FeO.Fe2O3 (Rust)
b. Reaction of Metals with water (Formation of hydroxides)
Metals react with water to form respective Metal hydroxides. Reactivity of metals with water is also linked
with their positions in the reactivity series. Metals placed higher in the reactivity series are more reactive than
the metals which occupies lower position.
Metals like Sodium and Potassium react with water violently and catch fire.
2Na +2H2O 2NaOH + H2 + Heat
2K + 2H2O 2KOH +H2 + Heat
They are stored in Kerosene to avoid contact with air and water.
Calcium react with water less violently while Magnesium reacts with water upon heating.
Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH2)2 + H2
Mg + 2H2O Mg(OH2)2 + H2
Iron displaces hydrogen from water when steam is passed.
3Fe + 4H2O Fe3OH + 4H2
c. Reaction of Metals with acids: Metals placed above hydrogen react with dilute acids like hydrochloric
acid and sulphuric acid to evolve hydrogen gas and form metal salts.
2Na + 2HCl (dil) 2NaCl + H2
Mg + H2SO4 (dil) MgSO4 + H2
Ca + 2HCl (dil) CaCl2 + H2
Metals placed below hydrogen in reactivity series cannot lose electrons to H+ ions of acid therefore,
Hydrogen gas is not liberated.
d. Reaction of Metals with Bases: Some metals react with bases to form metal salts and Hydrogen gas.
Aluminium and Zinc are two common metals which react with bases such as Sodium hydroxide to produce
Hydrogen gas. All metals do not react with bases to evolve Hydrogen gas.
2NaOH + Al NaAlO2 + H2
2NaOH + Zn Na2ZnO2 + H2
e. Reaction of Metals with Metal Salts (Displacement Reaction): The basic principle of displacement
reaction is that a more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salt solution.
For example, as per reactivity series Iron metal is more reactive than copper, so Iron can displace copper
from its salt solution
CuSO4 + Fe FeSO4 + Cu
Similarly
CuSO4 +Zn. ZnSO4 + Cu
AgNO3 + Cu Cu(NO3)2 + Ag
Chemical properties of Non-Metals
1. Reaction of Non-Metals with Oxygen (Formation of Non-Metal oxides)
Non-Metals react with Oxygen to form their respective Non-Metal Oxides
Non-Metal + Oxygen Non-Metal Oxide
2. Non-Metals are Acidic in nature i.e. they turn blue litmus into red.
S + O2 SO2
3. Reaction of Non-Metals with Water: Non-Metals do not react with water.
4. Reaction of Non-Metals with dilute acids: Non-Metals do not react with dilute acids, however some
Non-Metals do react with hot and concentrated Sulphuric and Nitric acid but no Hydrogen gas is evolved.
5. Reaction with Bases
Some Non-Metals react with bases such as Sodium hydroxide but no Hydrogen gas is evolved. The
reaction of Non-Metals with bases is complex.
Uses of Metals
● Metals are the main component in the construction industry. Metals like iron, steel amongst others are the
main materials used in construction of buildings and even homes.
● As metals are good conductors of electricity, they are used to make wires and parts for equipment’s and
gadgets that function on electrical current.
● Metals such as platinum, gold, and silver come under the category of precious metals and have high
economical value. These metals are widely used in making jewellery sets or for some decorative piece.
● Most of the utensils that are used in the kitchen are made from metals like steel, aluminum, and copper. Due
to a high temperature withstanding natural metals are preferred the most.
● Metals with low melting points like mercury is used in making thermometers.
Uses of Non Metals
 Non-Metal like Chlorine is very efficient disinfectant, hence added in public water to kill disease causing
pathogens.
 Noble gases such as neon, argon, krypton are used in different types of lights.
 Sulphur and phosphorus are used in fireworks.
 Iodine prevents throat infections and is used as antiseptic on wounds and cuts.
 Nitrogen is used in making fertilizers. It enhances the rate of plant growth. Non Metal phosphorus is also
used for better plant growth.
Note:
 Go through the chapter thoroughly and complete the bookwork.
 Textual Questions to be done on note book by yourself.
Wrap up Activity: Make a generalisation about the physical and chemical properties that differentiate
metals from non metals.
Lab Activity:
 Perform an experiment to arrange the given metals (Iron, copper, aluminium, zinc) in decreasing order of
reactivity using displacement reaction.
 Perform an activity to study the different chemical properties of metals & non metals
 Perform an experiment to determine the conditions under which corrosion of metals take place.
Surfing Activity: To know more about the chapter, click on the link below
https://youtu.be/M95rTLomCIU
https://youtu.be/QsbRgTYvthg
TOPIC: REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE
Learning Objectives
To enable learners to:
 Accept that change is an inevitable part of life
 Appreciate that growth and development is a continuous process
 Recognize that changes during adolescence occur at different pace and timing in every individual
 Develop a positive acceptance of self
 Differentiate between adolescent and puberty
 Differentiate between menarche and menopause
 State the changes that occur during the adolescent stage
 Understand how hormones effect our body
 Understand the consequences of teenage pregnancy
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter students would be able to
 Demonstrate understanding of theoretical perspectives of child and adolescent development.
 Apply research to the understanding of social learning and behavioral challenges of children and adolescents.
 Demonstrate understanding developmental norms and processes of growth and change in children,
adolescents and distinguish behaviours that are part of normal development that take place during adolescence.
 Describe the basic changes that occur inside and outside of the body during puberty.
 Describe the basic emotional changes that occur during puberty, and identify ways to manage or handle
these changes.
Concept Map
Endocrine system
Adolescence
Testosterone
Period of transition (in males)
from child to adult Secreted by Testes
(10-19 years)
Hormones
Estrogen
(in females)
Puberty Secreted by Ovary
Thyroxine
Period of life during Secreted by Thyroid
which an individual gland
becomes sexually
mature. Insulin
Changes at puberty
Secreted by Pancreas
Increase in height
Adrenaline
Growth of muscles Secreted by adrenal
(more in boys than girls) gland
Change in voice In boys

Increased activity of sweat  Beard, moustaches.
and sebaceous glands  Public hair, hair under
Maturation of sex organs arms, chest.
 Adam’s apple.
Mental, social and  Deep voice.
emotional maturity
Appearance of secondary
sexual characters
In Girls
 Public hair
 Hair under armpits.
Reproductive health
 Development of breasts.
 Broadening of pelvis.
Adolescents should take care of their diet
and personal hygiene. They should do
physical exercise and stay away from drugs.
Warm Up activity:
 Collect the data on the number of children in your class who exercise regularly and who do not exercise
regularly. Did you notice any difference in their fitness and health? Prepare a report on the benefits of
regular exercise.
Introduction:
Animals, as well as human beings, can reproduce only after a certain age or time period in their lives after
growing up into an adult. This is because of changes in hormones in their bodies that make them capable
of reproduction.
Adolescence and Puberty
 The period of life, when the body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity, is called
adolescence. This is the time span in which the child develops into an adult.
 Adolescence begins around the age of 11 and goes on until 18 or 19 years of age. Boys and girls
experiencing this period are called as adolescents or teenagers.
 During adolescence, the endocrine glands produce harmones that cause changes in the body. These
changes mark the beginning of body’s journey to become an adult.
What is puberty?
 Puberty is the process of physical change by which young children reach sexual maturity and become
capable of reproduction.
 In girls, puberty may begin a year or two earlier than in boys.
Puberty and adolescence are not synonymous. while puberty refers to the physical process of sexual
development, adolescence refers to physical as well as psychological and social changes that
transform a child into an adult. Hence, puberty occurs during adolescence and is part of it.
What changes occur in humans at puberty?
Changes Explanation
The height increases suddenly  The bones of the legs in the arms of a person start to grow longer
and hence a person becomes taller during the puberty.
 This increase in height occurs until the age of 18 in both boys and
girls.
 However, it is observed that girls grow faster than boys initially.
Change in the shape of the body  As boys and girls enter into the time period of puberty their body
shapes start to change.
 The boys generally experience broadening of chest and shoulders.
 In girls, the area below the waist becomes wider.
 However, the changes in boys and girls are different because the
muscle growth in boys is higher than that in girls.
Change in voice  A change in voice is accomplished as the body hits puberty,
especially in boys.
 The voice box or the larynx develops in boys.It can also be seen as
an enlarged part of the throat in boys and is named as Adam's
Apple.
 Boys also develop hoarse voice for some time due to the changes
in the larynx.
 The larynx in girls, on the other hand is not visible because of its
smaller size.
Development of sex organs  By the time girls and boys hit puberty the reproductive organs are
developed completely.
 In males, the sperm production begins.
 In females, the size of the ovaries increase and it starts releasing
the eggs.
Mental, emotional and  During the adolescent age, the brain has the maximum learning
intellectual maturity power.
 The way of thinking of individuals starts to change.
 It is also observed that girls and boys start feeling self-conscious.
 They may also feel a little uncomfortable and insecure due to
sudden changes in the body. However, all these changes are
completely normal
Increased sweat and oil  There are sweat glands and oil glands (called sebaceous glands)
production in the skin present in our bodies which start secreting more oil and sweat
during the puberty.
 Many times girls and boys get acne and pimples on the face during
the excess secretion by these glands.
What are secondary sexual characters?

At puberty, some changes occur in both males and females that distinguish them from each other. The features
that develop in them are called Secondary Sexual Characters. Some of them are as follows.
Boys:
1. The growth of facial hair.
2. The growth of body hair including underarm, abdomen, chest hair and pubic hair.
3. Chest and shoulders widen and body becomes muscular
4. Skin becomes more rough and porous, secretion of sweat glands and sebaceous glands increase.
5. Larynx (Adam’s apple)/voice box protrudes out and voice becomes deep and husk.
Girls:
1. Enlargement of breasts.
2. The growth of body hair in the underarm and pubic areas.
3. Widening of hips.
4. Deposition of fat takes place below the skin, at hips and thighs.
5. Development of secondary reproductive organs.
How the changes in the human body occur at the time of puberty?
What are hormones?
 There are endocrine glands present in humans which secrete chemical
substances in the body called as Hormones. These chemical substances are
responsible for changes in the human body at the time of puberty.
 The hormones act as messengers and are responsible for transporting signals
from one cell to another. Hence they evoke responses from various organs of the
body and tissues. Hormones have certain properties or characteristics such as:
 They are secreted by the endocrine glands and then are transported by blood to
all parts of the body to maintain and regulate the activities of cells, tissues and
organs.
 They are responsible for regulating the behaviour of the target cells.
 They cause long term effects in the body like change in behaviour, change in growth, development of
organs, puberty menopause etc.
 Hormones are secreted in limited quantities from time to time whenever they are required by the body.
 Different glands present in the body are responsible for secretion of different hormones.
 The nervous system regulates the flow of hormones in the body.
The endocrine glands are also called Ductless Glands because they secrete the hormones directly into the
blood.
Pituitary glands
The pituitary gland has a size as small as pea and
is located inside the skull in the body .It is situated in the brain and is called as
a master endocrine gland.
 It produces hormones that instruct other glands to secrete their hormones.
 The pituitary gland secretes growth hormone which controls the overall
growth of a person.
 Secretion of growth hormone is maximum in adolescence period
 It also secretes prolactin that simulates the production of milk in females.
Role of hormones in initiating the Reproductive Function
The part of the body for which a particular hormone is meant is called the Target
Site. The endocrine glands secrete the hormones in the blood and it reaches the
target site. Then the target site response accordingly.
Testosterone
 Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone.
 It is responsible for the development of the male reproductive organs,
production of male gamete i.e. sperms and development of secondary sexual
characteristics too.
 Testes start secreting testosterone only after puberty.
Estrogen
 Estrogen/oestrogen is the primary female sex hormone.
 It is responsible for the development of the female reproductive organs, production of female gamete i.e.
ova and development of secondary sexual characteristics and menstrual cycle.
 Ovaries secrete this hormone after puberty.
Thyroid gland
 It is a butterfly-shaped gland situated in the throat.
 It secretes a hormone called thyroxin.
 This hormone is important as it maintains the balance of all metabolic
activities.
 The deficiency of this hormone can cause swelling of the thyroid gland, leading
to goitre.
Pancreas
 The pancreas secrete a hormone called insulin which regulates
the blood sugar level in the body.
 Deficiency of insulin leads to diabetes.
Adrenal glands
 The adrenal glands are situated right above the
kidneys.
 They change their shape throughout life and shrink
as a person grows older.
 They secrete a hormone adrenaline and also maintain
the salt and pH balance.
 Hormone adrenaline is also called ‘fight or flight’
hormone as it functions in emergency situations
Reproductive Phase of Life in Humans

The ability of production of gametes in humans last until certain time period only. This time period varies
between males and females.
Reproductive Phase in Females
 It begins from the age of 10 to 12 years and lasts until the age of 45 to 50 years.
 When females hit puberty, the eggs or ova start getting mature.
 One of the ovaries then releases the mature ovum around 28 to 30 days.
 The wall of the uterus at this time, (when the egg is released) becomes thick to hold the egg in case if
fertilization occurs and the egg develops.
 When the fertilization does not take place, the lining of the uterus sheds along with the egg and the blood
vessels.
 This results in menstruation or bleeding in females.
 The first menstrual flow that begins at puberty and is called the Menarche.
 When the menstrual flow stops, it is termed as Menopause.
 The whole menstrual cycle occurs because of female hormones.
 The years between menarche and menopause marks the reproductive age of a woman where she is able
to bear a child.
Determining the Sex of the Baby
 We know that there are 23 pairs of chromosomes present inside the nucleus of every human cell.
 These chromosomes have a thread-like structure and they always occur in pairs.
 The chromosomes help in determining the sex of the child.
 Out of the 23 pairs of chromosomes, one pair of chromosomes are sex chromosomes called X and Y.
 Females have two X chromosomes and males have one X and one Y chromosome.
 The gametes contain only one set of chromosomes that is either an X or a Y.
 The egg of the female contains an X chromosome always.
 However, the sperm can contain only one of the X and Y chromosomes.
 So if the sperm that contains a Y chromosome fertilizes with the egg which contains the X chromosome,
the zygote develops into a male.
 On the other hand, if the sperm contains an X chromosome and fertilizes with the egg which contains X
chromosome, the zygote develops into a female.
 Hence the sex of the child depends upon the chromosomes of the father and not the mother.
Role of hormones in completing the life history of insects and frogs
a) Insects like silk moths and some animals like frogs undergo the process of metamorphosis which results
in drastic changes in their bodies.
 The insect hormones control the process of metamorphosis in the insects.
 In frogs, thyroid gland releases thyroxine which controls the process of metamorphosis in them.
 The thyroxine is only produced with the help of iodine that is present in the water if there is a lack of
iodine in water the tadpoles would never turn into adult frog
Reproductive Health
Factors that lead to overall well being in adolescents:
Nutritional Health of Adolescents
 The adolescent age requires a balanced diet which is rich in nutrients such as proteins and carbohydrates
along with vitamins and essential minerals.
 This is needed because the bodies of adolescents are changing and developing at a rapid rate at this time.
 Healthy and nutrition-rich diets are essential for their right growth.
 Also, they should avoid foods such as chips, soft drinks and soda as they have low nutritional value.
Personal Hygiene
Personal hygiene also plays a role in maintaining the mental and physical well being of adolescents. Here are
a few ways they can maintain their personal hygiene:
1. Having bath daily as the sweat glands and the oil glands secrete high amounts of sweat and oil in the
skin which can lead to bad odour.
2. Maintaining cleanliness of the body as there can be chances of getting a bacterial infection otherwise.
3. Females should take note of the menstrual cycle and prepare themselves accordingly
Physical Exercise
Exercising not only keep the body fit but also helps in relieving stress and maintaining mental well being.
 Therefore, adolescents should indulge in sports, exercises, walking, cycling and other physical activities.
Say NO to Drugs
 Drugs are addictive and harm the body in long term.
 Sometimes harms done by drugs becomes irreversible.
 Every teenager should say “NO” to drugs.
 HIV can pass on to a normal person from an infected person by sharing the syringes used for injecting drugs.
 The virus can also be transmitted through sexual contact with a person infected with HIV.
 People who are addicted to drugs have more chance of having HIV infection.
Note:
 Go through the chapter thoroughly and complete the bookwork.
 Textual Questions to be done on note book.
 Draw well labelled diagrams wherever necessary with the help of pencil.
Textual Questions:
Q1. What is the term used for secretions of endocrine glands responsible for changes taking place in the
body?
Ans. The secretion of endocrine glands responsible for changes taking place in the body are called hormones.
Hormones are chemical substances, which are released by endocrine glands directly into the blood stream.
The changes which occur at onset of puberty and adolescence are controlled by hormones.
Q2. Define adolescence.
Ans. The period of life, when the body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity, is called
adolescence. Adolescence begins around the age of 11 and last up to 18 or 19 years of age. Since this periods
covers the teens adolescents are also called teenagers. In girls adolescence may begin a year or two earlier
than in boys. The adolescence is marked by the onset of puberty in which growth of the reproductive organs,
change in body size, change in body height, change in voice etc takes place.
Q3. What is menstruation? Explain.
Ans. In females, the reproductive phase starts at onset of puberty around 10 to 12 years of age and continues
till 40-45 years of age. During this period, one ovum matures and is released by one of the ovaries once in
about 28 to 30 days. During this period, the wall of the uterus becomes thick and prepare itself to receive the
developing fertilised egg, In case there is no fertilization, the released egg, and the thickened wall lining of
the uterus along with its blood vessels, break down and is shed out of the body as blood. This periodic bleeding
due to reproductive cycle in women is called menstruation.
Q4. List changes in the body that takes place at puberty.
Ans. List of changes in the body that takes place at puberty are:
a) Increase in height: the most visible change during puberty is the sudden increase in body height.
b. Change in body shape: The onset of puberty is marked by characteristic changes in body shape. In boys,
the shoulders generally broadened. In girls, the region below the waist becomes wider.
c. Voice change: At puberty, the voice box or the larynx begins to grow. Boys develop larger voice boxes
than girls, resulting in a deep or flat voice and girls develop a high pitched shrilled voice.
d. Increased activity of sweat and sebaceous gland: During puberty the secretion of sweat glands and
sebaceous glands (oil glands) increases. Many adolescents get acne and pimples on the face at this time
because of the increased activity of these glands in the skin.
e. Development of sex organs: At puberty, male sex organs like the testes and penis develop completely. The
testes also begin to produce sperms. In girls the ovaries enlarge and eggs begin to mature. Also ovaries start
releasing mature eggs. During this period change in secondary sexual characters results in development of
breasts in girls and appearance of facial hair (moustache and beard) in boys.
f. Reaching mental, intellectual and emotional maturity: The puberty is marked by adolescence stage, in
which a person becomes more thoughtful, conscious and independent than before.
