inform June 2016 Volume 27 (6)

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International News on Fats, Oils, and Related Materials

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Science behind Technology

 AOCS LAB PROFICIENCY PROGRAM

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Visit aocs.org/lpp for
a complete list of LPP
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 June 2016 inform

contents
6 Benchtop NMR spectroscopy for
meat authentication
A rapid screening approach for authenticating beef based on triglyceride composition
takes 10 minutes and can be used at key points in the supply chain.
 Project Cost / Influence Curve
MAJOR INFLUENCE MINOR INFLUEN

HIGH

Cumulative
Influence
project cost

10 LOW
14 17
10
PLANNING DESIGN/PROCURE CONSTRUCTION

How to get premium laundry detergency

A fabric care and cleaning expert explains how using less detergent can actually clean better, save
money, and lower environmental impacts.

14 Ultra-high pressure homogenization for “cleaner” reduced-fat emulsions

Can ultra-high pressure homogenization be used to produce sensory-improved reduced-fat emul-
sions without (or with lower concentrations of) fat replacers?

17 Front-end loading for a successful capital project

Completing the majority of project planning and engineering early costs more upfront but can lower
overall costs by making it easier and cheaper to accommodate design changes.

22 Crystallizers: the crystal-clear answer to trans-fat-free margarine production

Learn how the right crystallizer can pay for itself by resulting in better use of production equipment.

28 Influence of fatty acid composition on properties of industrial products and fuels

The fatty acid composition, scientific name, and seed oil content of 25 alternative triglyceride feed-
stocks—plus the industrial applications of the major fatty acid categories—are summarized in two
handy tables.

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37 Classified Advertising 30 Olio 31 Mintec Update
48 AOCS Meeting Watch 34 Regulatory Review 36 Patents
46 Latin America Update 38 Extracts & Distillates
41 Book Review
44 AOCS Journal Titles
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 6 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)

Benchtop NMR
spectroscopy for
meat authentication
E. K. Kemsley, M. Defernez, A. D. Watson, and D. Williamson

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a well-known technique used in laboratories

worldwide. Modern research-grade instruments are based on super-cooled electromagnets that are
used to generate the high magnetic fields needed. They are expensive to buy and maintain, occupy
a large amount of space, and require highly trained personnel to run them. In recent years, a new
crop of low-field NMR spectrometers has appeared on the market. In contrast to their high-field
cousins, these instruments are small (often referred to as “benchtop”) and have much lower
capital and insignificant running costs. Typically operating at field strengths <100MHz, benchtop
spectrometers are based on permanent magnets and work without needing any cryogens.
Food sector applications:
• In 2013, undeclared horsemeat was detected in a wide
starting with triglycerides
range of processed meat products on supermarket shelves Since 2012, the Analytical Sciences Unit at the UK’s
across the United Kingdom and Europe. The crisis exposed Institute of Food Research (IFR) has been working in
partnership with Oxford Instruments (OI), a leading
shortcomings in testing regimes and highlighted the need
manufacturer of scientific instrumentation, to develop
for additional analytical approaches suitable for rapid benchtop NMR spectroscopy for food sector applica-
low-cost screening. tions. The project received support from the transla-
tional science funding agency, InnovateUK, as well as the
Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Coun-
•M
 any methods for verifying the species present in cil. The spectrometer at the heart of the project was the
PulsarTM, a 60MHz instrument launched by OI in 2013
meat products are DNA-based, but there are other (Fig. 1).
compositional factors amenable to measurement which Among the first compound classes targeted were
can also provide means of species confirmation. triglycerides, which are the main constituents of the fat
component in foods. Triglycerides are ideal samples for
study by low-field NMR, as good quality spectra can be
• This article describes the development of a rapid screening obtained quickly and easily. To examine fats and oils,
samples can simply be mixed with chloroform to reduce
approach for authenticating beef based on triglyceride their viscosity, then placed into a standard NMR tube for
composition. The screening protocol only takes 10 minutes analysis. 60MHz NMR spectral profiles contain distinct
peaks arising from various moieties (Fig. 2, page 8), from
and can be used at key points in the supply chain, such as
which accurate and precise quantitative information on
meat processors or wholesalers, where the incoming raw the mono- and polyunsaturated contents can be calcu-
materials are in the form of frozen blocks of trimmings. lated. A first application of this work sought to distin-
guish between olive and hazelnut oils, which are highly
similar with regards to their fatty acid composition [1].
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 7
FIG. 1. The PulsarTM 60MHz benchtop instrument. To collect a spectrum, an NMR tube containing a liquid sample is introduced
into the spectrometer. Data collection is initiated by the operator using acquisition software installed on a PC. Here, the machine
is being used to carry out quantitative analysis of edible oils, with the results displayed directly following recording of the NMR
spectrum.
To analyze solid foods, an extraction step is needed,
but this can also be relatively simple: shaking a few grams
of homogenized sample in chloroform, vortexing and filter-
ing into the NMR tube is all that is required. Chloroform is
an efficient extractor of lipophilic compounds, and using
this procedure, high quality spectra can be obtained of the
fat component from a wide range of food products and raw
materials [2].
Developing a screening method
for authenticating raw beef
In 2013, a major incident of food fraud was uncovered, in
which undeclared horsemeat was detected in a wide range
of processed meat products on supermarket shelves across
the UK and Europe. Thousands of tons of food were recalled,
and there was substantial brand damage to the companies
involved. The crisis exposed shortcomings in testing regimes,
and highlighted the need for additional analytical approaches
suitable for rapid low-cost screening.
Many methods for verifying the species present in meat
products are DNA-based. However, animals do not differ only
in their DNA; there are other compositional factors amena-
ble to measurement which can also provide means of species
confirmation. It is common knowledge that pork and beef fat,
for instance, are very different from one another. This is due
to dissimilarities in the animals’ triglyceride compositions,
which in turn arise from differences in their diets, metabolism
and digestive systems. With this in mind, the teams at IFR and
OI began an extensive study of the fat component extracted
from raw meats, with the aim of developing a rapid screening
Analytical advances
approach for authenticating beef. 60MHz NMR spectra were
collected from extracts prepared from fresh red meats, spe-
cifically beef and two potential adulterant species: pork and
horse.
Over the course of a year, the method was refined and
repeated on hundreds of meat samples in the laboratories at
OI and IFR. The results obtained were compelling. Each of the
different meats examined exhibited clearly different spectra.
For example, in the case of beef versus horse, spectral profiles
were found to be entirely distinct. Even allowing for natu-
ral variation, no overlap between the two types was found;
the test was completely accurate in determining whether an
extract originated from a piece of horsemeat or a piece of
beef. Fig. 3, page 8, shows a collection of spectra from the
three meat types, along with a graphical representation of
the statistical model built to characterise the beef group. The
ellipse delineates a confidence interval around the “authentic
beef” group. When challenged with a range of pork and horse
test samples, this model correctly placed all of these outside
the “authentic beef” group.
Accurate results in 10 minutes
As part of the project, a stand-alone software package was
developed to carry out the mathematical analysis of the spec-
tra, thereby providing a complete system for authenticating
raw beef in a screening protocol that takes 10 minutes from
start to finish. The test is intended for use at key points in the
supply chain, such as meat processors or wholesalers, where
the incoming raw materials are in the form of frozen blocks of
trimmings; it is also suitable for pre-screening ahead of more
 8 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)