Q5. Prepare a table having two columns depicting names of endocrine glands and hormones secreted
by them.
Ans.
Name of endocrine glands Types of hormones secretions
Pituitary gland Growth hormone and hormone stimulators
Pancreas Insulin
Thyroid Thyroxin
Adrenals Adrenaline
Testes Testosterone
Ovaries Estrogen
Q6. What are sex hormones? Why are they named so? State their function.
Ans. Sex hormones are the hormones which control the sexual characters among humans. The male sex
hormone is known as testosterone and is secreted by testes. The female hormone is known as estrogen and is
secreted by ovaries. These hormones are responsible for developing the male and female secondary sexual
characters. Further, the sex hormones help in maturing of ova in the ovaries and formation of sperms in the
testes.
Q7. Choose the correct option. (self attempt)
Q8. Write notes on
a. Adams apple.
Adam’s apple: In human males, the larynx grows larger at the time of puberty and can be seen as a protruding
part of the throat. This protrusion is known as Adam’s apple. In boys under the influence of sex hormones,
the larynx becomes prominent. Due to this, the vocal cord becomes thicker and longer which causes the
hoarsening of the voice. On the other hand in females, the larynx is of small size and is hardly visible.
Therefore, girls have a high pitched voice while the boys has deep voice
b. Secondary sexual characters.
Secondary sexual characters are the traits that distinguish the two sexes in humans. During onset of puberty
in human beings, apart from the growth of reproductive organs such as testes in males and ovaries in females,
there are other apparent visible changes, which are distinct in male and females. Secondary sexual characters
in females include development of breasts, broadening of pelvic region, high pitched voice etc and in males,
it includes growth of facial hair, moustaches and beard, thickening of voice, broadening of shoulders etc.
c. Sex determination in the unborn baby.
The sex of the unborn baby is determined by
sex chromosomes. There are two sex chromosomes,
named X and Y. A female has two X chromosomes,
while male has one X and one Y chromosomes. The
gametes (egg and sperm) have only one set of
chromosomes. The unfertilized egg always has one
X chromosome. When a sperm containing X
chromosome fertilizes the egg, the zygote would
have two X chromosomes and develop into a female
child. If the sperm contributes a Y chromosome to
the egg (Ovum) at fertilization, the zygote would
develop into a male child.
Q9. The table below shows the data on likely heights of boys and girls as they grow in age. Draw graphs
showing height and age for both boys and girls on the same graph paper. What conclusions can be
drawn from these graphs?
Ans. Plot graph by yourself
Ans. a. At the time of birth the height of the boys and girls are identical.
b. From the time of birth, till the age of 8 years, the height of boys grow slightly more than girls.
c. After the age of 8 years, the height of girls outpaces the height of boys till the age of 12 years.
d. After age of 12 years, the height of boys increase at slightly faster rate and becomes almost equal to that
of girls at 16th year.
e. After 16th year, the boys continued to grow more in height till the age of 20 years.
Wrap up activity:
 Research various disease caused by malfunctioning of the endocrine system. Prepare a report.
Surfing Activity
To know more about the chapter, click on the link below
https://youtu.be/6jMGrfZUBBI
TOPIC: CELL
Learning Objectives
 To impart knowledge of cell as a basic structural & functional unit of life
 To impart knowledge about the events that lead to the discovery of cell
 To understand the difference between plant cell and animal cell & the types of organelles that are present
in them.
 To make them learn the different organelles of cell, their role & function in the cell.
 Students will understand the structures and purposes of basic components of prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells, especially macromolecules, membranes, and organelles.
 Students will understand how these cellular components are used to generate and utilize energy in cells.
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, students would be able to:
 Describe levels of organization and related functions in plants and animals.
 Understand and utilize the scientific vocabulary used in communicating information in cell biology
 List the main components of cells
summarize the structure and function of the different components of the cell
 Outline how cell’s ultrastructure is related to cell function
 Identify cell organelles and the main cytoskeletal components
 Demonstrate their understanding of cell structures through abstract means
Concept Map
Warm Up Activity:
Classify the organisms as unicellular and multicellular.
Amoeba Paramaecium Bacteria Man Tiger Chlamydomonas
Unicellular Multicellular
Cell - The Fundamental Unit of Life: Chapter Notes

The body of all organisms from the simplest to the most complex one is made up of tiny microscopic units
which is able to carry out all basic functions of life like metabolism, growth, reproduction etc. Such a structural
& functional unit of living body is called a cell.
A cell is the structural & functional unit of every Living organism, capable of independent existence.
The activities of an organism are actually the sum total of activities of its cells.
The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology.
Discovery of Cell and Cell Theory
The history of cell began with the classical work & observation of an English scientist Robert Hooke who saw
cells for the first time in a thin slice of cork from the bark of Spanish oak tree Quercus under his crude
microscope .He observed them as " Honey comb" like structures with a number of box like compartments
each having pore & separated from others by diaphragms .He named these compartments as cells (Latin cella
- a little room or compartments). He published his work in a book " Micrographia"
Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound
microscope with higher magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells
exhibited some form of movement (motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek
concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.” Eventually, after a
host of other observations, these entities were named as animalcules.In 1883,
Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the
cell structure.
Scientists could study cells of living organisms only when improved
microscopes with high magnification were invented – 150 years after the Hooke first observed the cells. In
1838-39, two German scientists called Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed the Cell Theory
which stated:
 All living organisms are composed of cells or cell products
 Cell is the fundamental unit of life.
 All new cells come from pre-existing cells.
 All cells are basically alike in chemical composition & metabolic processes.
 Activities of an organism are the sum total of the activities & interaction of its constituent cells.
Unicellular & Multicellular Organisms
All living organisms are composed of one or more cells . Accordingly they are grouped into two categories
 Multicellular Organisms are made up of more than one cell. For Example, Mango Tree and Frog
 Unicellular Organisms are made up of a single cell. For Example, Amoeba and Paramecium.
Types of Cells:
The cells can be categorized in two types :
1. Prokaryotic Cell
2. Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic cell.
● Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a region within the
cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is called the nucleoid.
● They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
● The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
● The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
● Membrane bound cell organelles are absent .
Eukaryotic Cell
 Eukaryotic cells are cells in which true nucleus is present. They are advanced and complete cells.
 Nucleus is present ( nuclear material is surrounded by a nuclear membrane)
 The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
 This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
 Membrane bound cell organelles such as mitochondria ,plastids, Endoplasmic reticulum,Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes are present.
Shape and Size of Cells

Humans have millions of cells, such as white blood cells (found in
blood), cells that make up muscles, and cells that form nerves. Their
shapes vary according to the functions they perform.
Most cells are round, spherical or elongated. Some are spindle-
shaped which are long and pointed at both ends. Nerve cells or neurons
are quite long and are branched out to receive and transfer messages.
The Size of cell also varies in different animals and plants. Most of
the cells are microscopic in size like red blood cells (RBC) while some
cells are fairly large like nerve cells. Average size of cells varies from
0.5 to 20 μ.
Cell Structures
Cell is composed of some basic structures:
Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in and out of the
cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which the cytoplasm, nucleus and other
organelles, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permit the movement of selective substances in
and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular component from damage and
leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external factors. The
cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other cellular
components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and injuries
Protoplasm: It is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid substance in various cell organelles present in
colloidal form.
Protoplasm consists of two parts: cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
Cytoplasm is that part of protoplasm which surrounds the nucleus.
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in
this cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm is that part of protoplasm which is located inside the nucleus.
Nucleus: Nucleus is a dense & the largest organelle of a eukaryotic cell. Nucleus is bounded by two
membranes, both forming nuclear envelope. Nuclear envelope contains many pores known as nuclear pores.
The fluid which is inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm. Nucleus contains thread-like structures called
chromosomes. These carry genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the
offspring. The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell divides.
Function:
 Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of cell.
 Nucleus is the storehouse of genes. Without nucleus, cell can neither survive nor shows specialized
activities.
Golgi body: Golgi body are also called Golgi Complex/ Golgi
Apparatus. It was first discovered by Camillo Golgi. It consists of
membrane bound structures arranged parallel to each other.
Functions:
 Golgi bodies store, modify, package and dispatch the substances.
 They help in the formation of lysosomes.
Ribosomes: These are extremely small, dense and round bodies interspersed in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are
made up of ribonucleic acid(RNA) and proteins. In prokaryotic
cell, ribosomes are of 70s type. In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes are
of 80s type. Ribosome is responsible for protein synthesis.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria are small rod-shaped double
membranous structure present in all aerobic eukaryotes. It
contains enzymes inside it which oxidises food to provide
energy. Mitochondria contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
Thus they are semi autonomous and self replicating organalles.
Functions:
● They provide energy for the vital activities of living cells.
● They store energy releases during reactions, in the form of ATP (Energy currency of the cell). Therefore it
is also called as the power house of the cell.
Plastids : Plastids are present in most of the plant cells and are absent in animals cells. They are spherical or
discoidal shaped double membranous organelle found in cytoplasm of the cells. Plastids have their own DNA
and ribosomes.
Plastids are of three types:
● Chloroplasts: Green coloured plastids containing chlorophyll. Chloroplasts manufacture food by the
process of photosynthesis.
● Chromoplasts: Colourful plastids. They provide colour to flowers and fruits.
● Leucoplasts: Colourless plastids. They help in the storage of various substances like starch, proteins and
fats.
● Lysosomes : Lysosomes are formed by golgi bodies. They are small, spherical, sac like structures which
contain several digestive enzymes enclosed in a membrane. They are found in eukaryotic cells mostly in
animals.
Functions:
● Lysosomes help in digestion of foreign substances and worn-out cell organelles.
● They provide protection against bacteria and virus.
● They help to keep the cell clean.
● During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for eg; when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst
and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as suicide bags of a cell.
Vacuoles: Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles enclosed by a membrane called tonoplast. Plant cells usually
have a large vacuole filled with a liquid called ‘cell sap’. Cell Sap contains dissolved sugar and salts.
Animal cells may or may not have vacuoles. If they do have vacuoles, they are much smaller than the ones
found in plant cells.
Function of Vacuoles in Plant Cells: Vacuoles in plant cells keep the cells firm or turgid. They store various
substances (including waste products of the cell).
Function of Vacuoles in Animal Cells: Vacuoles in animal cells store food, water, sugar, minerals and waste
products of the cell. In Amoeba, vacuoles that contain food particles are also referred to as food vacuoles.
Endoplasmic Reticulum : It is a network of tube like structures from nuclear membrane to plasma membrane.
It is absent in prokaryotic cells and matured RBCs of mammals.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): It is lined with ribosomes and hence, look rough.
 Function of RER: It plays a key role in synthesis and
transportation of protein as ribosome are attached to it.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): It does not have any
ribosomes and hence, look smooth.
Function of SER: It plays a key role in synthesis of lipids.
Note:
 Go through the chapter thoroughly and complete the
bookwork .
 Textual Questions to be done on note book.
Textual Questions
Q1. Define a cell.
Ans. Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. It is the smallest part of body of an organism which is
able to carry out all basic functions of life like metabolism, growth, reproduction etc.
Q2. Who discovered the cell?
Ans. Cell was discovered by an English scientist Robert Hooke in 1665 while observing thin slices of cork of
Spanish Oak tree under his self made crude microscope
Q3. Give three examples of unicellular organisms?
Ans.The three examples of unicellular organisms are:- Amoeba, Paramecium, Chlamydomonas.
Q4.Answer the following Questions:-
i) Why cells could not be observed before 17th century?
Ans. Cells are too small to be visible to the naked eye. There was no concept of microscope before 17 th
century, therefore the cells could not be observed.
ii) Why cork could not be observed as such by Hooke?
Ans. Cork could not be observed as such by Hooke as it is a solid structure.
iii) Where did Hooke demonstrate his observations on cork slice?
Ans. Hooke demonstrated his observations on cork slice at the Royal Society of London.
iv) Name the outermost layer of an animal cell.
Ans. Cell membrane or Plasma membrane is the outermost layer of an animal cell.
v) Name the layer which is present outside the plasma membrane in plant cell.
Ans. Cell wall is the layer which is present outside the plasma membrane in plant cell.
vi) Name the cell part that has holes.
Ans. Nuclear membrane of nucleus has tiny holes in it.
vii) Where are chromosomes present in a cell?
Ans. Chromosomes are present in the nucleoplasm of nucleus.
viii) Name the cell organelles which are found in plant cell.
Ans. The cell organelles which are found in plant cells are:-
1) Mitochondria 2) Chloroplasts 3)Vacuoles
4) Endoplasmic reticulum 5) Golgi complex 6) Lysosomes
7) Ribosomes. 8) Plastids
ix) Name the cells having branched structure.
Ans. Nerve cells are the cells which have branched structure.
x) Which cell can be observed with the unaided eye?
Ans. Ostrich egg is the cell which can be observed with the unaided eye.
Q5. Mention the functions of the following:-
1. Cell membrane:- It is also called as plasma membrane. It is an outermost extremely delicate, elastic
membranous covering of the cell that separates the cytoplasm (the content of the cell) from the external
environment. It is a living structure and is semi permeable in nature.
Functions:
● It encloses a living substance called as cytoplasm.
● It is selectively permeable i.e. it regulates the selective movement of substances in and out of the cell
through tiny holes.
● It provides protection to internal cell organelles.
● It maintains individuality of the cell.
2. Chromosomes:-Chromosomes are thick thread like structures which contain genes.
Functions
Chromosomes contain genes that help in the inheritance (transfer) of characters from parents to offspring.
Q6. Why are following important to a plant cell?
Cell wall:- It is a rigid , semi elastic, nonliving, supportive & protective but permeable covering present
outside the plasma membrane in plant cells. It is made up of stiff, non-living material called cellulose. It is
absent in animal cells.
Functions:-
● It surrounds the cell membrane of the plant cell.
● It gives shape to the cell.
● It provides protection to the cell.
● It gives rigidity to the cell.
Chloroplast:- It is a green coloured plastid found only in plant cells. It contains green coloured pigment
called chlorophyll.
Functions:-
 It helps green plants to prepare food by the process of photosynthesis.
Mitochondria:- They are rod shaped , spherical ,sausage or filamentous shaped double membranous cell
organelles of aerobic eukaryotes .
Functions:-
 Mitochondria are sites where aerobic respiration takes place.
 It provides energy in the form of ATP for vital activities of living cell.
Nucleus:- The nucleus is the most important part of an eukaryotic cell. It has following components:
 Nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane.
 Nuclear sap or nucleoplasm.
 Nucleolus and
 Chromatin.
Functions:
● It plays an important role in cell division.
● It controls and co-ordinates all activities of the cell.
● It contains the genes that determine heredity.
Q7. Draw an outline diagram of an animal cell. Label the different parts.
Q8. Mention three differences between plant cell and animal cell.
Ans. The three differences between plant cell and animal cell are:
Plant cell Animal cell
a) Cell wall is present. a) Cell wall is absent.
b) Plastids are present. b) Plastids are absent.
c) Only one large vacuole is present. c) Vacuoles are more in number but small in
d) Lysosomes are either absent or very few in number. size.
e) Plant cells are generally larger than animal cells. d) Lysosomes are present and more in number.
f) Nucleus is often pushed to one side in the peripheral e) Animal cells are generally small in size.
cytoplasm due to the presence of central vacuole f) Nucleus is generally near the centre of the
cell.
Q9. What features are possessed by both plant cells and animal cells?
Ans. The features that are shared or possessed by both plant cells and animal cells are:
Plasma membrane, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes and ribosomes.
Q10. Why are nerve cells long? Why do these cells have projections?
Ans. Nerve cells are long because it has to take impulses away from the cell body. Nerve cells have projections
in order to receive impulse
Q11.Why are mitochondria known as power house of the cell?
Ans. Mitochondria are known as the power house of the cell because they contain enzymes necessary for the
total oxidation of food and for release of high amount of energy in the form of ATP.The body uses energy
stored in ATP for synthesis of new chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
Q12.Which four basic elements constitute more than 90% of protoplasm?
Ans. The four basic elements which constitute more than 90% of protoplasm are:
1) Carbon (C) 2) Hydrogen (H)
3) Oxygen (O) 4) Nitrogen (N)
Q13. Write in brief about the variation in shape and size of cells.
Ans. Variation in cell shape:- The basic shape of eukaryotic cell is spherical but the shape of cell is
determined by the function of the cell. Thus, the shape of cell may be variable or fixed. Variable or irregular
shape occurs in amoeba and white blood cells. Fixed shape of cell occurs in most plants and animals. Thus,
cells may have diverse shapes such as polyhedral with (8,12 or 14 sides), spherical (eggs of many animals),
spindle shaped (smooth muscle fibres),elongated (nerve cells), branched (pigment cells of skin), discoidal
(red blood cells) and so on.
Variation in cell size:- The size of different cells ranges between broad
limits. Some plant and animal cells are visible to the naked eye. Most
cells, however, are visible only with a microscope, since they are only a
few micrometers in diameter. The size of cells varies from very small
cells of bacteria (0.2 -5.0 µm) to the very large eggs of the Ostrich (170
x 135mm). Some nerve cells of human beings have a metre long tail. A
single marine alga, Acetabularia, measures nearly 10cm in height. The
fibre cells of Manila hemp are over 100cm in length. Living red blood
cells measures about 9 µm. Most other cells are between 20- 30 µ in
diameter. Smallest known cell is of bacterium, Mycoplasma that
measures about 0.1 µm.
Q14.Name the different cell organelles and the functions of these organelles.
Ans. The different cell organelles and their functions are given below:-
Organelle Function
1. Mitochondria It is the centre of cellular respiration and centre of production of energy in
the form of ATP (Adenosine tri phosphate) molecules. Hence, it is called as
power house of cell..
2. Vacuoles It acts as a centre for storage of food materials in cytoplasm.
3 Plastids It helps in the manufacture of food by photosynthesis.

It gives colour to fruits and flowers.
4 Endoplasmic reticulum It is a site of protein synthesis.
It provides mechanical support to the cytoplasm.
It helps to transport substances in the cytoplasm.
5. Golgi bodies It helps in the secretion and synthesis of many substances.
It is involved in transportation of certain materials out of the cell.
6. Lysosomes It helps in the intracellular digestion, destroys old organelles and defend cells
against pathogens. So, it is called as cellular housekeeper.
It helps in the synthesis of proteins. Hence, are called as protein factories of
7. Ribosomes
the cell.
8. Chromosomes It helps in the transfer of characters from parents to off springs.
Q15. What is meant by protoplasm? How does it differ from cytoplasm?

Ans. Protoplasm has been derived from Latin word proto-first, plasma- liquid. Protoplasm is living material
of cell. Cytoplasm along with nucleus and plasma membrane is known as protoplasm. It is made up of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. Other elements such as sulphur, phosphorous and calcium are also present.
These elements in special combination provide living nature to protoplasm.
However, cytoplasm is jelly like substance occupying most of space inside the cell. It occupies the
space between the cell membrane and nucleus. It contains very important tiny structures called as organelles
which perform various life functions.
Additional Questions
Q.List the differences between prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell.
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic
 i) Size of cell is generally small (1-10 µm).  Size of cell is generally large (5 -100 µm).
 ii) They are primitive and incomplete cells.  They are advanced and complete cells.
 iii) Nuclear material is not bound by nuclear  Nuclear material is bound by nuclear
membrane. membrane.
 iv) Membrane bound organelles are absent.  Membrane bound organelles are present.
 v) It contains single chromosome.  It contains more than one chromosome.
 Examples are bacteria and cyanobacteria.  Examples are plants and animals.
Q. Distinguish between plasma membrane and cell wall.
Ans. The differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are:-
Plasma membrane Cell wall
 It is living. i) It is non living.
 It is made up of phospholipids, proteins and ii) It is made up of fibrous polysaccharide called
polysaccharides. as cellulose.
 It is found in both plant and animal cells. iii) It is found in plant cell only.
 It is semi permeable. iv) It is permeable.
 It is delicate. v) It is rigid.
Q. Define cell as a basic unit of life.
Ans. A cell is called basic unit of life because it performs all life functions like intake of food materials,
excretion, metabolism, respiration, reproduction etc. For this a cell usually possesses a number of components
or cytoplasmic structures called cell organelles. Each cell organelle performs a different function like clearing
waste material, making new materials, protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, RNA synthesis, etc. This results in
division of labour inside a cell. A cell is able to live and undertake various life functions because of its cell
organelles. Since life functions are the same in all types of cells, the various cells possess same cell organelles
despite belonging to different organisms and performing different functions.
Q6. Draw an outline diagram of a plant cell label the different parts.
Wrap Up Activity:
 Tabulate the difference between animal cell and plant cell.
Surfing Activity
To know more about the chapter, click on the link below
 https://intl.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/cells-the-basic-units-of-life/02-cells-
the-basic-units-of-life-04
 https://youtu.be/zTa4j6eRV0s
 https://youtu.be/_u3GEXZPDa8
SUBJECT: HISTORY
Teacher concerned: Mr. Ashiq Ahmad : ashiq.nazir@kashmirharvard.org
Chapter 4 Topic: Tribals,Dikus and the vision of a Golden Age
Learning objective:
● To enable the students to know about Tribals and Dikus, their culture, traditions, occupation. And the
impact of colonialism on their lives.
● To understand how government records can be read to reconstruct histories of tribal revolts.
● To know about the lives of different ethnic tribal societies.
● To enable students to know about tribal uprisings.
Activities
● There are hundreds of Tribal groups spread all over India. Make a list of all the tribals.
● Have a debate on the topic ' Tribal people deserve to live according to their traditions, we must not
force them to accept modernity'. You can speak for or against it.
● On a map of India, mark the regions where various Tribal movements took place.
● Find out from your parents, friends, or teachers if they know stories of any folk heroes.
Synopsis
The chapter gives us a detailed account about the Tribals and their lifestyle.The tribes had customs and
rituals that were very different from those laid down by Brahmas. They also did not have any social
distinctions. Those who belonged to the same tribe shared common ties of kinship. But , this didn't mean
that there were no social and economic differences within tribes. This chapter on tribals aslo expounds the
tribal life during the British era. British rule changed the life of the tribal people. They exploited the tribals
and in return the tribals started an uprising against the dikus(outsiders) who had deprived the tribals of their
customary rights and forced a new way of life on them. In the mid-1870s Birsa was born in a family of
Mundas-a tribal group that lived in Chotanagpur.
Terminology
1. Dikus: The tribal groups called moneylenders, traders & other agents of the British as dikus i.e. evil
outsiders.
2. Jhum Cultivation: Jhum cultivation or shifting cultivation was one of the important activities with which
tribes were engaged.
3. Pastoralists: The tribal groups who moved their herds of cattle or sheep for rearing were called pastoralists
e.g. Bakarwalas of Kashmir.
4. Fallow: A field that is left uncultivated for some time so that the soil retains fertility & becomes fit to
support cultivation.
5. Sleeper: The horizontal planks of wood on which rails are laid.
6. Bewar: A term used in Madhya Pradesh for shifting cultivation.
7. Anthropology: The study of the origin, development, customs & beliefs of the human race is called
Anthropology.
8. Adivasi: An umbrella term for a heterogeneous set of ethnic & tribal groups claimed to be the aboriginal
population of India.
Summary
How did Tribal Groups Live?
• By the nineteenth century, tribal people in different parts of India were involved in a variety of activities.
Some were jhum cultivators
• Jhum cultivation is another name of shifting cultivation.
• The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight to reach the ground, and burnt the vegetation on the land
to clear it for cultivation.
• They spread the ash from the firing, which contained potash, to fertilise the soil.
• They broadcast the seeds, that is, scattered the seeds on the field instead of ploughing the land
and sowing the seeds.
• After harvesting crops on one field, they moved to another.
→ Cultivated one was left fallow for several years.
• These cultivators were found in the hilly and forested tracts of north-east and central India.
Some were hunters and gatherers
• In many regions tribal groups lived by hunting animals and gathering forest produce.
• The Khonds were such a community living in the forests of Orissa.
→ They ate fruits and roots collected from the forest and cooked food with the oil they extracted from the
seeds of the sal and mahua.
→ They used many forest shrubs and herbs for medicinal purposes, and sold forest produce in the local
markets.
• Tribal groups often needed to buy and sell in order to be able to get the goods that were not produced
within the locality.
• This was done through traders and moneylenders.
• Traders came around with things for sale, and sold the goods at high prices.
→ Moneylenders gave loans to meet their cash needs but the interest charged on the loans was usually very
high.
• So for the tribals, market and commerce often meant debt and poverty.
→ Therefore came to see the moneylender and traders as evil outsiders and the cause of their misery.
Some herded animals
• Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals.
• The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills and the Labadis of Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders, the Gaddis of
Kulu were shepherds, and the Bakarwals of Kashmir reared goats.
Some took to settled cultivation
• Before the nineteenth century, many from within the tribal groups had begun settling down, and cultivating
their fields in one place year after year, instead of moving from place to place.
• They began to use the plough, and gradually got rights over the land they lived on.
• In the Mundas of Chota Nagpur, the land belonged to the clan as a whole.
• All of them had rights on the land.
→ But some people within the clan acquired more power than others, some became chiefs and others
followers.
• British officials saw settled tribal groups like the Gonds and Santhals as more civilised than hunter-
gatherers or shifting cultivators.
How Did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal Lives?
What happened to tribal chiefs?
• Before the arrival of the British, in many areas the tribal chiefs enjoyed a certain amount of economic
power and had the right to administer and control their territories.
• Under British rule, the functions and powers of the tribal chiefs changed largely.
→ They were allowed to keep their land titles and rent out lands, but they lost much of their administrative
power and were forced to follow laws made by British officials in India.
→ They also had to discipline the tribal groups on behalf of the British.
What happened to the shifting cultivators?
• The British wanted tribal groups to settle down and become peasant cultivators.
• The British also wanted a regular revenue source for the state.
• The British introduced land settlements – that is, they measured the land, defined the rights of each
individual to that land, and fixed the revenue demand for the state.
• Some peasants were declared landowners, others tenants.
• The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not very successful.
• Settled plough cultivation is not easy in areas where water is scarce and the soil is dry.
• Facing widespread protests, the British had to ultimately allow them the right to carry on shifting
cultivation in some parts of the forest.
Forest laws and their impact
• Forest laws classified some forests as Reserved Forests for they produced timber which the British wanted.
→ In these forests people were not allowed to move freely, practise jhum cultivation, collect fruits,
or hunt animals.
• Many shifting cultivators, therefore, were forced to move to other areas in search of work and livelihood.
→ This poses a problem for laborers for the Britishers to cut trees for railway sleepers and to transport logs.
• Thus, the Britishers decided that they would give jhum cultivators small patches of land in the forests and
allow them to cultivate these on the condition that those who lived in the villages would have to provide
labour to the Forest Department and look after the forests.
• Many tribal groups rose in open rebellion.
→ Such was the revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam, and the forest satyagraha of the 1930s in the
Central Provinces.
The problem with trade
• During the nineteenth century, traders and money-lenders started coming to more often in forests wanting
to buy forest produce, offering cash loans, and asking tribal groups to work for wages.
• Hazaribagh was an area where the Santhals reared cocoons.
→ The traders dealing in silk sent in their agents who gave loans to the tribal people and collected the
cocoons.
→ These cocoons were then exported to Gaya, where they were sold at five times the price.
→ The middlemen who arranged deals between the exporters and silk growers made huge profits.
→ The silk growers earned very little.
The search for work
• The condition of tribals who had to go far away from their homes in search of work was even worse.
• From the late nineteenth century, tea plantations started coming up and mining became an important
industry.
→ Tribals were recruited in large numbers to work the tea plantations of Assam and the coal mines of
Jharkhand and were paid miserably low wages, and prevented them from returning home.
A Closer Look
• Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, tribal groups in different parts of the country rebelled
against the changes in laws, the restrictions on their practices, the new taxes they had to pay, and the
exploitation by traders and moneylenders.
• The Kols rose in revolt in 1831-32
• Santhals rose in revolt in 1855
• The Bastar Rebellion in central India broke out in 1910
• The Warli Revolt in Maharashtra in 1940
• The movement of Birsa.
Birsa Munda
• Birsa was born in the mid-1870s
• He was the son of a poor father, grew up around the forests of Bohonda, grazing sheep, playing the flute,
and dancing in the local akhara.
• The Birsa movement was aimed at reforming tribal society.
• He urged the Mundas to give up drinking liquor, clean their village, and stop believing in witchcraft and
sorcery.
• In 1895, Birsa urged his followers to recover their glorious past when Mundas lived a good life,
constructed embankments, tapped natural springs, planted trees and orchards, practised cultivation to earn
their living.
• The political aim of the Birsa movement was to drive out missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu landlords,
and the government and set up a Munda Raj with Birsa at its head.
• As the movement spread the British officials decided to act.
→ They arrested Birsa in 1895, convicted him on charges of rioting and jailed him for two years.
• When Birsa was released in 1897 he began touring the villages to gather support.
• His followers attacked police stations and churches, and raided the property of moneylenders and
zamindars.
• They raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa Raj.
• In 1900 Birsa died of cholera and the movement faded out.
• The significance of Birsa movement:
→ It forced the colonial government to introduce laws so that the land of the tribals could not be easily taken
over by dikus (outsider like moneylenders, traders).
→ It showed once again that the tribal people had the capacity to protest against injustice and express their
anger against colonial rule.
Important Notes
1831-32: Rebellion of kols against the British.
1855: Santhal Revolt.
1875: Birsa Munda was born.
1895: Birsa movement was started against the British.
1900: Birsa Munda died because of cholera at a young age of 25 years.
1910: Bastar rebellion in central India.
1940: Warli revolt in Maharashtra.
Search and Surf
https://indianexpress.com/article/who-is/who-was-birsa-munda/
https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2020/jun/09/birsa-munda-martyrdom-day-from-tamil-
nadu-to-manipur-5-forgotten-revolts-against-british-rule-102889.html
Textual Questions
Q1. What problems did shifting cultivators face under British rule?
Ans: The British were uncomfortable with the shifting cultivators. So, they tried to settle them which created
many problems for the shifting cultivators. Some of the main problems are listed below
i) They could not cultivate easily as in their areas water was scarce & the soil was dry.
ii) They were not willing to use plough as they were habitual of using hoe for cultivation.
iii) The continuous cultivation at one place reduced the fertility of soil & hence production for the
cultivators was also reduced.
Q2. How did the powers of tribal chiefs change under colonial rule?
Ans: There was a considerable change in the powers of tribal chiefs under colonial rule. Some of the
important changes are given below
i) They lost their administrative power which they enjoyed before colonialism.
ii) They were forced to follow the laws as made by the British officials.
iii) They had to pay tribute to British as a mark of subordination.
iv) They were to act as the agents of the British as they were asked to discipline tribal groups on behalf of
the British.
Q3. What accounts for the anger of the tribals against the Dikus?
Ans: British policies had a negative impact on the tribal people. The lives of the tribals became highly
miserable. Following points will highlight what angered tribals towards the Dikus-Evil outsiders that
included Traders,moneylenders and other British agents
i)Tribal groups often needed to buy and sell in order to be able to get the goods that were not produced
within their locality.This led to their dependence on traders and money lenders .
ii) Traders would sell goods to the tribals at high prices and money lenders fulfilled their cash needs but at
very high rates of interest.
iii)In trade tribals were given very less prices for forest produce and cocoons.
iv)Tribals were paid miserably low wages in plantations and elsewhere.
So the tribals came to see the moneylender and the trader and other British agents as evil
outsiders and cause of their misery.
Q4. What was Birsa‟s vision of a golden age? Why do you think such a vision appealed to the people
of the region?
Ans:Birsa talked of a golden age when the Mundas were free of the oppression of the outsiders (dikus). It
was an age of truth when Mundas lived honestly, when they freely constructed embankments, planted trees
& orchards & practiced cultivation to earn their living.
The Birsa‟s vision appealed to the people of the region because it stressed on the revival of their glorious
past. This could be done by driving out the outsiders from the region & establishing a Munda Raj with Birsa
as its head.
Wrap Up Activity
1. Write any four features of tribal life.
2. Imagine that you are Birsa Munda. Prepare a speech to motivate the tribals/people for rebelling against
the Dikus.
3. Choose any tribal group living in India today. Find out about their customs and way of life, and how their
lives have changed in the last 50 years.
HOTS
1. Read about Birsa Munda and write an essay on him.
2. Did the tribal movements form a part of the mainstream national movement or occurred as isolated
rebellions.
3. Write a brief note on Forest laws and their impact.
Chapter 5 Topic:When People Rebel 1857 and After
Learning Objectives
● To Look at the changes under colonial rule after 1857.
● To Understand how revolts originate and spread
● To know how vernacular and British accounts can be read to understand the rebellion.
Warm up Activity
● Collect pictures of some important Indian and British figures who were part of the Revolt. Paste
them in your portfolio and write an accompanying paragraph on the personalities.
● Have a debate on the topic ' The lack of effective leadership led to the failure of the Revolt'. You can
speak for or against it.
● On a map of India, mark the important centres of the Revolt.
Synopsis: The British believed that Indian society had to be reformed, so laws were passed to stop the
practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows plus English-language education was also
actively promoted.
The Indian sepoys in the Company were unhappy about their pay, allowances, and conditions of service.
From the mid-19th century, Nawabs and Rajas started losing their power.
The British, by the end of 1859, had regained control of India.
Indians rebelled against the East India Company after it killed a young soldier called Mangal Pandey in
1857.
Key Terms
1. Mutiny: When a group of soldiers disobey their officers in the army that is termed as mutiny.
2. Firangis: The foreigners in India were called firangis. The term was mostly used for Britishers in India
with an attitude of contempt.
3. General Services Enlistment Act: This Act was passed by the British Indian Govt. in 1856.Under this Act
every new recruit in the army was to give an undertaking to serve anywhere as required by the company.
4. Anti-Sati Act: In 1829 British Indian Govt. passed an anti-Sati Act which banned the practice of the Sati
system.
5. Widow Remarriage Act: In 1856 British Indian Govt. passed a widow remarriage Act that legalized
widow remarriage.
6. Infantry: Foot soldiers.
Summary
Policies and the People
Nawabs lose their power
• Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas gradually lost their authority and honour.
• Residents had been stationed in many courts, the freedom of the rulers reduced, their armed forces
disbanded, and their revenues and territories taken away by stages.
• Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the Company to protect their interests however the Company,
confident of its superiority and military powers, turned down these pleas.
• In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh, and in 1856 it was taken over in the name of British
rule was needed to ensure proper administration.
• In 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal king.
The peasants and the sepoys
• In the countryside, peasants and zamindars annoyed with the high taxes and the rigid methods of revenue
collection.
• Many peasants failed to pay back their loans to the moneylenders and gradually lost the lands they had
tilled for generations.
• The Indian sepoys were unhappy about their pay, allowances and conditions of service.
→ Also, some new rules violated their religious sensibilities and beliefs such as crossing the sea results in
losing their religion and caste.
• Sepoys also reacted to what was happening in the countryside.
→ So the anger of the peasants quickly spread among the sepoys.
Responses to reforms
• The British passed laws to stop the practice of sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows.
• English-language education was promoted.
• The Company allowed Christian missionaries to function freely and even own land and property.
• In 1850, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier and allowed an Indian who had
converted to Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors.
Through the Eyes of the People
A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion
• A massive rebellion that started in May 1857 and threatened the Company’s presence in India.
→ Sepoys mutinied in several places beginning from Meerut
→ A large number of people from different sections of society rose up in rebellion.
From Meerut to Delhi
• On 29 March 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in
Barrackpore.
• Some days later, some sepoys of the regiment at Meerut refused to do the army drill using the new
cartridges, which were suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs.
• On 9 May 1857, Eighty-five sepoys were dismissed from service and sentenced to ten years in jail for
disobeying their officers.
• On 10 May, the soldiers marched to the jail in Meerut and released the imprisoned sepoys.