Fig. 2. A typical low-field NMR spectrum of vegetable oil, which is composed largely of triglycerides. Indicated on the figure are some of
the key resonances that provide information on the detailed composition of the sample, in particular with regards to the amount and
type of unsaturated fatty acid chains.

FIG. 3. Chemometric analysis of key regions of the low-field NMR spectrum (left panel) leads to a simple two-dimensional model in princi-
pal component space (right panel), capable of distinguishing beef from pork or horse with complete accuracy across >100 test samples.
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 9

time-consuming DNA testing. This work was published in an
open access paper in Food Chemistry [3], and a patent on this
approach to meat species confirmation is pending.
High-field NMR spectroscopy has long been recognized
as a powerful analytical tool, but the equipment is too expen-
sive and technically demanding to allow deployment anywhere
apart from specialist laboratories. The advent of benchtop NMR
looks set to change this landscape. Through a number of key
food sector applications, we have discovered how useful the
low-field modality can be, particularly for the analysis of fat-
containing samples. The IFR and OI teams are looking forward
to further fruitful collaboration on industrially important chal-
lenges as the technology of benchtop NMR continues to evolve.
E. K. Kemsley, M. Defernez and A. D. Watson are researchers at
the Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney
Lane, Norwich, NR4 7UA, UK, http://www.ifr.ac.uk/.
D. Williamson is a researcher at Oxford Instruments,
Tubney Woods, Abingdon, Oxford, OX13 5QX,
http://www.oxford-instruments.com/.

Further reading
[1] 6
 0 MHz 1H NMR Spectroscopy for the analysis of edible oils. Parker, T., Limer, E., Watson, A., Defernez, M., Williamson, D.,
and Kemsley, E.K. TRAC— Trends in Analytical Chemistry (2014) 57: 147–158.

[2] 60 MHz 1H NMR Spectroscopy of triglyceride mixtures. Gerdova, A., Defernez, M., Jakes, W., Limer, E., McCallum, C., Nott,
K., Parker, T., Rigby, N., Sagidullin, A., Watson, A.D., Williamson, D., and E.K. Kemsley (2015) in Magnetic Resonance in
Food Science: Defining Food by Magnetic Resonance (eds: F. Capozzi, L. Laghi, P.S. Belton) Royal Society of Chemistry
pp. 17–30.