→ They attacked and killed British officers, captured guns and ammunition and set fire to the buildings and
properties of the British and declared war on the foreigners.
• On the morning of 11 May, sepoys of Meerut reached Delhi and the regiments stationed in Delhi also rose
up in rebellion.
• The soldiers forced their way into the Red Fort and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader.
• The ageing emperor accepted the demand and wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to
come forward and organise a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British.
The rebellion spreads
• After a week, regiment after regiment mutinied and took off to join other troops at nodal points like Delhi,
Kanpur and Lucknow.
• After them, the people of the towns and villages also rose up in rebellion and rallied around local leaders,
zamindars and chiefs.
• Many famous leaders lead troops at different places:
→ Nana Saheb in Kanpur
→ Birjis Qadr in Lucknow
→ Rani Lakshmibai Jhansi
→ Kunwar Singh in Bihar
→ Bakht Khan in Bareilly
• The British were greatly outnumbered by the rebel forces and were defeated in a number of battles.
The Company Fights Back
• The company brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws so that the rebels could be convicted
with ease, and then moved into the storm centres of the revolt.
• In September 1857, Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment alongwith his wife Begum Zinat
Mahal in Rangoon in October 1858.
→ Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November 1862.
• Lucknow was taken in March 1858.
• Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in June 1858.
• Tantia Tope was captured, tried and killed in April 1859.
• The British also tried their best to win back the loyalty of the people.
→ They announced rewards for loyal landholders who would be allowed to continue to enjoy traditional
rights over their lands.
• Hundreds of sepoys, rebels, nawabs and rajas were tried and hanged.
Aftermath
• By the end of 1859, the British had regained control of the country.
Important changes introduced by the British after 1858:
• The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the powers of the East India Company to
the British Crown.
→ A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India and made responsible for all
matters related to the governance of India.
• All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future.
→ They were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons.
→ The Indian rulers were to hold their kingdoms as subordinates of the British Crown.
• The proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and the number of European soldiers
would be increased.
• The land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large scale and they were treated with suspicion
and hostility.
• The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.
• Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give them security of rights over their lands.
Fact File
● The 1857 revolt sowed the seeds of Indian Nationalism.
● Indian scholars like Vir Savarkar hail the 1857 revolt as the ‘First War of Indian Independence’.
● S.N. Sen and R.C. Majumdar are Indian historians who have studied the Revolt of 1857 in depth.
● The term "sepoy" is derived from the Persian word "sipāh" meaning "infantry soldier" in the Mughal
Empire.
● Bahadur Shah Zafar was a noted Urdu poet, and wrote a large number of Urdu ghazals.
● The Revolt of 1857 was sparked because of the use of greased cartridges.
● The Indian soldiers were introduced to the new Enfield Rifle for the first time. Its cartridges had a greased
cover which had to be bitten off before loading the cartridge in the rifle. The grease used was composed of
fat taken from beef and pigs.
● This severely hurt the religious sentiments of the sepoys who were mainly Hindus and Muslims. They
believed that the government was deliberately trying to destroy their religious and cultural identities.
● BARRACKPORE – The events that led to the revolt started on March 29, 1857 at Barrackpore. A sepoy,
Mangal Pandey, refused to use the greased cartridges and attacked and killed his officer. Mangal Pandey
was hanged. The regiment to which he belonged was disbanded and sepoys found guilty of rebellion were
punished.
● MEERUT & DELHI –
At Meerut, in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry regiment were sentenced to imprisonment because
they refused to use the greased cartridges. Thus, on 10 May, the sepoys broke out in open rebellion, shot
officers, released their fellow sepoys, and headed towards Delhi. General Hewitt, the commanding officer,
was helpless.
The rebellious army reached Delhi on May 12, 1857. General Willtashby, officer in charge of Delhi could
not control them. The Mutineers proclaimed the aged nominal king, Bahadur Shah II (also called Bahadur
Shah Zafar) of the Mughal dynasty as the Emperor of India.
Very soon, the rebellion spread throughout northern and central India.
DELHI – The leadership of Delhi was nominally in the hands of the Bahadur Shah, but the real control was
exercised by General Bakht Khan. The British recaptured Delhi by September, 1857. Bahadur Shah II was
arrested and deported to Rangoon.
KANPUR – At Kanpur, the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Baji Rao II and the last
Peshwa. Nana Saheb expelled the British from Kanpur with the help of sepoys. He was ably supported by
two of his lieutenants – Tantia Tope and Azimullah. Sir Hugh Wheeler, who was in charge of Kanpur,
surrendered. Later, Sir Colin Campbell recaptured Kanpur.
LUCKNOW – The revolt in Lucknow was principally organized by the Begum of Awadh, with assistance
from sepoys, zamindars and peasants. The British chief commissioner, Henry Lawrence, was killed. Here
too, Sir Colin Campbell suppressed the revolt.
JHANSI – Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi was the widowed queen of Gangadhar Rao. Jhansi was affected by
Lord Dalhousie’s ‘Doctrine of Lapse’, as it did not have a natural heir to the throne. Rani Lakshmi Bai was
joined by Tantia Tope, and they together captured Gwalior. Sir Hugh Rose defeated Tantia Tope, stormed
Jhansi in 1858 and then captured Gwalior. Rani Lakshmi Bai died a soldier’s death on June 17, 1858. Tantia
Tope was hanged.
BIHAR – Kunwar Singh, a discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur organized the revolt in Bihar. While
fighting the British, he was fatally wounded and died.
Surfing Activity
https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/travel/in-the-lanes-of-meerut-where-the-revolt-of-1857-was-
born/article27507654.ece
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/pass-it-on-the-secret-that-preceded-the-indian-rebellion-of-1857-
105066360/
Textual Questions
1. What was the demand of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi that was refused by the British?
Ans. Rani Lakshmibai was the queen of Jhansi. She had adopted a son. Hence, she wanted her son to be the
ruler of Jhansi. However, according to Lord Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse policy, an adopted heir would
not be allowed to acquire the kingdom once the father dies and the same would be annexed by the British.
Hence, Rani Lakshmibai’s demand for recognizing her adopted son as the male heir of the kingdom was
refused by the British.
2. What did the British do to protect the interests of those who converted to Christianity?
Ans. After 1830, the Company allowed Christian missionaries to function freely in its domain and even own
land and property. In 1850, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier. This law
allowed an Indian who had converted to Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors. Many Indians
began to feel that the British were destroying their religion, their social customs and their traditional way of
life.
3. What objections did the sepoys have to the new cartridges that they were asked to use?
Ans. The new cartridges were unacceptable to the Indian sepoys, as they held the belief that these had been
coated by the fat of cow and pigs. The sepoys had to bite the cartridges to load them. But their religion did
not allow them to even touch these cartridges. Hence, they denied using the new cartridges.
4. How did the last Mughal emperor live the last years of his life?
Ans. The last Mughal emperor was Bahadur Shah Zafar. His title as the Mughal emperor was a symbolic
one. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal rulers had lost their power and held only a symbolic stature.
Zafar was also the symbolic head of the 1857 revolt. However, once the revolt was crushed, Bahadur Shah
Zafar was tried in court. He was blinded by the British and was imprisoned. Later in 1858, he along with his
wife was sent to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.
5. What could be the reasons for the confidence of the British rulers about their position in India
before May 1857?
Ans. The British became confident about their position in India because of the following reasons:
a. The Mughal rulers, after the death of Aurangzeb, were not strong and powerful. Hence, it was easier for
the British to annex states.
b. The disunity among nawabs and the Mughal rulers helped the British have a firm stronghold over Indian
society, starting from Bengal.
c. The policies, like the Subsidiary Alliance, helped the British annex territories one after another, without
the use of any military power.
d. The revolt of 1857 was crushed by the British leading to their supremacy over Indian society.
6. What impact did Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support to the rebellion have on the people and the ruling
families?
Ans. Aurangzeb was considered as the last strong and powerful Mughal ruler of India. After his death, the
Mughal rulers only had a symbolic presence. But Mughal rulers still had their influence over small chiefs
and rulers across the country. The revolt of 1857 started only when Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last ruler of the
Mughals, gave his permission. His support for the revolt made leaders from various places become confident
about opposing the British. Zafar asked all the leaders to form a confederacy to fight against the British.
Many small, large kingdoms, rulers and chieftains supported the revolt after Bahadur Shah Zafar extended
his support to the revolt. Hence, his support for the rebellion had a widespread effect on the people and the
ruling families.
7. How did the British succeed in securing the submission of the rebel landowners of Awadh?
Ans. The British followed a two-pronged approach to suppress the rebel landowners of Awadh:
a. The first approach was to hang the rebel landowners who had killed British personnel, in order to threaten
the people of Awadh by showing them the consequences of any revolts in future.
b. The second approach was to reward the loyal landowners of Awadh. The British stated that if the
landowners had not killed any British personnel and if they agreed to submit before the British, they would
be offered safety and could retain their share of lands.
8. In what ways did the British change their policies as a result of the rebellion of 1857?
Ans. After the revolt of 1857, the British Crown directly took over the Indian administration. The powers of
the East India Company were transferred to the Crown. The following changes were made:
a. Doctrine of Lapse policy was abolished
b. The number of Indian sepoys was reduced in the army, so that in future they would not be able to rebel
against the British
c. Zamindars’ and landowners’ rights were further enhanced
d. The Crown promised that it would not interfere with the religion of the people.
e. A Viceroy and a Secretary of the state were appointed for the administration of Indian society.
Wrap Up Activity:
● Find out more about Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi. In what ways do you think she would have been an
unusual woman in her day?
● Make a list of places where the uprising took place in May, June and July 1857.
HOTS
1. Try to find and briefly write about Karl Marx's views on the revolt of 1857.
2. Find out and read more about any two leaders of the revolt.
3. The Mutiny started from
(a) Bareilly (c) Agra
(b) Delhi (d) Meerut
4. How many sepoys were dismissed from service and sentenced to ten years in jail on 9 May, 1857?
(a) Eighty (c) Ninety
(b) Eighty-five (d) Ninety-five
5. The sepoys were angry with the British because
(a) of their policy of divide and rule (c) of their intolerating behaviour
(b) of the cartridge episode (d) none of these
6. Who was given the title of viceroy?
(a) Chief Commissioner (c) Forest Manager
(b) Governor General (d) None of these
7. Subsidiary Alliance was imposed on Awadh in
(a) 1800 (c) 1810
(b) 1801 (d) 1815
8. Which of the following is the decision taken by the British to reform the Indian Society?
(a) Law against the practice of Sati (c) English education was actively promoted
(b) They encouraged the remarriage of widow (d) All of the above
Chapter 6 Topic: Weavers, Iron smelters & Factory owner's.
Learning Objectives
● To familiarize students with the processes of de-industrialisation and industrialisation.
● To get an idea of the technologies of weaving and the lives of weavers.
● Students will develop collaboration by exchanging ideas on the decline of handicrafts in the 19th century.
Warm Up Activities
● Explain the process of weaving among Indian weavers.
● Discuss the reasons for the decline of cotton textile industries in India.
● How did the First World War affect the Indian Industry?
Synopsis: The chapter explains that the crafts and industries are crucial for the industrial revolution.
With the growth of industrial production, British industrialists began to see India as a vast market for their
industrial products, and over time manufactured goods from Britain began flooding India.
The Wootz steel making process, which was so widely known in south India, was completely lost by the mid
19th century. Around 1750, India was the world's largest producer of cotton textiles, and European trading
companies were buying Indian textiles for sale in Europe. England began protesting against the import of
Indian cotton textiles.
By the beginning of the nineteenth century, English-made cotton textiles successfully ousted Indian goods
from their traditional markets in Africa, America and Europe. Thousands of weavers in India were now
thrown out of employment.
During the national movement, Mahatma Gandhi urged people to boycott imported textiles and use hand-
spun and hand-woven cloth, and Khadi gradually became a symbol of nationalism. From the 19th century,
cotton mills started setting up in India. By 1900, over 84 mills started operating in Bombay.
TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the British empire.
Key Terms
1) Spinning Jenny: A machine in which a worker could operate several spindles at a time by turning a single
wheel. This machine speeded up the spinning process.
2) Aurang: A Persian term for a warehouse i.e. a place where goods are collected before being sold.
3) Smelting: Smelting is a process of obtaining a metal from rock by giving it a very high temperature.
4) Bellows: A device that can pump air.
5) Slag heaps: The waste left when smelting a metal.
6) Muslin: A type of fine and soft cotton cloth.
7) Delta: A roughly triangular area of land formed at the mouth of a river.
8) TISCO: Tata iron and steel company.
9) Wootz : High quality steel made in south India.
Summary
Introduction
• The chapter tells the story of the crafts and industries of India during British rule by focusing on two
industries:
→ Textiles
→ Iron and steel.
Indian Textiles and the World Market
• Around 1750, India was by far the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles.
• Indian textiles had long been renowned both for their fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship.
• They were extensively traded in Southeast Asia and West and Central Asia.
• From the sixteenth century, European trading companies began buying Indian textiles for sale in Europe.
Words tell us histories
• European traders first encountered fine cotton cloth from India carried by Arab merchants in Mosul in
present-day IraQ
→ They began referring to all finely woven textiles as “muslin” – a word that acquired wide currency.
• The cotton textiles which the Portuguese took back to Europe, along with the spices, came to be called
“calico” which became the general name for all cotton textiles.
• In 1730, the English East India Company sent its representatives to Calcutta to order a variety of cloth
pieces in bulk.
→ Amongst the pieces ordered in bulk were printed cotton cloths called chintz, cossaes (or khassa) and
bandanna.
→ Chintz is derived from the Hindi word chhint, a cloth with small and colourful flowery designs.
→ The word bandanna term is derived from the word “bandhna” refers to any brightly coloured and printed
scarf for the neck or head.
• The printed cotton cloths are called chintz, cossaes (or khassa) and bandanna.
• There were other clothes in the order book that were noted by their place of origin such as Kasimbazar,
Patna, Calcutta, Orissa, Charpoore.
Indian textiles in European markets
• By the early eighteenth century, worried by the popularity of Indian textiles, wool and silk makers in
England began protesting against the import of Indian cotton textiles.
• In 1720, the Calico Act was introduced in England which banned the use of printed cotton textiles – chintz.
• Competition with Indian textiles led to a search for technological innovation in England.
→ In 1764, the spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye which increased the productivity of the
traditional spindles.
→ In 1786, a steam engine was invented by Richard Arkwright which revolutionised cotton textile weaving.
• European trading companies – the Dutch, the French and the English – made large profits through textile
trade with India.
• These companies purchased cotton and silk textiles in India by importing silver.
• When the English East India Company gained political power in Bengal, they used revenues from peasants
and zamindars in India to buy Indian textiles.
Who were the weavers?
• Weavers often belonged to communities that specialised in weaving.
• Their skills were passed on from one generation to the next.
• Some communities famous for weaving:
→ tanti weavers of Bengal, the julahas or momin weavers of north India.
→ sale and kaikollar and devangs of south India.
• The first stage of production was spinning done mostly by women in which charkha and the takli were
used.
• After weaving, spinning was done mostly by men.
• For coloured textiles, the thread was dyed by the dyer, known as rangrez.
• For printed cloth the weavers needed the help of specialist block printers known as chhipigars.
The decline of Indian textiles
• The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile producers in India in several ways: Indian
textiles now had to compete with British textiles in the European and American markets.
→ Exporting textiles to England also became increasingly difficult since very high duties were imposed on
Indian textiles imported into Britain.
• By the beginning of the nineteenth century, English-made cotton textiles successfully displaced Indian
goods from their traditional markets in Africa, America and Europe.
• By the 1830s, British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets.
• Some types of cloth could not be supplied by machines thus handloom weaving did not completely die in
India.
• Later, during the national movement, Mahatma Gandhi urged people to boycott imported textiles and use
hand-spun and hand-woven cloth.
→ Khadi gradually became a symbol of nationalism.
• Many weavers became agricultural labourers.
→ Some migrated to cities in search of work, and others went out of the country to work in plantations in
Africa and South America.
→ Some handloom weavers also found work in the new cotton mills that were established in Bombay,
Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Nagpur and Kanpur.
Cotton mills come up
• The first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay in 1854.
• From the early nineteenth century, Bombay had grown as an important port for the export of raw cotton
from India to England and China.
→ By 1900, over 84 mills started operating in Bombay.
• The first mill in Ahmedabad was started in 1861.
• Growth of cotton mills led to a demand for labour.
→ Thousands of poor peasants, artisans and agricultural labourers moved to the cities to work in the mills.
• The textile factory industry in India faced many problems.
→ It found it difficult to compete with the cheap textiles imported from Britain.
• The colonial government in India usually refused to protect the local industries.
• During the First World War, textile imports from Britain declined and Indian factories were called upon to
produce cloth for military supplies which increased the development of cotton factory production in India.
The sword of Tipu Sultan and Wootz steel
• Tipu Sultan who ruled Mysore till 1799 had a sword made up of a special type of high carbon steel called
Wootz which was produced all over south India.
• Wootz steel when made into swords produced a very sharp edge with a flowing water pattern.
• Wootz steel was produced in many hundreds of smelting furnaces in Mysore.
• Indian Wootz steel fascinated European scientists.
→ Michael Faraday, the legendary scientist and discoverer of electricity and electromagnetism, spent four
years studying the properties of Indian Wootz (1818-22).
• The Wootz steel making process, which was so widely known in south India, was completely lost by the
mid-nineteenth century.
• The swords and armour making industry died with the conquest of India by the British and imports of iron
and steel from England displaced the iron and steel produced by craftspeople in India.
Abandoned furnaces in villages
• Iron smelting in India was extremely common till the end of the nineteenth century.
• The furnaces were most often built of clay and sun-dried bricks. The smelting was done by men while
women
• By the late nineteenth century, however, the craft of iron smelting was in decline.
This was because:
• New forest laws enacted by the colonial government prevented people from entering the reserved forests,
which reduced the supply of charcoal.
• By the late nineteenth century iron and steel was being imported from Britain.
→ Ironsmiths in India began using the imported iron to manufacture utensils and implements.
• By the early twentieth century, the artisans producing iron and steel faced new competition as new iron and
steel factories came up in India.
Iron and steel factories come up in India
• In the year 1904, Charles Weld and Dorabji Tata explored the hill pointed out by the Agarias people and
found one of the finest iron ores in the world.
→ Rajhara Hills had one of the finest ores in the world.
• A few years later a large area of forest was cleared on the banks of the river Subarnarekha to set up the
factory and an industrial township – Jamshedpur.
• The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) that came up began producing steel in 1912.
• In 1914, when the First World War broke out, imports of British steel into India declined dramatically and
the Indian Railways turned to TISCO for supply of rails.
• By 1919 the colonial government was buying 90 per cent of the steel manufactured by TISCO.
• Over time TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the British empire.
Fact File
1) John Kaye made spinning jenny in 1764. It speeded up the spinning process.
2) Steam engine was made by Richard Arkwright in 1786 which revolutionised cotton textile weaving.
3) Tantis of Bengal, julahas or momins of North India, sale, kaikolar of South India were some communities
famous for weaving.
4) The swords used by Tipu Sultan were made of wootz. They had incredibly hard and sharp edges that
could easily rip through the opponent‟s armour.
5) Michael Faraday spent four years (1818-1822) studying the properties of Indian steel called wootz.
6) Agarias was a community of iron smelters in central India.
7) Dorabji Tata was accompanied by Charles Weld, an American geologist when he went in search of iron
ore deposits to set up a modern iron and steel plant in India.
8) The name cotton comes from the Arabic word "Qutn," which means fancy. Cotton was also once known
as vegetable wool!
Textual Questions (Note: Write down on your notebook)
Q1: What kinds of cloth had a large market in Europe?
Ans: Cotton and silk textiles had a huge market in Europe. Indian textiles were by far the most popular, both
for their fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship. Different varieties of Indian textiles were sold in the Western
markets; for example, chintz, cossaes or khassa, bandanna and jamdani. From the 1680s, there started a craze
for printed Indian cotton textiles in England and Europe, mainly for their exquisite floral designs, fine texture
and relative cheapness.
Q2: What is jamdani?
Ans: Jamdani is a fine muslin on which decorative motifs are woven on the loom, typically in grey and white.
Often a mixture of cotton and gold thread is used.
Q3: What is a bandanna?
Ans: The word “bandanna” refers to any brightly coloured and printed scarf for the neck or head. The term is
derived from the word “bandhna” (Hindi for tying) which refers to a variety of brightly coloured cloth
produced through a method of tying and dying.
Q4: Who are the Agarias?
Ans: The Agarias are an Indian community of iron smelters.
Q5. Fill in the blanks ( Do yourself)
Q6. How do the names of different textiles tell us about their histories?
Ans. The different textiles like ‘muslin’, ‘chintz’, ‘calico’ and ‘bandanna’ have a history to their names:
a. Muslin – The cloth was named after the European traders who saw five types of cotton textiles carried by
the Arab traders in Mosul. They named all woven textiles as ‘muslin’ after that.
b. Chintz – This name is derived from a Hindi name called ‘Chhint’ which is a small piece of cloth with floral
designs.
c. Calico – Portuguese came to Calicut first in search of spices. However, the cotton textile they took back
from Calicut to Spain was called Calico.
d. Bandanna – The term was derived from the Hindi word ‘Bandhna’. It is a scarf with prints. It is made for
the head or neck.
Q7. Why did the wool and silk producers in England protest against the import of Indian textiles in
the early eighteenth century?
Ans. The wool and silk producers in England protested against the import of Indian textiles in the early
eighteenth century because due to the fame of Indian textiles in the European markets owing to their designs
and their prices, they were unable to compete with them. The English wool and silk producers wanted a ban
on Indian textiles so that they could grow in England. Following this, the spinning jenny was also introduced
in the European markets.
Q8. How did the development of cotton industries in Britain affect textile producers in India?
Ans. There were several challenges for textile produces in India:
a. They had to compete with English cotton industries both in England and in India
b. British cotton industries expanded, which led to the shrinkage of Indian textile producers.
c. Thousands of Indian textile producers were out of employment because the British took over the market
with their industries.
Q9. Why did the Indian iron smelting industry decline in the nineteenth century?
Ans. These are the following reasons that led to the decline of the iron smelting industry in the nineteenth
century:
a. Indian smelters could not get Charcoal due to the forest laws imposed on them. Charcoal is an essential
ingredient in the iron smelting process, and the industry could not thrive without its supply. The forest laws
banned their movement in the reserved forests.
b. Iron smelters were asked to pay high taxes to the forest authorities.
c. Post-1950s, the English started importing iron from England to India. This discouraged Indian iron smelters
from pursuing the same profession.
d. In the late-nineteenth-century, many famines destroyed dry tracts for iron smelters.
e. Iron industries posed the biggest challenge for the local iron smelters who were not able to compete with
the big industries.
Q10. What problems did the Indian textile industry face in the early years of its development?
Ans. The problems are given below:
a. Competition – They had to face large British industries who were already present in the market.
b. Export – It was a challenge for them to export to England due to the huge export prices.
c. Failure – English cotton textiles ousted Indian textiles from its parent markets like America, Africa and
Europe.
d. No Buyers – Europeans started avoiding the weavers of Bengal and did not buy from them, which made
the Bengal weavers the worst-hit.
Q11. What helped TISCO expand steel production during the First World War?
Ans. The following reasons led to TISCO expansion:
a. World War-I – The war demanded a huge amount of iron and steel for the production of ammunition, which
was a demand that Britain had to entertain.
b. Indian markets turned to TISCO for rail work to supply iron and steel.
c. TISCO built shells and carriage wheels for World War-I
d. By 1919, the British government started buying 90 per cent of the steel manufactured by the TISCO.
Wrap Up Activity:
● Make a list of top 10 iron and steel companies in India and in the world.
● Find out about the history of any craft around the area you live. You may wish to know about the community
of craftsmen, the changes in the techniques they use and the markets they supply. How have these changed
over the past 50 years?
HOTS
1.Women and men who carried basket loads of iron ore on their heads were called
(a) wootz (c) bandanna
(b) Agarias (d) cossaes
2.In which century did India's textile industry decline?
(a) 17th century (c) 19th century
(b) 18th century (d) 20th century
3.TISCO expanded steel production during the
(a) First World War (c) Third World War
(b) Second World War (d) None of these
4.Portuguese first came to India in search of
(a) cotton (c) steel
(b) spices (d) muslin
5.What things did the Portuguese take back to Europe?
(a) Steel (c) Cotton textile
(b) Sugar (d) Coffee
6.Tipu Sultan’s sword was made of
(a) stainless steel (c) silver
(b) wootz (d) none of these
7.Which of the following was NOT the name of Indian textile ?
(a) Chintz (c) Calico
(b) Cossaes (d) Agaria
8.Michael Faraday spent four years in studying
(a) the property of Indian steel (c) the properties of Indian Wootz
(b) the ancient Indian culture (d) none of these
9.Which place in India had one of the finest ores in the world?
(a) Raniganj (c) Rajhara Hills
(b) Jharia (d) None of these
10.Spinning Jenny was invented by
(a) Weld (c) Dorabji
(b) John Kaye (d) none of these
Subject Political Science
Chapter Understanding Laws
Learning Objectives
● Understand the ways in which the government and other groups respond to public issues.
● Analyse the role of people’s agency in placing demands for legislation.
Warm Up Activity
● Find out one law which has come about as a result of people's demand.
● Prepare a fact file on any important acts passed since Independence.
Synopsis: It was explained that while framing different laws, the members of the Constituent Assembly had
agreed on this fact that in independent India, there shall be no arbitrary exercise of power. Hence, several
provisions were instituted in the Constitution that would establish the law’s rule. The most important among
all rules was that all the citizens of India were equal.
Law does not discriminate between different citizens on the basis of their caste, religion or gender. The Rules
of law means that no citizen is above the law and all these laws apply equally to every Indian citizen. Whether
a person is wealthy, a Government Official or even the country’s President – everyone is equal before the law.
Key terms:
● Rule of law: Rule of law, the mechanism, process, institution, practice, or norm that supports the equality of
all citizens before the law, secures a non arbitrary form of government, and more generally prevents the
arbitrary use of power.
● Sedition: Sedition is overt conduct, such as speech and organization, that tends toward rebellion against the
established order. Sedition often includes subversion of a constitution and incitement of discontent toward, or
insurrection against, established authority.
● Sedition Act of 1870: The Sedition Act, allowed the government to arrest or detain any person without a fair
trial in the court who was seen protesting or criticizing the British authority. ... Under this act, people were
arrested without being told the reason for their arrest and were kept in prisons without a trial.
● Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005: The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, an amendment
to the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, received the assent from President of India on 5 September 2005 and
was given effect from 9 September 2005. It was essentially meant for removing gender discriminatory
provisions regarding property rights in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. It was a revolutionary step in the
field of Indian legislation regarding rights of women in India.
● Domestic Violence: The definition of domestic violence is a pattern of abusive behavior in any
relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain control over another intimate partner. Many types
of abuse are included in the definition of domestic violence:
Physical abuse can include hitting, biting, slapping, battering, shoving, punching, pulling hair, burning,
cutting, pinching, etc. (any type of violent behavior inflicted on the victim). Physical abuse also includes
denying someone medical treatment and forcing drug/alcohol use on someone.
Sexual abuse occurs when the abuser coerces or attempts to coerce the victim into having sexual contact or
sexual behavior without the victim's consent. This often takes the form of marital rape, attacking sexual
body parts, physical violence that is followed by forcing sex, sexually demeaning the victim, or even telling
sexual jokes at the victim's expense.
Emotional abuse involves invalidating or deflating the victim's sense of self-worth and/or self-esteem.
Emotional abuse often takes the form of constant criticism, name-calling, injuring the victim's relationship
with his/her children, or interfering with the victim's abilities.
Economic abuse takes place when the abuser makes or tries to make the victim financially reliant. Economic
abusers often seek to maintain total control over financial resources, withhold the victims access to funds, or
prohibit the victim from going to school or work.
Psychological abuse involves the abuser invoking fear through intimidation; threatening to physically hurt
himself/herself, the victim, children, the victim's family or friends, or the pets; destruction of property;
injuring the pets; isolating the victim from loved ones; and prohibiting the victim from going to school or
work.
Threats to hit, injure, or use a weapon are a form of psychological abuse.
Stalking can include following the victim, spying, watching, harassing, showing up at the victim's home or
work, sending gifts, collecting information, making phone calls, leaving written messages, or appearing at a
person's home or workplace. These acts individually are typically legal, but any of these behaviors done
continuously results in a stalking crime.
Cyberstalking refers to online action or repeated emailing that inflicts substantial emotional distress in the
recipient.
Summary
Do Laws Apply to All?
• All persons in independent India are equal before the law.
→ The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender.
• Any crime or violation of law has a specific punishment as well as a process through which the guilt of the
person has to be established.
Rule of Law
• Rule of law means that all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the
law.
How is the Rule of law established in India?
• It is often believed that it was the British colonialists who introduced the rule of law in India.
→ However, historians have disputed this claim because:
1. Colonial law was arbitrary (dictatorial).
2. Indian nationalists played a prominent role in the development of the legal sphere in British India.
• Nationalists wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced to obey, to
law as including ideas of justice.
• By the end of the nineteenth century, the Indian legal profession began to use law to defend the legal rights
of Indians.
→ Indian judges also began to play a greater role in making decisions.
• Thus, in several ways, Indians played a major role in the evolution of the rule of law during the colonial
period.
• After Independence, the document, Constitution , served as the foundation on which our representatives
began making laws for the country.
→ Every year several new laws are made as well as existing ones revised by elected representatives.
How Do New Laws Come About?
• The Parliament has an important role in making laws.
• There are many ways through which this takes place, often, different groups in society that raise the need
for a particular law.
→ As the Parliament is sensitive to people's problems, the process adopted for this issue to become law.
• From establishing the need for a new law to its being passed, at every stage of the process the voice of the
citizen through various mediums such as TV, newspaper etc is a crucial element.
Unpopular and Controversial Laws
• Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid and hence legal, but it can continue to be unpopular and
unacceptable to people because they feel that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful.
• The people might criticize this law, hold public meetings, write about it in newspapers, report to TV news
channels etc.
• When a large number of people begin to feel that a wrong law has been passed, then the Parliament has
pressure to change the law.
• After electing representatives, it is the duty of citizens to keep a check on them.
Surfing Activity
https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/why-sedition-law-has-lost-meaning-supreme-court-
democracy-5993643/
https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/simply-put-sedition-law-what-courts-said-6254972/
Textual Questions (Note: Write down on your notebook)
1. Write in your own words what you understand by the term the ‘rule of law’. In your response
include a fictitious or real example of a violation of the rule of law.
Ans: The rule of law is a provision of the Indian Constitution that states that all people in independent India
are equal before the law. Every law is equal for every citizen in the country. Neither the President or any
other high official is above the law. The punishment for any crime committed will be the same for every
person, irrespective of post or power. For example if a Clerk is punished for corruption, the same
punishment needs to be given to a higher Official or Minister for committing the same crime of corruption.
2. State two reasons why historians refute the claim that the British introduced the rule of law in
India.
Ans: Two reasons why historians refute to claim that the British introduced the rule of law in India are:
The colonial law was arbitrary
The Indian Nationalists played a prominent role in the development of the legal sphere in British India
3. Re-read the storyboard on how a new law on domestic violence got passed. Describe in your own
words the different ways in which women’s groups worked to make this happen.
Ans: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 was passed with an aim to protect women
against any kind of violence, be it physical or verbal. Various women’s groups worked to make this happen
by reporting multiple cases of domestic violence to the to various forums. A group of lawyers, law students
and activists worked together for drafting the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection Bill). Other
than this, various Women organisations, National Commission for Women made submissions to the
Parliamentary Standing Committee. All these actions taken by women, together made the Government pass
the bill against domestic violence.
4. Write in your own words what you understand by the following sentence on page 44-45: They also
began fighting for greater equality and wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they
were forced to obey, to the law as including ideas of justice.
Ans: India before independence was forced to follow the rules set by the British Government. These set of
rules were arbitrary and not were not authorised by the Indian nationalists. Hence the freedom struggle
against the Britishers also aimed at making a set of rules that were fair and just for all and were not just
imposed on the Indians to follow. The Indian Nationalists began to fight for their rights and wanted a set of
rules that were equal for all.
Wrap Up Activity:
1.Name some unpopular and controversial laws enacted by the parliament.
2.Read the newspapers/watch news on TV for a week and find out if there are any unpopular laws that
people in India or around the world are currently protesting.
3. What do you understand about ‘domestic violence’? List the two rights that the new law helped
achieve for women who are survivors of violence. Can you list one process that was used to make more
people aware of the need for this law?
4.State one reason why you think the Sedition Act of 1870 was arbitrary? In what ways does the Sedition
Act of 1870 contradict the rule of law?
HOTS
1.When did Jallianwala Bagh’s massacre take place?
(a) 13 April (c) 13 May
(b) 13 March (d) 13 June
2. Where is Jallianwala Bagh located?
(a) Amritsar (c) Agra
(b) Delhi (d) Dehradun
3. When did the Rowlatt Act come into effect?
(a) On 10th February, 1917 (c) On 10th March, 1919
(b) On 10th January, 1918 (d) On 20th April, 1920
4. Who gave the order to fire in Jallianwala Bagh on innocent people protesting calmly?
(a) General Dyer (c) Dr. Saifuddin Kichlew
(b) Dr. Satyapal (d) None of these
5. What is the violence free relationship where husband and wife are equal with each other and they enjoy
equal rights?
(a) Equal relationship (c) Evolution
(b) Discriminated relationship (d) All of these
6. Who was the Afro-American woman who refused to give her seat to a white man in 1955?
(a) Rosy Peter (c) Rosemary
(b) Rosa Parks (d) Rose Jose
Chapter: The Judiciary
Learning Objectives
● To understand the need and importance of judiciary
● To learn about the structure of judiciary
● To fathom the need of an independent judiciary
Warm Up Activity
1.What is the difference between criminal law and civil law?
2. What do you mean by Judicial Review?
3. List two reasons why you believe an independent judiciary is essential to democracy.
Synopsis: This chapter gives us a detailed account of the judiciary and its role. Laws apply equally to all
people. A certain set of fixed procedures need to be followed when a law is violated. To enforce this rule of
law, we have a judicial system that consists of the mechanism of courts that a citizen can approach when a
law is violated. As an organ of government, the judiciary plays a crucial role in the functioning of India’s
democracy. It can play this role only because it is independent.
Key Terms
● Judiciary/Judicial System: The judiciary (also known as the judicial system, judicature, judicial branch,
judicative branch, and court or judicial system) is the system of courts that adjudicates legal disputes and
interprets, defends, and applies the law in legal cases.
● Judicial Review: It is a type of court proceeding in which a judge reviews the lawfulness of a decision or
action made by a public body. In other words, judicial reviews are a challenge to the way in which a
decision has been made, rather than the rights and wrongs of the conclusion reached.
● Separation of Powers: Separation of powers refers to the division of a state's government into branches,
each with separate, independent powers and responsibilities, so that the powers of one branch are not in
conflict with those of the other branches.
● Judicial Independence: Judicial independence is the concept that the judiciary should be independent from
the other branches of government.
● Acquit: To decide officially in a law court that someone is not guilty of a particular crime.
● Civil Law: Civil Law deals with Property, Money, Housing, Divorce, custody of a child in the event of
divorce etc.
● Criminal Law: Criminal Law deals with offences that are committed against the society. It mets out
varying degrees of punishment commensurate with the crime committed.
● PIL: Public interest litigation refers to litigation undertaken to secure public interest and demonstrates the
availability of justice to socially-disadvantaged parties and was introduced by Justice P. N. Bhagwati.
Summary
What is the Role of the Judiciary?
• Judiciary work is divided into the following types:
→ Dispute Resolution: The judicial system resolves disputes between citizens, between citizens and the
government, between two state governments and between the centre and state governments.
→ Judicial Review: The judiciary is the final interpreter of the Constitution therefore, it has the power to
strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic
structure of the Constitution. This is called judicial review.
→ Upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme
Court or the High Court if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated.
What is an Independent Judiciary?
• The other branches of the State-like the legislature and the executive - cannot interfere in the work of the
judiciary.
• The courts are not under the government and do not act on their behalf.