[3] A
 uthentication of beef versus horse meat using 60 MHz 1H NMR spectroscopy. Jakes, W., Gerdova, A., Defernez, M., Wat-
son, A.D., McCallum, C., Limer, E., Colquhoun, I.J., Williamson, D.C, and Kemsley, E.K. Food Chemistry (2015) 175: 1–9.

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How to get premium
laundry detergency
How often do you get a spot on your favorite shirt or blouse and put it in the laundry hamper
and forget about it? During the weekly wash you neglect to pre-spot it, leaving your detergent to
remove some, but not all of the stain. Then you commit the final mistake and dry it, baking in the
stain. We all hate when that happens.
• The surfactants industry has made many
product advances to improve laundry
performance and sustainability, but how these
products are used affects laundry performance
and sustainability just as much—if not more—
than the products themselves.
• Done carefully, pre-spotting improves
performance, uses less detergent, saves
money, and lowers environmental impact.
• This article explains the basic chemistry
behind this approach and why it works.
10 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
Floyd E. Friedli
During the past 40 or so years, the surfactants and detergents
industry has made massive efforts to improve laundry perfor-
mance, sustainability, and convenience. Much progress has been
made when it comes to developing new more effective ingredients,
biodegradable materials, improved enzymes, new formulations,
new delivery systems, drip-roof caps, and new packaging.
Powdered products have given way to heavy duty liquids (HDL).
Europe has tried tablets, and now in North America pods are the
rage. We currently have value brands, mid-tier brands, superior
cleaning brands, color protection brands, skin-sensitivity brands,
concentrated brands, super concentrated brands, and oxidizing/
bleaching detergents, as well as pre-spotters that delivery by stick,
spray, and liquid. Many of these advances have been covered in
Inform.
However, over my years in fabric care working on stains in
the laboratory and at home, I have observed that how laundry
products are used affects laundry performance and sustainability
just as much—if not more—than the products themselves.
Pre-spotting takes time and effort, but the reality is that
most of us just want to throw a cheap detergent into the washing
machine and magically get clean clothes. There are two major
problems with this approach.
1. Y our detergent might not have the best ingredients for your
specific stains and your over-all level of dirt.
2. The available surfactant and polymer molecules are too
dilute to actually find the spot on your shirt and remove all
of the stain.
Fortunately, many times your clothes are not that dirty. Most
are slightly soiled with traces of sweat, body oils, food, dirt, and
dead skin (basically dust sebum). There may be one or two cloth-
ing items with more serious spots of food or grease. So, unless you
are washing a load of dirty baseball uniforms or mechanics’ clothes,
your detergent has an easy task—except for those one or two
problem spots.
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 11 Surfactants and Detergents

The effects of dilution on dosage Theories

Regarding stains, it is no secret that grease is best removed
with nonionics, particulates with anionics, some food stains
with enzymes, and red wine with oxidizing agents. Builders and
chelants tie up ions in hard or iron-ontaining water and allow
the surfactants to work better. Polymers help suspend the
removed soils for easier rinsing down the drain before they can
redeposit.
Washing machines typically hold 10–28 gallons of water,
depending on the type of machine and water level chosen
(1). This comes to about 38–100 liters of water. The minimum
concentration needed to get noticeable surfactant activity or
cleaning, or Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC), of typical non-
ionics is .001–.025% at room temperature (2). A Heavy Duty
Liquid (HDL) detergent capful dose is about 100 ml (3). Assum-
ing HDL are 10–30% solids of which 10–33% are nonionics, you
get about a 3–10 g dose of nonionic in each capful. This dos-
age gives an “in water” concentration range for the nonionic of
.003% –.026% , which is at the CMC in pure water. Again, this
level is the minimum needed to get surfactant action and
cleaning.
However, even though the surfactants are dosed at their
CMC and the laundry cycle is long, it is still very difficult for
enough surfactant molecules to find your stain and remove
it when dosed in the general water bath. Imagine that you
have 5 grams of nonionic and 5 grams of anionic that are lost
in 100,000 milliliters of water. How are they supposed to find
the stain on your favorite shirt amongst all the other fabric and
washing machine surfaces? The fact that we get reasonable
cleaning most of the time shows the fine surfactant and formu-
lation optimization the detergent chemists have accomplished.
Pre-spotting overcomes the dilution effect because:
• the detergent is placed on the spot and not deposited on
clean fabric or washing machine surfaces;
• the surfactant and solvents in the formulation start to
soften and dissolve the stain. Hot or warm water also
accomplishes this function, but currently we want to
wash in cold water to save energy. (Pre-spotting can be
viewed an alternative to warmer water.)
• Until the surfactant fully disperses, it will be well above
its CMC in the area of the stain to work better to lift and
encapsulate the stain in micelles.
• Most laundry is not that dirty.
• A few items may have a trouble spot that will only be
effectively removed with concentrated surfactants placed
right on the dirt.
• Sorting clothes by color is a waste of time. Why do two
small loads when you can do one large load with whites
and colors and try your luck on dye transfer? Use cold water
to save energy and help avoid dye transfer.
• The time taken to pre-spot is well worth it to avoid
washing dirty items a second time or not noticing the
item is still dirty and drying it to lock in the stain.
• Due to improved agitation and lower water usage, which
improves the CMC situation, an high-efficiency machine
should and does clean better.
My experience in fabric care working on stains resulted
in the development of various theories and procedures
(see Theories, above, and Friedli’s System on page 12).
Pre-spotting has several advantages, “in theory.”
1. Your
 clothes come out cleaner, particularly the dirty
ones.
2. You “may” actually use much less detergent on the
average, by using partial capfuls.
3. S ince you are using less detergent, the environmental
load you are putting down the drain is much less.
Working for Akzo Nobel Surface Chemistry and get-
ting free samples helped the author develop a great pre-spot
mix. Not to reveal any secrets, but a blend of a) detergent
range nonionic, b) low-HLB (4) nonionic, c) hard water resis-
tant anionic, and d) quality anti-redep polymer works nicely
in concentrated form. The low-HLB nonionic is key to grease
removal, particularly in a pre-spot scenario where the non-
ionic, which has low water solubility and solvent properties,
softens and starts to dissolve the oily stain. Ethoxlated amines
can act as great general nonionics and as grease and grass
stain removers (5).
From the CMC calculations above, a low-HLB, low-CMC
nonionic not only cuts grease, but definitely should be above
its CMC in use.