• All judges in the High Court as well as the Supreme Court are appointed with very little interference from
other branches of government.
→ After appointment, it is very difficult to remove a judge.
What is the Structure of Courts in India?
• There are three different levels of courts in our country:
Supreme Court of India
⬇
High Courts of States
⬇
District courts
→ Supreme Court of India: Located in New Delhi and is presided over by the Chief Justice of India.
→ High Courts of States: Each state has a High Court which is the highest court of that state.
→ Subordinate or district courts: These courts at the district or Tehsil level or in towns and presided over by
a District Judge.
• The decisions made by higher courts are binding on the lower courts.
• A person can appeal to a higher court if they believe that the judgment passed by the lower court is not just
through the appellate system.
Does Everyone Have Access to the Courts?
• Theoretically, all citizens of India can access the courts in this country.
• In reality access to courts has always been difficult for a vast majority of the poor in India.
→ Legal procedures involve a lot of money and paperwork as well as take up a lot of time.
→ For a poor person who cannot read and whose family depends on a daily wage, the idea of going to court
to get justice is often so remote.
PIL
• Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was introduced by the Supreme Court in the early 1980s.
• It allowed any individual or organisation to file a PIL in the High Court or the Supreme Court on behalf of
those whose rights were being violated.
• A letter or telegram addressed to the Supreme Court or the High Court could be treated as a PIL.
Importance of Judiciary
• The judiciary has played a crucial role in democratic India,
• It also keep a check on the powers of the executive and the legislature
• Also, it helps in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens.
Fact File
1. India’s Supreme Court succeeded the Federal Court of India on 28 January, 1950 which was established
by the Government of India Act 1935 and the Privy Council, which was the highest judicial body in the
country during the British era.
2. On 29 October, 1954 Dr. Rajendra Prasad the first President of India laid the foundation stone of the
Supreme Court building.
3. Currently, the strength of the judges of the Supreme Court of India is 34 including the Chief Justice of
India. Since February 2009, the strength of the judges was 31 including the Chief Justice of India. Important
is that the original constitution had fixed the strength at 8 and left it to parliament to increase the number of
judges as needed. In 1960 it increased to 11, in 1968 to 14, in 1978 to 18, in 1986 to 26 and in 2009 to 31.
4. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President after consultation with the judges of the
Supreme Court and High Courts in states according to article 124(2).
5. The Chief justice of India and the other Judges of the SC hold office until they attain the age of 65 years.
(High Court Judges at 62 years).
Textual Questions
1. You read that one of the main functions of the judiciary is ‘upholding the law and Enforcing
Fundamental Rights’. Why do you think an independent judiciary is necessary to carry out this
important function?
Ans: An independent judiciary is necessary to carry out the function of ‘upholding the law and enforcing
Fundamental Rights’. It intends to shield the judicial process from external influences and provide full legal
protection to all individuals going to court for whatever reason.
Anyone can approach the courts if they believe that their rights have been violated. If any law passed by the
Parliament violates anyone’s Fundamental Rights, the judiciary has power to declare such a law as null and
void.
2. Re-read the list of Fundamental Rights provided in Chapter 1. How do you think the Right to
Constitutional Remedies connects to the idea of judicial review?
Ans: The Right to Constitutional Remedies connects to the idea of judicial review in its capacity of protecting
the rights of an individual against the working of the State legislature or executive. It allows citizens to move
the court if they think that their fundamental rights are being violated by the State administration. Judicial
review implies invalidation of legislative or executive action if it is seen to violate fundamental rights. Hence,
judicial review and the Right to Constitutional Remedies are inter-connected because judicial review is
practiced when any fundamental Right is violated by the State. In this case, a higher court can repeal the
judgments of a lower court based on its own investigation.
3. In the following illustration, fill in each tier with the judgments given by the various courts in the
Sudha Goel case. Check your responses with others in class.
Ans. Lower Court (Trial Court): Laxman, his mother Shakuntala and his brother-in-law Subhash Chandra
were sentenced to death.
High Court: Laxman, Shakuntala and Subhash Chandra were acquitted.
Supreme Court: Laxman and Shakuntala were given life imprisonment, while Subhash Chandra was acquitted
for lack of sufficient evidence.
4. Keeping the Sudha Goel case in mind, tick the sentences that are true and correct the ones that are
false.
(a) The accused took the case to the High Court because they were unhappy with the decision of the Trial
Court.
(b) They went to the High Court after the Supreme Court had given its decision.
(c) If they do not like the Supreme Court verdict, the accused can go back again to the Trial Court.
Ans(a) True
(b) False. They went to the High Court after the Trial Court had given its decision.
(c) False. If they do not like the Supreme Court verdict, the accused cannot go back again to the Trial Court,
because the Supreme Court is the highest court in the judiciary pyramid.
5. Why do you think the introduction of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the 1980s is a significant step
in ensuring access to justice for all?
Ans The Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of Public Interest Litigation or PIL to increase
access to justice. It allowed any individual or organisation to file a PIL in the High Court or the Supreme Court
on behalf of those whose rights were being violated. The legal process was greatly simplified and even a letter
or telegram addressed to the Supreme Court or the High Court could be treated as a PIL. In the early years,
PIL was used to secure justice on a large number of issues such as rescuing bonded labourers from inhuman
work conditions; and securing the release of prisoners in Bihar who had been kept in jail, even after their
punishment term was complete.
Thus, the introduction of Public Interest Litigation is a significant step in ensuring access to justice for all.
6. Re-read excerpts from the judgment on the Olga Tellis vs Bombay Municipal Corporation case.
Now write in your own words what the judges meant when they said that the Right to Livelihood was
part of the Right to Life.
Ans: In the Olga Tellis vs. Bombay Municipal Corporation case, the judges stated that the Right to Livelihood
was part of the Right to Life. They stated that life does not merely mean an animal existence, it cannot be
lived without the means of livelihood. In the above mentioned case, people were poor and lived in slums. They
had small jobs and no other place to live. For them, the eviction of their slum means deprivation of their
livelihood which consequently means deprivation of life. This is how judges connected the right to life to the
basic requirements of any livelihood i.e. Food, Clothes and shelter.
7. Write a story around the theme, ‘Justice delayed is justice denied’.
Ans: Attempt this Q on your own.
8. Make sentences with each of the glossary words given on the next page.
Acquit, To appeal, Compensation, Eviction, Violation.
Ans. Acquit: The jury decided to acquit the defendant on grounds of lack of sufficient evidence to convict him
of the crime.
To Appeal: The defendant decided to appeal to the High Court after his lawyer said the court’s decision was
not correct.
Compensation: In compensation for the trouble caused due to flight delay, the airlines awarded the victim fifty
thousand rupees.
Eviction: The couple faced eviction because they failed to pay the monthly instalments to the bank.
Violation: The office staff protested the company for the violation of their rights.
9. The following is a poster made by the Right to Food Campaign.
Read this poster and list the duties of the government to uphold the Right to Food.
How does the phrase “hungry stomachs, overflowing godowns! We will not accept it!!” used in the
poster related to the photo essay on the Right to food on page 61?
Ans: The duties of the government to uphold the Right to Food include providing for the poor who cannot
afford basic meals; taking care of the elderly, widows, disabled and children who might not be able to earn a
livelihood; and, ensuring that no one dies due to malnutrition or hunger.
The phrase “Hungry stomachs, overflowing godowns! We will not accept it !!” relates to the photo essay on
the Right to Food (on page 61) because it highlights the droughts in Rajasthan and Orissa in 2001 when
millions faced acute shortage of food even though government godowns were overflowing with grain which
was being eaten away by rats. The People’s Union of Civil Liberties filed a PIL in the Supreme Court against
the guilty state governments who were then directed to provide more employment, food at cheaper rates and
mid-day meals for children. In this sad situation of “hunger amidst plenty”, the filed PIL helped bring relief
to many.
Wrap Up Activity
● Find out the number of High Courts in India. Name the states which share High Courts.
● ' PIL is a weapon for the poor'. Explain.
HOTS
1. What is the system consisting of courts which interpret the constitution and award judgement?
(a) Judiciary (c) Police
(b) Parliament (d) Legislative
2. What is the term used for money given to make amends for an injury or a loss?
(a) Donation (c) Both (a) and (b)
(b) Compensation (d) None of these
3. What is the act of breaking a law as well as the breach or infringement of Fundamental Rights?
(a) Violation (c) Dispute
(b) Acquit (d) All of these
4. Judiciary in India resolves the disputes between
(a) State and State (c) Citizen and Citizen
(b) State and Citizen (d) All the above
5. Who is the final interpreter of our Constitution?
(a) Judiciary (c) Executive
(b) Government (d) Legislative
6. Once appointed, a judge can be removed by:
(a) District judge (c) Prime Minister
(b) Chief Minister (d) None of above
7. The removal of persons from land or homes that they are currently living in, is called
(a) violation (c) separation of power
(b) eviction (d) judiciary
Chapter Understanding Our Criminal Justice System
Learning Objectives
● To understand the process followed by the police system
● To indicate the rationale of the processes involved
● To understand the role of the public prosecutor
Warm Up Activity
1.What do you think there is a rule that confessions made during police custody cannot be used as
evidence against the accused.
2. Make a list of five words that come to your mind when you think of the word ' Police'.
3. What do you understand by FIR? Imagine that you are a police officer and a complainant has
approached you to register an FIR regarding the theft of his/her wallet. Try to write out an FIR which
contains as many relevant details as possible.
Synopsis: What does it mean to get a fair trial? Ever heard of an FIR? Who is a public prosecutor? In this
chapter, the process is well highlighted, along with the role of different individuals in the criminal justice
system. We can understand these processes and will also know that the role that different people play within
the criminal justice system is crucial. After a person is arrested, it is a court of law that decides whether the
accused person is guilty or not. According to the Constitution, every individual charged with a crime has to
be given a fair trial.
Key Terms
● Witness: Witness is one who sees, knows or vouches for something or one who gives testimony, under
oath or affirmation in person or by oral or written deposition, or by affidavit.
● Detention: It refers to the situation when the police forcibly keeps someone in custody.
● Offence: An offence is a crime that breaks a particular law and requires a particular punishment.
● Investigation: An investigation is a systematic, minute, and thorough attempt to learn the facts about
something complex or hidden.
● Memo: A memo is a short official note that is sent by one person to another within the same company or
organization.
● Cognizable Offence: A cognizable offence is an offence in which the police officer as per the first
schedule or under any other law for the time being in force, can arrest the convict without a warrant and can
start an investigation without the permission of the court.
● Evidence: Evidence, in law, any of the material items or assertions of act that may be submitted to a
competent tribunal as a means of ascertaining the truth of any alleged matter of fact under investigation
before it.
● Confession: A formal statement admitting that one is guilty of a crime.
Summary
Key Players of Our Criminal Justice System
• The four key players in the criminal justice system are:
→ the police,
→ the Public Prosecutor
→ the defence lawyer
→ the judge
What is the Role of the Police in Investigating a Crime?
• The main function of police is to investigate any complaint about the commission of a crime.
→ An investigation includes recording statements of witnesses and collecting different kinds of evidence.
• On the basis of the investigation, the police are required to form an opinion.
→ Police file a chargesheet in the court if they think the accused person is guilty.
• The police can't decide whether a person is guilty or innocent, that is for the judge to decide.
• The police investigations always have to be conducted in accordance with law and with full respect for
human rights.
• Every arrested person has following Fundamental Rights as per Article 22 of the Constitution and criminal
law
→ The Right to be informed at the time of arrest of the offence for which the person is being arrested.
→ The Right to be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.
→ The Right not to be ill treated or tortured during arrest or in custody.
→ Confessions made in police custody cannot be used as evidence against the accused.
→ A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the police station only for Qing.
What is the Role of the Public Prosecutor?
• The role of the Prosecutor begins once the police have conducted the investigation and filed the chargesheet
in the court.
• The Prosecutor has the duty to act impartially and present the full and material facts, witnesses and evidence
before the court to enable the court to decide the case.
What is the Role of the Judge?
• The judge hears all the witnesses and any other evidence presented by the prosecution and the defence.
• The judge decides whether the accused person is guilty or innocent on the basis of the evidence presented
and in accordance with the law.
• He may send the person to jail or impose a fine or both, depending on what the law prescribes.
What is a Fair Trial?
• Article 21 of the Constitution that guarantees the Right to Life states that a person’s life or liberty can be
taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure.
Essential elements of a fair trial:
• The trial should be held in an open court, in public view.
• The trial should be held in the presence of the accused.
• The accused must be defended by a lawyer.
• Defence lawyers must have the opportunity to cross-examine all the prosecution witnesses. Also, have an
opportunity to present witnesses in the accused's defence.
• It was the responsibility of the prosecution to prove beyond reasonable doubt that the accused was guilty.
• The judge should decide the matter only on the basis of the evidence before the court. He/She must remain
impartial.
Textual Exercises
1. In a town called Peace Land, the supporters of the Fiesta football team learn that the supporters of the
Jubilee football team in the nearby city about 40 km away have damaged the ground on which the Final
between both teams is to be held the following day. A crowd of Fiesta fans armed with deadly weapons attacks
the homes of the supporters of the Jubilee football team in the town. In the attack, 10 men are killed, 5 women
are gravely hurt, many homes are destroyed and over 50 people injured.
Imagine that you and your classmates are now part of the criminal justice system. First divide the class into
the following four groups of persons:
1. Police 2. Public Prosecutor 3. Defence lawyer 4. Judge
The column on the right provides a list of functions. Match these with the roles that are listed on the left.
Have each group pick the functions that it needs to perform to bring justice to those who were affected by
the violence of the Fiesta fans. In what order, will these functions be performed?
Textual Questions (Note: Do it yourself)
Wrap Up Activity
Prepare a list of all the chief justices of India. Also find out the following:
The CJI who was awarded the Padma Vibhushan
The CJI who served as the Vice President of India
The CJI who served in the Lahore High court
The present CJI.
HOTS
1. Which type of advocate who pleads on behalf of the accused person?
(a) Public prosecutor (c) Judge
(b) Defence lawyer (d) All of these
2. What term refers to a person who is tried by a court for a crime?
(a) Accused (c) Detention
(b) Lawyer (d) Fair trial
3. What refers to any act that the law defines as a crime?
(a) Detention (c) Witness
(b) Offence (d) All of these
4. A person who is called upon in court to provide a first hand account of what he/she has seen, heard or
knows?
(a) Criminal (c) Witness
(b) Offence (d) None of these
5. What is the act of keeping the accused in custody by the police?
(a) Cross-examine (c) FIR
(b) Detention (d) All of these
6. What is the type of the advocate who pleads the cases on behalf of the government and who has been
appointed by the government on a permanent basis?
(a) Public prosecutor (c) Deed writer
(b) Private prosecutor (d) Typist
7. Who decides whether a person is guilty or not?
(a) Advocate (c) Judge
(b) Public prosecutor (d) Police
8. Article 21 of the Constitution Guarantees-
(a) Right to Speech (c) Right to freedom
(b) Right to life (d) None of the above
Subject: Geography
Chapter: Minerals and Power Resources
Learning Objectives
● Understand how proper (judicious) use of resources helps sustainable development.
● Develop an awareness towards the conservation of resources, and take initiatives for conservation of
resources.
Warm Up Activity
● Find out what the main sources of energy are in your state and prepare a report for the class.
● List two uses each of any three minerals you know about.
Synopsis: The chapter is about minerals and power resources. Different minerals are formed in different
types of geological environments, under different conditions; most minerals are either metallic or non-
metallic. Minerals are very useful to everyone, but they're a non-renewable resource. Power (or energy)
plays a very important role in our lives; we need power for industry, agriculture, transport, communication,
defense, for almost everything we do. Broadly speaking, we get power (or electricity) from conventional and
non-conventional resources.
Key Terms
● Minerals: A naturally occurring substance having a definite chemical composition is called a mineral.
● Rock: Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals.
● Ore : An ore is a rock from which minerals are mined.
● Metallic Minerals: Metallic Minerals are minerals in which metal elements are present in their raw form.
● Ferrous Minerals: These minerals mostly contain Iron.
● Non-Ferrous Minerals: These minerals do not contain any iron.
● Non-Metallic Minerals: Nonmetallic minerals are, for example, sand, gravel, limestone, clay, and marble.
Such materials lack metallic characteristics like good electric and thermic conductivity, luster, rigor, and
malleability; they are, however, essential for many industries.
● Extraction: Extraction is the process of taking out minerals from rocks under the earth's surface.
● Open-Cast Mining: Open-pit mining, open-cut mining or opencast mining is a method of extracting rock
or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow.
● Shaft Mining: Shaft mining is the process in which deep bores called shafts are made to reach mineral
deposits that lie at great depths.
● Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels are made from decomposing plants and animals. These fuels are found in the
Earth's crust and contain carbon and hydrogen, which can be burned for energy. Coal, oil, and natural gas
are examples of fossil fuels.
● Solar Energy: Solar Energy is the heat and light energy captured from the sun.
● Solar Cell: Solar cells are devices to convert solar energy into electricity.
● Biogas: Biogas is the mixture of gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of
oxygen (anaerobically), primarily consisting of methane and carbon dioxide. Biogas can be produced from
raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or
food waste.
Summary
Minerals
• Mineral as a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.
• These are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.
Mode of Occurrence of Minerals
• Minerals are usually found in 'ores'.
→ The accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements is called ore.
• Minerals generally occur in these forms:
→ In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The
smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes. Example: tin, copper, zinc and lead etc.
→ In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or layers. Example: Coal, iron, gypsum, potash
salt, sodium salt etc.
→ Minerals also found in the decomposition of surface rocks, and the removal of soluble constituents,
leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Example: Bauxite.
→ Minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills known as ‘placer
deposits’. Example: Gold, silver, tin and platinum etc.
→ The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals. Example: Common salt, magnesium and
bromine etc.
Classification of Minerals
• Minerals can be classified into three types:
→ Metallic Minerals
→ Non-Metallic Minerals
→ Energy Minerals
Metallic Minerals
• These minerals contain metals.
• These are of three types:
→ Ferrous minerals
These minerals contain iron.
It accounts for about three- fourths of the total value of the production of metallic minerals.
They provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.
Iron Ore
• It is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development.
• Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70 percent.
• Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used, but has a slightly lower
iron content than magnetite. (50-60 percent).
• India is rich in good quality iron ores.
• The major iron ore belts in India are:
→ Odisha-Jharkhand belt
→ Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra
→ Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmagalur-Tumkur belt in Karnataka
→ Maharashtra-Goa belt in Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.
Manganese
• It is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy.
• It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
• Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ores in India.
→ Non-Ferrous Minerals
♠ These minerals do not contain iron.
♠ They play a role in a number of metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries.
♠ Example of Non-ferrous minerals includes copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold.
Copper
• It is malleable, ductile and a good conductor, therefore, copper is mainly used in electrical cables,
electronics and chemical industries.
• The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Singhbhum district of Jharkhand
are leading producers of copper.
Bauxite
• It is a clay-like substance from which alumina and later aluminium is obtained.
• Aluminium is an important metal because it combines the strength of metals such as iron, with extreme
lightness and also with good conductivity and great malleability.
• In India, mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni.
Non-Metallic Minerals
• These minerals do not contain metal.
Mica
• It is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves.
• It can be clear, black, green, red, yellow or brown.
• Mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic industries due to its excellent
di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage,
• Leading producers are on the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt
of Jharkhand.
• Also produced in Ajmer, Rajasthan. Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh.
Limestone
• Limestone is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium
carbonates.
• It is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.
Conservation of Minerals
Why conserve minerals?
• Mineral deposits are present in very less quantity in the world i.e. one percent of the earth’s crust.
• The geological processes of mineral formation are so slow while the consumption rate is very fast
therefore, mineral resources are finite and non-renewable.
• So, we have to conserve minerals so that it is available for future generations.
How to conserve minerals?
• A joint effort has to be made in order to use our mineral resources in a planned and sustainable manner.
• Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
• Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes.
Energy Resources
• Energy is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles and to drive machinery in industries.
• It can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and from electricity.
• Energy resources can be classified as
→ Conventional sources: include firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity
→ Non-conventional sources: include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.
Conventional sources of Energy
• Coal
→ It is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.
→ It is used for power generation, to supply energy to industry as well as for domestic needs.
→ Coal is formed due to the compression of plant material over millions of years.
→ There are various types of coals (on the degrees of compression and the depth and time of burial):
1 Peat: Low carbon and high moisture contents and low heating capacity.
2 Lignite: Low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content.
3 Bituminous: Buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures. Most popular coal in commercial
use.
4 Anthracite: Highest quality hard coal.
→ In India, coal occurs in Gondwana and tertiary rock stages.
→ The major resources of Gondwana coal are located in
Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand).
Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro
The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys.
→ Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.
• Petroleum
→ It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for manufacturing
industries.
→ Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical
industries.
→ About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and
16 per cent from Assam.
• Natural Gas
→ It is used as a source of energy as well as an industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry.
→ It is considered an environmentally friendly fuel because of low carbon dioxide emissions.
→ Natural gas has been discovered in the Krishna- Godavari basin, Mumbai High and allied fields, Gulf of
Cambay. Andaman and Nicobar islands.
• Electricity
→ It has a wide range of applications in today’s world.
→ Electricity is generated mainly in two ways:
by running water which drives hydro turbines to generate hydro electricity
by burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to produce thermal power.
→ Hydro electricity is generated by fast flowing water
It is a renewable resource.
Multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc.
produce hydro electricity.
Thermal electricity is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas.
The thermal power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
• Nuclear or Atomic Energy
→ It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms.
→ It is used to generate electric power.
→ Uranium and Thorium are available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan.
→ The Monazite sands of Kerala are also rich in Thorium.
• Solar Energy
→ India is a tropical country, therefore it has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy.
→ Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity.
→ Solar energy is fast becoming popular in rural and remote areas which help in minimising the dependence
of rural households on firewood and dung cakes that will contribute to environmental conservation and
adequate supply of manure in agriculture.
• Wind Power
→ India has great potential for wind power.
→ Largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagercoil to Madurai.
→ Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have important wind farms.
→ Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind energy in the country.
• Biogas
→ Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce biogas for domestic consumption in
rural areas.
→ Biogas plants using cattle dung are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in rural India.
→ Biogas provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form of energy and improved quality of manure.
• Tidal Energy
→ Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity.
→ In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kachchh in Gujarat on the western coast and Gangetic delta in
Sunderban regions of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.
• GeoThermal Energy
→ The heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth is called Geothermal
Energy.
→ Groundwater in high temperatures absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot.
It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns into steam.
This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity.
→ Two experimental projects have been set up in India to utilize geothermal energy:
Parvati valley near Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh
Puga Valley, Ladakh.
Conservation of Resources
• Energy is a basic requirement for economic development.
• There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy development.
• There are two ways for adopting the path of sustainable development of energy:
→ Promotion of energy conservation
→ Using power-saving devices
→ Using non-conventional sources of energy.
Fact File:
● Norway was the first country in the world to develop hydroelectricity.
● Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a popular, eco-friendly automobile fuel; it's less polluting than
petrol and diesel.
● The word petroleum is derived from Latin words Petra meaning rock, and oleum meaning oil. So,
petroleum means oil from rock!
● Switzerland has no known mineral deposits; it's largest industry is tourism.
● Minerals are everywhere; the salt in your food and the graphite in your pencil are also minerals!
Textual Questions
1. Answer the following Questions.
(i) Name any three common minerals used by you every day?
Ans: Salt, petroleum and gold are the common minerals that are used by humans on a regular basis.
(ii) What is an ore? Where are the ores of metallic minerals generally located?
Ans: Ores are the rocks which are mined to extract minerals from them. Minerals occur in different types of
rocks. Some are found in igneous rocks, some in metamorphic rocks, while others occur in sedimentary
rocks. The ores of metallic minerals are found in igneous and metamorphic rock formations that form large
plateaus.
(iii) Name two regions rich in natural gas resources?
Ans: The United Kingdom and the Netherlands are the major producers of natural gas. Natural gas is found
with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface. It is used as a domestic and
industrial fuel.
(iv) Which sources of energy would you suggest for (a) rural areas (b) coastal areas (c) Arid regions?
Ans: (a) In rural areas – coal, solar energy, bio-gas and firewood can be used as sources of energy.
(b) In coastal areas – wind power, petroleum and tidal power can be used.
(C) In arid areas, geothermal powers and solar energy are the most suitable sources of energy to be used.
(v) Give five ways in which you can save energy at home.
Ans: Switching off the lights, TV and electric fans, when they are not in use.
Closing the tap properly, so that it does not drip
Using pressure cooker for cooking
Walking or using bicycles for short distance commutes.
Minimizing the use of refrigerators, air conditioners and lifts.
2. Tick the correct Answer.
(i) Which one of the following is NOT a characteristic of minerals?
(a) They are created by natural processes. (c) They are inexhaustible.
(b) They have a definite chemical composition. (d) Their distribution is uneven.
Ans: (c) They are inexhaustible
(ii) Which one of the following is a leading producer of copper in the world?
(a) Bolivia (c) Zimbabwe
(b) Ghana (d) Chile
Ans: (d) Chile
(iii) Which one of the following practices will NOT conserve LPG in your kitchen.
(a) Cooking food in an open pan, kept on low flame.
(b) Soaking the dal for some time before cooking it.
(c) Cooking food in a pressure cooker.
(d) Keeping the vegetables chopped before lighting the gas for cooking.
Ans: (a) Cooking food in an open pan, kept on low flame
3. Give reasons.
(i) Environmental aspects must be carefully looked into before building huge dams.
Ans: Construction of a huge dam creates large scale destruction of natural vegetation and wildlife in those
areas, which get submerged. This is not good for the ecosystem. Hence, environmental aspects must be
carefully looked into, before building huge dams.
(ii) Most industries are concentrated around coal mines.
Ans: Coal is an important source of energy and hence most of the industries are located around coal mines.
(iii) Petroleum is referred to as “black gold”.
Ans: Petroleum is a thick black liquid and is a valuable resource for various industries. Hence, it is also
known as “Black Gold”.
(iv) Quarrying can become a major environmental concern.
Ans: Quarrying creates many problems. Fine dust particles spread in the air around a quarrying site. Dust
particles from quarry can cause respiratory problems. Quarrying also destroys natural vegetation and thus
the home of many wild animals.
4. Distinguish between the following.
(i) Conventional and non-conventional sources of energy
Ans: Conventional sources of energy are those which have been in common use for a long time. Firewood
and fossil fuels are the two main conventional energy sources. Whereas, Non-Conventional sources of
energy are alternative forms of energy used in modern times. The use of renewable energy sources like
organic waste, tide and wind energy come under non-conventional energy sources.
(ii) Biogas and natural gas
Ans: The gaseous fuel formed from the conversion of organic waste such as dead plant, animal material,
animal dung and kitchen waste is called biogas. Biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide and
produces a huge amount of organic manure each year. Whereas, natural gas is extracted with petroleum
deposits when crude oil is brought to the surface.
(iii) Ferrous and non-ferrous minerals
Ans: Ferrous minerals contain iron such as iron ore, manganese and chromites. On the other hand, non-
ferrous minerals do not contain iron like gold, silver, copper or lead.
(iv) Metallic and non-metallic minerals
Ans: Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form. Bauxite and manganese are some examples of metallic
minerals. While metals such as limestone, mica and gypsum do not contain metal elements and are called
Non-metallic minerals.
Wrap Up Activity
1. Design a poster highlighting energy conservation tips you would take for your school
2. On an outline map of India, mark where iron, bauxite, manganese, and mica are found.
HOTS
1.Why has quarrying become a major environmental concern?
(a) Because minerals are pollutants
(b) Due to dust raised from the quarrying activities
(c) Because it is done by displacing people
(d) None of these
2. The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the surface of the earth is named as
(a) mining (c) extracting
(b) pumping (d) none of these
3.What is the process in which minerals lying near the surface are dug?
(a) Drilling (c) Quarrying
(b) Off-shore drilling (d) Extraction
4. Gold is an example of minerals.
(a) ferrous (c) both (a) and (b)
(b) non-ferrous (d) none of these
5. Which continent is the largest producer of iron?
(a) Asia (c) North America
(b) Europe (d) Australia
Chapter Agriculture
Learning Objectives:
● Learn about various types of farming and developments in agriculture in two different regions.
● To know that agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy.
Warm up Activities
● Name three things you eat that are made from wheat.
● How agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy? Explain.
● What is shifting cultivation?
Synopsis: Agriculture is a primary industry that employs about 50% of the world's population, and it
includes growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers, and rearing livestock.
Favourable climate and topography of soil are important for agriculture.
We can broadly classify all farming into subsistence farming and commercial farming.
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other
products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of
sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured
the development of civilization.
Key Terms
● Commercial Farming: Commercial farming is all about the growing of crops and/or the rearing of animals
for raw materials, food, or export, particularly for profitable reasons.
● Mixed Farming: Mixed farming is a type of farming which involves both the growing of crops and the
raising of livestock. Such agriculture occurs across Asia and in countries such as India, Malaysia, Indonesia,
Afghanistan, South Africa, China, Central Europe, Canada, and Russia.
● Subsistence Farming: Subsistence farming is growing food for your own and your family's direct
consumption. Like a backyard vegetable garden, but with fruit, starch crops, and animals as well.
● Intensive Farming: Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive
farming) and industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher
levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area.
● Shifting cultivation: Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which a person uses a piece of land,
only to abandon or alter the initial use a short time later. This system often involves clearing of a piece of
land followed by several years of wood harvesting or farming until the soil loses fertility.
● Cash Crop: A cash crop or profit crop is an agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It is
typically purchased by parties separate from a farm.
● Food Crop: The term food crop refers to plants which provide food for human consumption by man by
agriculture; they mainly consist of cereals , legumes , vegetables , tubers , and fruit .
● Staple food: A staple food, food staple, or simply a staple, is a food that is eaten routinely and in such
quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for a given person, supplying a large
fraction of energy needs and generally forming a significant proportion of the intake of other nutrients as
well.
Summary
Introduction
• Primary Activities: It includes all those connected with extraction and production of natural resources.
→ Examples: Agriculture, fishing and gathering.
• Secondary Activities: These are concerned with the processing of these resources.
→ Examples: Manufacturing of steel, baking of bread and weaving of cloth.
• Tertiary Activities: These provide support to the primary and secondary sectors through services.
→ Examples: Transport, trade, banking, insurance and advertising.
Agriculture
• Agriculture is a primary activity.
→ It includes growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing livestock.
• In the world, 50 percent of persons are engaged in agricultural activity.
→ Two-thirds of India’s population is still dependent on agriculture.
• Favourable topography of soil and climate are vital for agricultural activity.
→ The land on which the crops are grown is known as arable land.
Farm System
• The important inputs of agriculture are seeds, fertilisers, machinery and labour.
• The operations needed are ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding and harvesting.
• The outputs from the system include crops, wool, dairy and poultry products.
Types of Farming
• Farming can classified into two main types, depending upon the geographical conditions, demand
of produce, labour and level of technology:
→ Subsistence farming
→ Commercial farming
Subsistence Farming
• This type of farming is practised to meet the needs of the farmer’s family.
• Low levels of technology and household labour are used to produce on small output.
• Subsistence farming can be further classified as:
→ Intensive subsistence farming
→ Primitive subsistence farming
Intensive subsistence farming
• In this type of farming, the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour.
• Climate with a large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permit growing of more than one crop
annually on the same plot.
• Rice is the main crop.
→ Other crops include wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds.
• This farming is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southeast and east
Asia.
Primitive subsistence farming
• It includes
→ Shifting cultivation
→ Nomadic herding
Shifting Cultivation
• It is practised in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia and
Northeast India.
→ These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation.
• Method: A plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with the
soil and crops are grown. After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the
cultivator moves to a new plot.
• Shifting cultivation is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
Nomadic herding
• It is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India, like Rajasthan
and Jammu and Kashmir.
• Method: In this type of farming, herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water,
along defined routes.
• Sheep, camel, yak and goats are most commonly reared.
→ They provide milk, meat, wool, hides and other products to the herders and their families.
Commercial Farming
• In commercial farming crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in the market.
• The area cultivated and the amount of capital used is large.
• Most of the work is done by machines.
• Commercial farming includes
→ Commercial grain farming
→ Mixed farming
→ Plantation agriculture
Commercial grain farming
• Crops are grown for commercial purposes.
• Common crops: Wheat and maize.
• Major areas: temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia.
• Severe winters restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown.
Mixed farming
• The land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock.
• Areas: Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
Plantations
• Only a single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown.
• Large amounts of labour and capital are required.
• The produce may be processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories thus requiring transportation facilities.
• Areas: Tropical regions of the world.
→ Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka are some examples.
Major Crops
• Rice: Major food crop of the world.
→ It is the staple diet of the tropical and subtropical regions.
→ Rice needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall.
→ It grows best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water.
→ China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt.
• Wheat: Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during the growing season and bright sunshine at
the time of harvest.
→ It thrives best in well drained loamy soil.
→ Wheat is grown extensively in the USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India.
→ In India it is grown in winter.
• Millets: They are also known as coarse grains and can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils.
→ It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to moderate temperature and adequate rainfall. →
Jowar,bajra and ragi are grown in India.
→ Other countries are Nigeria, China and Niger.
• Maize: Maize requires moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine.
→ It needs well-drained fertile soils.
→ Maize is grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico.
→ Cotton: Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-free days
and bright sunshine for its growth.
→ It grows best on black and alluvial soils.
→ China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are amin producers.
→ It is one of the main raw materials for the cotton textile industry.
• Jute: Also known as ‘Golden Fibre’.
→ It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy rainfall and a humid climate.
→ This crop is grown in tropical areas.
→ India and Bangladesh are the leading producers.
• Coffee: Coffee requires warm and wet climate and well-drained loamy soil.
→ Hill slopes are more suitable for the growth of this crop.
→ Brazil is the leading producer followed by Columbia and India.
• Tea: Tea is a beverage crop grown on plantations.
→ It needs well-drained loamy soils and gentle slopes.
→ Requires a cool climate and well distributed high rainfall throughout the year for the growth of its tender
leaves.
→ Labor in large numbers is required to pick the leaves.
→ Kenya, India, China, Sri Lanka produce the best quality tea in the world.
Agricultural Development
• It refers to efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of increasing
population.
• How to achieve agricultural development
→ Increasing the cropped area
→ Increasing the number of crops grown
→ Improving irrigation facilities
→ Use of fertilisers and high yielding variety of seeds
• The ultimate aim of agricultural development is to increase food security.
A Farm in India
• Small Size farmland.
• Use HYV seeds purchased from markets.
• Take advice from friends, elders or the government.
• Use tractors or bullock carts for ploughing the field.
• Use the tube well for irrigation activities.
• Also, rear livestock to earn more income.
• All the members of the family help him in various farm activities.
• The farmers take credit from a bank or the agricultural co-operative society to buy HYV seeds and
implements.
• Lack storage facilities so they are forced to sell the produce even when the market is not favourable to them.
• In recent years, the government has taken some steps to develop storage facilities.
A Farm in USA
• Large size farmland.
• The farmer generally resides on the farm.
• Some of the major crops grown are corn, soyabean, wheat, cotton and sugar beet.
• Adequate measures are taken to control pests that can damage the crop.
• From time to time, Soil samples are checked in the laboratory to check whether the nutrients are sufficient
or not.
• The Farmer's computer is linked to the satellite which gives him a precise picture of his field.
• This helps farmers to use chemical fertilisers and pesticides wherever they are required.
• Farmers use tractors, seed drills, leveller, combined harvester and thresher to perform various agricultural
operations.
• Grains are stored in the automated grain storage or dispatched to market agencies.
Fact File
Bananas are the number one fruit crop in the world. They are the 4th largest overall crop, after wheat, rice,
and corn. They grow on farms in more than 100 countries. India grows more bananas than any other country,
while the Philippines, China, and Ecuador are the next three top producers.
More than 6,000 different kinds of apples are grown around the world. The biggest producer is China, followed
by the United States, Iran, Turkey, Russia, Italy, and India.
Maize is also known as corn, and various colourful varieties of maize are found across the world.
The word agriculture is derived from Latin words ager or agri meaning soil, and culture meaning cultivation
or tilling of soil.
Textual Questions
1. Answer the following Questions.
(i) What is agriculture?