Test Spaghetti Hazelnut-chocolate/olive oil

1 90% removed 80% removed - olive oil ring
2 95% removed 85% removed – very little oil ring
3 95% removed 90% removed – some olive oil ring
4 85% removed 70% removed – olive oil ring
TABLE 1. Wash test results

Practical tests
To test my theories, particularly on using less detergent, a
“pseudo-scientific study” of two stains—spaghetti sauce and
chocolate-hazelnut paste diluted 50/50 with olive oil to liquefy
it—placed on white 100% cotton T-shirts (6) was undertaken.
A 1 ml spot of spaghetti sauce and a 1 ml 50/50 mixture
of chocolate-hazelnut/olive oil was placed on the shirts and
allowed to dry for 16 hrs. Four washing tests were then per-
formed, using one stained shirt and a variety of other normal
dirty clothes, sheets, and towels in each load.
1) 60 ml high quality HDL in wash water—~20% solids gives
12 grams active ingredients
2) 30 ml high quality HDL directly on stains—6 grams active
ingredients
3) 7 ml proprietary pre-spotter on stains—at 69% actives
gives 5 gram actives
4) 30 ml high quality HDL in wash water—5 ml commercial
pre-spotter on stains—~ 7 grams actives
The tests were conducted in a Maytag home washing
machine set to cold wash, medium water volume, and cold
rinse. Stained shirts were removed at the beginning of the spin
cycle, and air dried overnight.
Tests 2–4 were designed to see if less overall surfactant
could be used to get good cleaning compared to test 1. In test
1, the detergent did better than expected and even removed
a small chocolate stain on another pair of khaki pants without
pre-spotting. In test 2, using half the detergent, but putting all
of it on the spots did better and was best at removing the olive
oil ring that spread out from the chocolate/nut stain. The pro-
prietary pre-spotter used alone in test 3 did the best on the
Friedli’s System
1. One load with all colors and articles mixed together
(no sorting), cold water. The exception being “high lint”
items like fluffy towels need to be washed separately.
2. As you throw the clothes in the washer, quickly check
them for spots, stains, or concentrations of dirt. Pre-
spot problem areas such as ring-around-the collar on
white shirts, grease or spaghetti stains on shirts, par-
ticulate dirt on the bottom of khaki pants, and dirty ath-
letic socks—especially if they were worn while playing
golf or doing yard work. One good option is to put all
the detergent on the spots or dirty areas and none in
the general water or dispenser. The surfactants placed
on the stain will remove that stain, and the leftover sur-
factants will disperse and find the low levels of soil on
the remaining laundry items.
3. P
 re-spotting can be done with a premium brand HDL, a
bargain liquid, any of the pre-spotters on the market, or
the author has his own favorite blend. If you pre-spot,
almost anything will work unless the stain is tough. In
that case, go to a premium HDL or the author’s blend.
12 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
stains, but not as well on the oil ring. Dosage or spot cover-
age may have been too low. The most disappointing test was
test 4 using the HDL with a pre-spotter in a manner typical
of normal laundry when done with pre-spotting. There was
not enough pre-spotter for the ingredients it contained to do
an effective job. A few sprays of a dilute pre-spotter just isn’t
enough. So, the recommendation is use a large amount of
pre-spotter or just put your HDL on the spot.
Since the stains were not removed completely, all the
shirts were rewashed using about 5 ml proprietary pre-
spotter on the stains. With that treatment, the spaghetti
was gone, but traces of the chocolate/hazelnut stain still
remained. Finally, the spots were treated with chlorine
bleach right on the stains and rewashed. By now all the
stains were gone, and the shirts were like new which leads
into the next topic.
Other options includE Bleach
Some stains are very tough (chocolate/hazelnut spread),
ground in, or aged and oxidized. If your fabrics are white,
chlorine bleach is a great solution. Hydrogen peroxide on
red wine can work. A high enzyme detergent or pre-spot-
ter helps on the right food stains. Again, pre-spotting offers
more success than general dosing particularly if you give the
treatment 10–30 min to work before washing.
Stubbornness has lead the author on multiple occasions
to use a cotton swab dipped in chlorine bleach to carefully
treat stains on white fabric in between colored strips on a
shirt. Keep water running in a nearby sink in case the bleach
starts to soak near the colored area and you need a quick
rinse.
Very dilute chlorine bleach is the last desperate solution
for tough stains on colored fabrics. Chlorine bleach comes in
3–9% concentrations. Dilute to about .5% bleach well dis-
persed in water then soak the garment for 10 minutes to an
hour. Make sure all the fabric is under water or at least very
wet. This approach is obviously risky and only to be used
when the alternative is to throw away the garment.
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 13