Ans: Agriculture is a primary activity that includes growing crops, vegetables, fruits, flowers and rearing
livestock. Agriculture is a primary activity, as it is connected with the extraction and production of natural
resources.
(ii) Name the factors influencing agriculture.
Ans: The factors that influence agriculture include soil, climate, topography, population etc.
(iii) What is shifting cultivation? What are its disadvantages?
Ans: Shifting cultivation is also known as Slash-and-burn cultivation. It is a type of farming activity which
involves clearing of a land plot by cutting down trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with the
soil and crops are grown. After the land has lost its fertility, it is abandoned. The farmers then move to a new
place.
Disadvantages of shifting cultivation:
Leads to deforestation
Loss of fertility of a particular land
Leads to Soil erosion
Burning of trees causes air pollution
Insufficient cultivation of crops for a large population.
(iv) What is plantation agriculture?
Ans: Plantations are a type of commercial farming where single crops of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew,
rubber, banana or cotton are grown. Large amounts of capital and capital are required. The produce may be
processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories. The development of a transport network is thus essential
for such farming. Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of the world. Rubber in Malaysia, coffee
in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka are some examples.
(v) Name the fiber crops and name the climatic conditions required for their growth.
Ans: Jute and Cotton are fiber crops. The climatic conditions necessary for the growth of Jute are high
temperature, heavy rainfall and high humidity. Similarly, for the growth of cotton, high temperature, light
rainfall, and bright sunshine are required.
2. Tick the correct Answer.
(i) Horticulture means
(a) growing of fruits and vegetables
(b) primitive farming
(c) growing of wheat
Ans: (a) Growing of fruits and vegetables
(ii) Golden fiber refers to
(a) tea (b) cotton (c) jute
Ans: (c) Jute
(iii) Leading producers of coffee
(a) Brazil (b) India (c) Russia
Ans: (a)Brazil
3. Give reasons.
(i) In India agriculture is a primary activity.
Ans: Agriculture is a primary activity because many regions in India have fertile land that is favourable for
agriculture. Two-thirds of the Indian population still depend on agriculture. This is mainly because of the lack
of literacy among the people. Hence, India being a densely populated country requires large scale production
of food to fulfil the people's needs.
(ii) Different crops are grown in different regions.
Ans: Different crops are grown in different regions because growing the crops depends on factors such as
favourable topography of soil, demand of produce, type of climate, amount of rainfall, technology and labour.
4. Distinguish between the following.
(i) Primary activities and tertiary activities
Ans: Primary activities are related to production and extraction of natural resources such as fishing,
agriculture, mining, whereas tertiary activities are those that provide support to primary and secondary sectors
in carrying out their activities like transportation, banking etc.
(ii) Subsistence farming and intensive farming.
Ans: Subsistence farming is a type of farming that the farmer practices to meet the needs of his family. The
cultivation of crops is done for personal consumption. It involves low levels of technology and household
labour to produce a small output. In intensive subsistence agriculture, the farmer cultivates a small plot of land
using simple tools and more labour. Rice, wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds are the crops grown in this type
of farming. Intensive subsistence agriculture is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon
regions.
Wrap Up Activity
● Collect pictures of different farming practices and prepare a collage. Write informative captions
under each picture.
● Collect seeds of wheat, rice, maize, oilseeds and pulses available in the market. Bring them to the
class and find out in which type of soil they grow.
● Visit a farm, meet the farmer over there, learn about his farming equipment, and make a multimedia
presentation on your visit.
HOTS
1.Which Of the following are primary activities?
(a) Agriculture (c) Fishing
(b) Mining (d) All of these
2. What is the cultivation of grapes called’?
(a) Sericulture (c) Floriculture
(b) Viticulture (d) Horticulture
3.The important inputs like seeds, fertilisers, machinery etc form a system called as?
(a) Barter system (c) Farm system
(b) Water system (d) All of these
4. Type of farming to meet family needs is known as:
(a) Subsistence (c) Organic
(b) Mixed (d) None of these
5. Which of the following crops are raised in commercial grain farming?
(a) Wheat (c) Both of these
(b) Maize (d) None of these
SUBJECT: ISLAMIC STUDIES
Teacher concerned: Mr. Bilal Ahmad : bilal.ahmad@kashmirharvard.org
Chapter 3 Topic: Belief In The Books Of Allah
Learning objective:
The students will be able to understand
 The importance of Books of Allah (s.w.t) especially the final Book; The Holy Quran.
 The benefits of learning and implications of knowledge obtained from sacred books of Allah in our daily
life according to the teachings of Islam.
Warm up activity
Which book was revealed to Musa (a.s)?
How many chapters are mentioned in the Qur'an?
Terminology
Sacred: Holy
Scriptures: Religious books
Tampered: Modified, altered.
Summary: The Holy books are the Books of Allah (S.W.T) revealed to various Prophets for the guidance of
Mankind. Muslims believe the Quran to be the final revelation of Allah (S.W.T) to mankind and confirmation
of previous scriptures.
List of Sacred books:
The Tawrat (Torah) revealed to Musa (A.s)
The Zabur (Psalms) revealed to Dawud (A.s)
The Injeel (Gospel/Bible) revealed to Isa (A.s)
The Quran revealed to Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W)
Suhuf revealed to Ibrahim (A.s)/Musa (A.s) Etc.
The Qur'an is the holy book that contains the teachings of Allah given to the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W).
Muslims believe that Allah gave Muhammad (S.A.W) these teachings because all earlier religious texts were
no longer reliable and were meant for particular time period and people. It is believed to have only come from
Allah through Angel Jibrael (A.s) which makes it the most important book for Muslims.
All Muslims believe that Allah (S.w.t) has communicated messages to His Prophets or messengers, who in
turn shared those messages with human beings. The Qur'an is believed to be the final perfect message received
from Allah (S.w.t) by the Prophet Muhammad(S.A.W) through Angel Jibrael (A.s).
Surfing activity
https://youtu.be/YRuyI2kuWNs
Textual Questions. (To be done on notebook)
Q1. In principle, what is common in all Divine Books?
Ans. The common thing in all the Divine Books is that these books are same fundamentally and are meant
for spreading humanity. However, the minor details of these principles differ depending upon the time and
society.
Q2. What did Zabur contain?
Ans. Zabur contained songs in praise of Allah (SWT) and it was revealed to Prophet Dawud (A.S).
Q3. Which book was revealed to Musa (A.S)?
Ans. Tawrat was revealed to Musa (A.S).
Q4. Which Book was revealed to Isa (A.S)?
Ans. Injeel was revealed to Isa (A.S).
Q5. Which Book contains the basic teachings of all Divine Books?
Ans. The Glorious Quran contains the basic teachings of all Divine Books.
Wrap up activity:
Memorize last ten Chapters (Surah) of the Quran.
CHAPTER 5: BELIEF IN THE MESSENGERS OF ALLAH
Learning Objective:
The students will be able to understand the importance and role of Messengers.
Warm-up activity
What was the age of Prophet Adam(a.s)?
How many messengers were sent to guide mankind?
Terminology
Pious: sincere, religious.
Miracles: extraordinary events or wonderful act.
Summary:
Prophets or Messengers are the chosen people who are capable of receiving Divine guidance from the
Almighty Allah and communicating it to people living in the physical world .They demonstrated us how to
live our lives peacefully according to the will of Almighty Allah. They are the best teachers, trustworthy and
best examples for us to follow to become a good human beings.
They received revelations from Allah and acted according to it. All the Messengers of Allah were the best in
character and righteousness. Messengers performed miracles that could not be done by ordinary people.
Surfing link
https://youtu.be/fYFr1cTtNuk
Q1. Why did Almighty Allah create human beings?
Ans. Allah created human beings to worship Him and to live pious life based on His teachings and guidance.
Q2. What were the main features of the messengers of Allah?
Ans. The main features of the Messengers of Allah were.
a. Messengers received revelations: They received revelations from Allah and acted according to it.
b. Messengers had noble characters: All the Messengers of Allah were the best in character and
righteousness.
c. Messengers performed miracles: Many Messengers performed miracles that could not be done by
ordinary people.
Q3. Who were ‘Rasul’?
Ans. Rasul or Messenger is the one who received new revelation from Allah and brought a new sharia (rules
and regulations) or Book. Musa (A.S), Dawud (A.S), Isa (A.S) and Muhammad (S.A.W) are some Rasul or
Messengers.
Q4. Who were ‘Nabi’?
Ans. Nabi or Prophets are those who were not given new sharia (rules and regulations) or Books. They
preached the teachings and sharia of the previous Prophets.
Q5. Who is the last messenger of Allah?
Ans. Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) is the last Messenger of Allah (S.W.T).
Wrap up activity:
Make a list of names of Messengers mentioned in the holy Quran
CHAPTER 6: BELIEF IN THE LAST DAY AND DESTINY
Learning objective:
Students will be able to understand
 The concept of life and death according to Islamic literature.
 The belief in the life hereafter.
Warm-up activity
What are the signs of last day?
Who is the last Prophet?
Terminology
Eager: curious
Distress: Pain, Suffering
Collapse: fall,faint
Trumpet: a musical instrument ,here it refers to(blow sur)
Summary: The Islamic belief in the life hereafter as stated in the Quran is descriptive. The Arabic word for
Paradise is ‘Jannah’ and for Hell is ‘Jahannam’.
Islam teaches that the purpose of Man's entire creation is to worship Allah alone, which includes being kind
to other human beings and life, including animals, and to trees, by not oppressing them. Islam teaches that the
life we live on Earth is nothing but a test for us and to determine each individual's ultimate abode, be it Hell
or Paradise in the afterlife, which is eternal and everlasting depends on their deeds completely. People with
more good deeds will be rewarded and those people with more bad deeds will be punished.
Surfing link
https://youtu.be/6oTEq2TP_t8
Q1. What is the purpose of our earthly lives?
Ans. The main purpose of our earthly lives is to please Almighty Allah by doing righteous deeds and avoiding
sinful deeds. Allah (SWT) has divided human lives into two parts. The first part of our life that we live on the
earth is mainly test of our deeds and second part of our life starts after death. Life after death completely
depends on deeds performed by us during earthly lives.
Q2. What is the best way to get rewarded by Allah in the hereafter?
Ans. The best way to get rewarded by Allah (SWT) in the hereafter is to live our lives according to the
teachings of Glorious Quran and Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (SAW). If we live our lives according to the
teachings of Glorious Quran and Sunnah, we will be rewarded by Allah (SWT) in the life hereafter by granting
a permanent life in the paradise or else a punishment in the Hell fire if we disobey him completely.
Q3. What is the last day?
Ans. The last day is the day when all human beings will be assembled before Allah (SWT) to be questioned
and held accountable for all their deeds on this earth. The last day is also called by many names in the Glorious
Quran.
Viz;
a. Yawm al – Qiyamah.
b. Yawm al – Haqq
c. Yawm al – Jami
d. Yawm al – Hisab
e. Yawm al – Hasrah
Q4. What does the belief in the destiny mean?
Ans. Belief in destiny (Taqdeer) means to believe that all power and authority rests with Almighty Allah who
has control over everything. Everything good or bad happening in this World reflects Allah’s will. Everything
going to happen is already written by Allah (SWT) in ‘Louhe-Mehfooz, The preserved tablet.
Q5. Why is man accountable to Allah for his deeds?
Ans. Man is accountable to Allah (SWT) for his deeds because Allah (SWT) has given free will and reason
to human beings. They do good or bad deeds by their choice.
Wrap up activity:
Make a chart and mention signs of the last day according to Quran and Ahadith.
CHAPTER 7: LIFE OF PROPHET (S.A.W) IN MAKKAH
Learning Objective:
Students will be able to understand
 The Birth of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W).
 The History of Life of Prophet (S.A.W) according to the Islamic literature and the Most reliable source,
The Holy Quran.
Warm-up activity
Name the parents of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w).
Where was Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) born?
Terminology
Merchant: Businessman or trader.
Graze: feed, especially cattle
Recognise: Identify
Accustomed: used to
Summary: Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) was born in Makkah(Saudi Arabia) on Monday,12th Rabi-al-
Awwal (571C.E ) .His father Abdullah ,who belonged to Quraysh tribe had passed away few months before
his birth. At the age of six years, Prophet Muhammad(S.A.W) lost his mother Aamina(R.a) . After the death
of Aamina , Abdul Mutallib( grand father of Prophet) took care of Him. Abdul Mutallib died when Prophet
Muhammad (S.A.W) was eight years old. After that Abu Talib, the uncle of prophet took the responsibility
of Prophet Muhammad(S.A.W) . Abu Talib loved Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) very much and took care of
him till He was alive .
First trip to Syria
Prophet Muhammad(S.A.W) was twelve years old when Abu Talib agreed to take him to Syria. When the
caravan reached Busra, the southeastern part of Syria, a Christian monk named Bahira saw and recognized
him as the Last Prophet.
Second trip to syria
By the time Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) was twenty five years old, he was known for his honesty and was
called as “Amin” trust worthy. He became famous in Makkah for his great qualities of being a truthful trader.
He got a business proposal from Khadija(R.a),who was a rich business woman and she was very much
impressed by the character of Prophet (S.A.W). She was a widow and sent a marriage proposal to Prophet
Muhammad(S.A.W).
Marriage to Khadijah(R.A)
Prophet Muhammad(S.A.W)was 25 years old when he married to Khadijah(R.A)who was 40years old. They
had six children, two sons and four daughters.
Prophethood
At the age of 40years angel Jibrail(A.s) brought the first revelation to Him while He was in the cave of Hira.
Prophet Muhammad(S.A.W) announced Prohethood before the Makkan unbelievers who worshipped idols.
Soon after this unbelievers became the enemies of Prophet Muhammad(S.A.W) and started torturing him.
Khadijah(R.A) was the first person and Abu Bakr(R.A) was the first man to embrace islam. Slowly many
people in Makkah began to embrace Islam.
Night Journey(Me’raj)
The Prophet travelled from Makkah to Bait al maqdis(Jerusalem) in a single night on a strange winged creature
called Buraq. From Bait al maqdis(Jerusalem) he ascended into heavens, where he met the earlier prophets,
and eventually Allah. During this jouney Muhammad(S.A.W) was told of the duty of Muslims to offer salah
(ritual prayer) five times a day.
Prophet Muhammad(S.A.W) spent 52 years of His life in Makkah before He was forced to leave Makkah as
the Uncle of Prophet Abu Jahal planned to kill Him.By the command of Allah(S.W.T) Prophet
Muhammad(S.A.W) secretly migrated to Madinah along with his best friend Abu Bakr Siddiq(R.A) and
settled there along with other companions(Muhajirin).
Q1. When was Rasulullah (SAW) born?
Ans. Rasulullah (SAW) was born on Monday, 12th Rabi al- Awwal in 571CE, in Makkah.
Q2. To which country, did Rasulullah advise the muslims to migrate?
Ans. Rasulullah (SAW) advised the muslims to migrate to Abyssinia because a just Christian king Negus
ruled there at that time.
Q3. When did muslims start praying openly at the kabah?
Ans. Muslims started praying openly at the Kabah in the 6th year of Prophethood when the uncle of the Prophet
(SAW), Hamza (R.A) and Umar bin al-Khattab (R.A) accepted islam.
Q4. What is Sidrat-ul-Muntaha?
Ans. Sidratul-Muntaha is the nearest point to the ‘Arsh’the throne of Allah’s power and majesty.
Q5. During Hijrah, who was the companion of the prophet (SAW)?
Ans. During Hijrah, Hazarat Abu Bakr (R.A) was the companion of the prophet (SAW).
Wrap up activity:
Make a chart showing Family tree of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W).
CHAPTER: 17 REVISION OF AHADITH
Learning objective:
Students will understand the importance of Ahadith and sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w).
Warm up activity:
What do you understand by Hadith?
Name some renowned books of Hadith?
Terminology
Authentic: Genuine or undisputed origin
Summary: Hadith refers to the statements or actions of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) as, they are the best
teachings for the whole Mankind. Hadith have been called the “back-bone” of Islamic civilization. Hadith
were not written down by Prophet Muhammad’s (SAW) followers immediately after his death but many
generations later when they were collected and compiled into a great corpus of Islamic literature like Sahih
Bukhari. Sahih Bukhari contains 7563 hadith chain-supported collections regarding matters pertaining to the
Messenger of Allah, His traditions and His times. Sahih Bukhari is one of the six major Hadith collections.
Surfing activity https://youtu.be/I0unMjJ7S0I
Wrap up activity:
Learn Ahadith mentioned in the text book on page no.92 and 93.
CHAPTER: 18 HADITH
Learning objective:
Students will understand the importance of Ahadith and sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w).
Warm up activity:
What do you understand by Hadith?
Name some renowned books of Hadith?
Summary: Hadith refers to the statements or actions of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) as, they are the best
teachings for the whole Mankind. Hadith have been called the “back-bone” of Islamic civilization. Hadith
were not written down by Prophet Muhammad’s (SAW) followers immediately after his death but many
generations later when they were collected and compiled into a great corpus of Islamic literature like Sahih
Bukhari. Sahih Bukhari contains 7563 hadith chain-supported collections regarding matters pertaining to the
Messenger of Allah, His traditions and His times. Sahih Bukhari is one of the six major Hadith collections .
Surfing activity
https://youtu.be/I0unMjJ7S0I
The beautiful sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) are called ‘Ahadith’.They are best
teachings for the whole mankind.
Wrap up activity:
Learn Ahadith mentioned in the text book on page no.94.
CHAPTER: 19 MEMORIZE THE QURAN

Learning objective:
Students will memorize Surah Al-Qariah(101) and Surah Al –Zalzalah(99) mentioned on page no.95 and 96
along with their English translation.
Warm-up activity
How many chapters(surah) are mentioned in Quran?
Quran was revealed during the month of-------?
Terminology
Calamity: natural Disasters like Earth quake,floods etc.
Surfing link
https://youtu.be/UlY6aMMAeZ8
https://youtu.be/Cbv_ESQ9RlI
Students task: Memorize the above mentioned Surah along with English translation.
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Kashmir Harvard EDUCATIONAL institute

Higher secondary school

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X+\ 7yZz›q7=å2E " } !

Xï G!NW}•zBæL°g1 Dô2F ( •zô2F ( •z åE 54NXèEG 4&:gkzZçF

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