The author’s best success was on a yellow cotton

golf shirt with thin green strips. Opening a bottle of
red wine left little droplets of wine on the shirt. Even
immediately washing it with a premium detergent
did little, but a two-hour soak with very dilute bleach
worked perfectly with no harmful effects at all.
Other times this process was partially successful
in that the stain was removed, but the overall color
of the garment was now different, but at least uni-
form in color. This is why it is important to make sure
the entire fabric is immersed in the bleach.
Pre-spotting takes effort, but is worthwhile.
Done carefully, less detergent can be used saving
money and lowering environmental impact. Think
of it as a way to soften and solubilize the stains, get
above the CMC, and take the place of hot or warm
water.

Floyd Friedli obtained his Ph.D. in organic chemis-

try from The Ohio State University. Friedli worked for
24 years at Degussa (originally Sherex, then Witco,
then Goldschmidt, then Degussa, now called Evonik)
in R&D. He was Technology Manager for Synthe-
sis and Fabric Care. He then spent 12 years as an
Account Manager for Fabric Care & Cleaning at Akzo
Nobel Surface Chemistry. Following retirement from
Akzo, he formed Friedli Chemical Consulting LLC (floy-
defriedli@yahoo.com) to help companies with sur-
factant manufacture, surfactant selection, process
development, formula optimization and sales/market-
ing. Friedli has been a member of AOCS for 37 years
and served as an Associated Editor of JAOCS and JSD.
Current personal challenges center around a two
year-old grandson who is an enthusiastic eater and
leaves horrendous stains on shirts and bibs.

More information
1) Whirlpool 2015 data
2) Air Products 2015 Linear Ethoxlate Brochure
3) Actual measurement
4) HLB stands for hydrophilic-lipophilic balance
of the nonionic which basically describes the
water solubility or dispersibility of an ingre-
dient in water. A low HLB nonionic has low
water solubility and tends to associate with
oils or organic solvents.
5) Marcel Dekker Surfactant Series Vol 98,
Detergency of Specialty Surfactants,
Chapter 2.
6) A true laboratory detergency testing
sequence would have involved repeating the
tests 3–4 times either in a standard washing
machine or a Terg-O-Tometer. More dosage
levels would usually be tried also.

Ultra-high pressure
homogenization for “cleaner”
reduced-fat emulsions
Many sauces and dressings are conventionally high in fat. For example, traditional mayonnaise, which
is consumed worldwide, contains 75–80 wt% oil. From a technological perspective, the leading role of
fat in the structure and sensory properties of emulsions makes it very challenging to reduce or replace
fat in such products.
Saioa Alvarez-Sabatel, Ziortza Cruz, Iñigo Martínez de Marañón, and Eduardo Puértolas
• The fat-replacers and other ingredients used to
stabilize low-fat mayonnaise and other reduced-
fat emulsions may negatively affect sensory
properties. They must also be declared on the
label, which could turn off consumers desiring a
“clean label.”
• Ultra-high pressure homogenization (UHPH) has
been proposed as a way to produce sensory-
improved reduced-fat emulsions without fat
replacers (achieving a “clean label” solution)
or at least with a lower concentration of such
ingredients.
• The first industrial UHPH units (up to 1,000 L/h)
recently entered the market after demonstrat-
ing positive results in both pilot- and lab-scale
testing, but further work is required to assess
the technology’s ability to structure reduced-fat
emulsions at a scale closer to that of industry.
14 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
Emulsions are dispersions of immiscible fluids. Most sauces and
dressings are oil-in-water emulsions (O/W) in which the dispersed
phase, commonly a vegetable oil, is dispersed into an aqueous
phase in the presence of emulsifying molecules. Their production
generally involves the application of mechanical forces (homogeni-
zation) to induce oil droplet size reduction and dispersion into the
continuous water phase.
Emulsions are by nature unstable systems. Due to the lower
density of the oil droplets relative to the aqueous continuous
phase, gravity causes the droplets to move upward and form a
cream layer during storage. For this reason, the development of
long-term, stable, reduced-fat emulsions with adequate textural
properties represents an important industrial challenge. Some of
the most relevant factors influencing emulsion destabilization are
the size of the oil droplets, the viscosity of the continuous phase,
and the volume fraction of the oil.
Decreasing the size of the droplets and increasing the viscosity
of the continuous phase prevent cream layer formation. A reduc-
tion in the oil volume fraction diminishes the packaging densities
of the fat droplets, the viscoelastic properties of the continuous
phase, and, consequently, the tendency to cream. Hence, substitut-
ing fat with fat replacers and thickening agents is a primary strat-
egy for enhancing emulsion stability. Such replacement ingredients
increase the continuous phase viscosity, which impedes the upward
migration of the oil droplets and increases overall viscoelasticity.
However, some ingredients, such as xanthan gum, guar gum, and
inulin, strongly affect the sensory characteristics of foods at the
concentration needed to obtain suitable structural properties. This,
together with the industrial trend toward cleaner and simpler labels
has prompted the search for new alternatives. One of the most
promising is an emerging technology called ultra-high pressure
homogenization (UHPH).
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 15
How does UHPH work?
UHPH has some of the same action mechanisms as High Hydro-
static Pressure (HHP)—although it is important to keep in mind
that these are two completely different technologies. HHP is
a batch system in which the applied pressure is evenly distrib-
uted throughout the sample. UHPH is a continuous process that
combines pressure with homogenization forces, which produces
effects that are different from those caused by HHP.
UHPH is based on the same principles as conventional
homogenization. The process forces a liquid product through a
narrow gap (e.g. nozzle or valve) at high pressure. This sudden
restriction of flow under high pressure subjects the liquid to very
high sheer stress, which causes the formation of very fine emul-
sion droplets (Fig. 1). In conventional homogenization, the maxi-
mum pressure rarely exceeds 50 MPa, while special designs and
pressure-resistant materials enable UHPH to apply pressures of
up to 400 MPa (Alvarez-Sabatel, 2016). Although the energy pro-
duced during the process is partially dissipated as thermal energy,
UHPH is considered a non-thermal technology (Zamora and
Guamis, 2015).
During depressurization, different types of homogenization
forces (shear, impact, cavitation, and turbulence, and so on) are
used to reduce particle size and increase process efficiency. The
magnitude of these forces depends on several processing param-
eters, including equipment design (impact to valve walls and colli-
sion with other fluids, for example), the applied pressure, and the
temperature of the incoming fluid. Other properties of an incom-
ing fluid, such as its viscosity and the nature of its ingredients and
their concentrations, can also affect process efficiency and the
properties of the outgoing fluid.
FIG. 1. Schematic representation of a common UHPH device
High-pressure processing
The high pressures (up to 400 MPa) and homogenization
forces that are applied during UHPH not only reduce particle size
and change fluid properties, but also inactivate microorganisms,
opening the door for pasteurization and homogenization of food
liquids in a unique phase (Diels and Michiels, 2006).
UHPH’s role in structuring
reduced-fat emulsions
UHPH technology can significantly reduce both oil droplet diam-
eter and size distribution polydispersity which, in turn, increases
the droplet packing density and emulsion stability (Fig. 2, page
16). This was observed in stability tests comparing reduced-fat
mayonnaise (down to 35 wt% oil content) that had been struc-
tured with and without UHPH. Samples that were structured
without UHPH creamed during the first month of storage, while
those that were structured using UHPH remained stable during
the entire length of the six-month experiment (Alvarez-Sabatel,
2016).
Also, the rheological properties of the UHPH-structured sam-
ples changed appreciably due to the increased droplet packing.
The UHPH reduced-fat mayonnaises exhibited textural properties
similar to those of traditional full-fat mayonnaises, while the non-
UHPH processed samples behaved like liquids. Processing at vari-
ous UHPH pressures between 100–300 MPa resulted in stable,
low-fat mayonnaises (down to 35 wt% oil content) with rheologi-
cally different and interesting properties, indicating that UHPH
could be used to modulate the final textural properties in a fixed
emulsion recipe. On the other hand, using UHPH to produce
mayonnaise with a fat content lower than 35 wt% resulted in
non-acceptable rheological properties regardless of the pres-
sure that was applied. However, this limitation could be overcome
by using the technology in combination with fat substitutes, and
these two fat-reduction approaches could even produce a syner-
gistic effect.
UHPH is able to change the technological functionality of
some thickening agents that are extensively used as fat substi-
tutes. For example, UHPH improves the gelling properties of
inulin, a low-caloric (1.5 Kcal/g) fructoligosaccharide with fiber-
like properties (Alvarez-Sabatel, Martínez de Marañón, and
Arboleya, 2015). Using inulin, it is possible to produce reduced-fat
mayonnaise with as little as 1.5 wt% oil, with long-term stability
and relatively adequate texture, but with a poor sensory profile.
Applying UHPH (from 100 MPa) could allow the inulin concen-
tration to be decreased by more than the 50%, while maintain-
ing the desirable properties and reducing the described negative
sensory profile associated with high inulin concentration (Alvarez-
Sabatel, 2016).
Independent of the presence of fat substitutes, increasing
pressure results in mayonnaises with higher viscoelastic proper-
ties. However, above a critical threshold pressure, over-process-
ing phenomena—lower vicoelasticities, creaming, sedimentation,
or the immediate separation of the oil and water phases, occur.
This critical pressure value varies based on the specific emulsion
recipe.
 16 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)

up to 140 and 310 MPa, and up to 2,700 and 1,500 L/h, respec-
tively. The European startup Ypsicon recently launched UHPH
equipment that performs up to 350 MPa of 1,000 L/h and is scal-
able up to 10,000 L/h. However, to the best of our knowledge in
April 2016, neither company had yet constructed industrial units.
The price of the smallest industrial-scale units (1,000–3,000 L/h)
are around $400,000–700,000. The estimated cost of equipment
needed to handle higher flow demanding applications (10,000
L/h) would run between $1,000,000–2,000,000, depending on
pressure requirements and annexes.
In conclusion, UHPH has strong potential for reduced-fat
emulsion structuring, opening the door for designing innovative
and healthy liquid foods. The first steps toward industrial imple-
mentation have been completed, but further work is required to
validate the results obtained at pilot and lab scale on a scale that
is close to industrial.
In any case, due to the great influence food and ingredient
properties have on process efficiency and the characteristics of
the final emulsions, industrial application of UHPH requires the
process to be optimized for each particular product.

Saioa Alvarez-Sabatel has a Ph.D. and MsC in Food Quality and

FIG. 2. Visual appearance and confocal laser scanning microscopy
images (CLSM) of control (creamed) and UHPH (stable) reduced-fat
mayonnaises (52 wt% oil) after six months of chilled storage. In the
CLSM images, the oil droplets are red and the rest of ingredients
are green.
First steps for industrialization
UHPH has progressively gained the attention of industry in keep-
ing with the development and scale-up of the systems. During
the last 10 years, pilot units (up to 300 L/h) capable of applying
the ultra-high pressures needed to structure reduced-fat emul-
sions (100–350 MPa) entered the market. Worldwide, several
have been installed and used for food research and development
and demonstration purposes. Most scalability problems have
been solved during these pilot efforts, and several companies are
beginning to design and commercialize industrial systems. BEE
International advertises two homogenizer models that perform
Safety. Her research is devoted to the impact of emerging food
processing technologies on food microstructure, with special
emphasis on the technological functionality of food emulsions and
ingredients. She can be contacted at salvarez@azti.es.
Ziortza Cruz has a BSc in Food Science and Technology and an MSc
in Pharmacology. She has been involved in more than 50 R&D and
transfer projects for the food industry. Her research field is mainly
focused on emerging processing technologies for preservation and
the development of new food products. She can be contacted at
zcruz@azti.es.
Iñigo Martínez de Marañón has a Ph.D. in Food Science and Tech-
nology. He is currently R&D&I Manager at AZTI. He has more than
25 years of experience in Food R&D, mainly related to the study of
the impact of emerging processing technologies on food quality.
He can be contacted at imaranon@azti.es.
Eduardo Puértolas has a Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology.
He is co-author of more than 40 publications (including 28 peer-
reviewed papers) and has participated in more than 30 public and
private projects related to emerging food technologies. He can
be contacted at epuertolas@azti.es.
The authors are with AZTI, Food Research Division, Derio, Spain.
http://www.azti.es/.

Information
Alvarez-Sabatel, S. (2016). High-pressure homogenization for emulsion fat reduction (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of
the Basque Country, Spain.
Alvarez-Sabatel, S., Martínez de Marañón, I., and Arboleya, J.-C. (2015). Impact of high pressure homogenization (HPH) on
inulin-gelling properties, stability, and development during storage. Food Hydrocolloids 44: 333–344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2014.09.033.
Diels, A.M. and Michiels, C. W. (2006). High-pressure homogenization as a non-thermal technique for the inactivation of
microorganisms. Critical Reviews in Microbiology 32: 201–216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408410601023516.
Zamora, A., & Guamis, B. (2015). Opportunities for ultra-High-pressure homogenisation (UHPH) for the food industry.
Food Engineering Reviews, 7(2), 130–142. doi: 10.1007/s12393-014-9097-4.
 inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 17 Project management

Front-end loading
for a successful
capital project
Jens M. Ebert

A successful project is not defined solely by whether operational goals were met. In addition
to typical cost and schedule constraints, there may also be other success criteria related to
safety performance, product quality, sustainability objectives, or implementation of new
process technologies to consider.
Front-end loading (FEL) is a phased approach to project execution in which stakehold-
ers make key decisions at the end of each phase about whether, or how, to proceed.
• Front-end loading is a phased Each phase advances the project definition to a pre-determined status which generally
corresponds to the level of confidence in the project cost estimate, expressed as a per-
approach to projects in which centage range around the most probable project value. There are a few variations of
most of the planning and this technique, including some which have been customized for use by specific compa-
nies, but the underlying principles are fairly consistent. Depending on the industry, FEL
engineering is completed early— is also known as pre-project planning (PPP) and front-end engineering design (FEED).
when design changes are easier
to make and the cost to make
them is relatively low.

• This allows stakeholders to make

informed investment decisions,
and makes it less likely that cost,
schedule, or performance issues
will arise later.

• A recent analysis of 609 projects

showed that proper use of
front-end planning reduced
overall costs, achieved shorter
delivery periods, and resulted
in fewer changes. FIG. 1. The influence curve of projects at various stages
 18 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)

Primary Characteristic Secondary Characteristic

MATURITY LEVEL OF
EXPECTED ACCURACY
PROJECT DEFINITION END USAGE METHODOLOGY
ESTIMATE RANGE
DELIVERABLES Typical purpose Typical estimating
CLASS Typical variation in low
Expressed as % of of estimate method and high ranges
complete definition
Capacity factored, L: ‐20% to ‐50%
Concept
Class 5 0% to 2% parametric models, H: +30% to +100%
screening
judgment, or analogy
Study or Equipment factored or L: ‐15% to ‐30%
Class 4 1% to 15% feasibility parametric models H: +20% to +50%
Budget Semi‐detailed unit L: ‐10% to ‐20%
Class 3 10% to 40% authorization costs with assembly level H: +10% to +30%
or control line items
Control or Detailed unit cost with L: ‐5% to ‐15%
Class 2 30% to 75% H: +5% to +20%
bid/tender forced detailed take‐off
Check estimate Detailed unit cost with L: ‐3% to ‐10%
Class 1 65% to 100% or bid/tender H: +3% to +15%
detailed take‐off

TABLE. 1. Cost estimate classification matrix for the process industries

The purpose of this structured approach is to give stake-
holders an opportunity to make informed investment decisions,
minimize the associated risk, and maximize the potential for
success. Despite the benefits, it takes discipline to follow this
kind of structured approach and resist the temptation to skip
ahead. Taking a shortcut may be appropriate in some cases, but
typically not when there is a significant capital investment at
stake.
The best practices associated with FEL are founded on the
“Influence Curve.” This basic premise is that the majority of
project planning and engineering should be completed early in
a project—when the ability to accommodate design changes is
still relatively high, and the cost of making those changes is still
relatively low (Fig 1, page 17).
The FEL process, as the name clearly indicates, intentionally
moves some investment to the early part of the project. This
adds additional cost upfront, but that cost is typically minor
compared to the potential additional cost and schedule penalty
associated with corrective changes later in the project—espe-
cially when construction work has started.
By extension, the more completely a project is defined
upfront, the less likely it is to experience cost, schedule, or per-
formance issues later, due to the greater accuracy of the cost
estimate and supporting documentation. AACE (Association for
the Advancement of Cost Engineering) International published
a widely referenced recommended practice for a cost estimate
classification system which assigns an expected accuracy range
for each of five different estimate classes based on the quality
of the underlying project definition and the associated level of
effort [1]. See Table 1.
Contingency funds are intended to cover the cost of
unforeseen variations in design parameters, quantities, unit
pricing, or execution plans. The amount of contingency
included in a project cost estimate is a function of the degree of
definition vs. the level of uncertainty.
On larger projects with more detailed cost estimates, the
level of contingency will often be adjusted for each scope area
to reflect the varying amounts of uncertainty. The compos-
ite value across the entire estimate should still correlate with
the expected accuracy ranges shown above. Therefore, as the
project definition increases, the contingency decreases. This, in
turn, reduces the amount of capital allocated to risk manage-
ment. This additional capital is now available for other invest-
ments, as opposed to being sidelined throughout the entire
project (Fig. 2).
An FEL program typically uses a stage gate process in which
the project must pass through several formal steps, or “gates,”
at well-defined milestones before any funding is released to
proceed with the next phase. Each gate will typically include
a thorough stakeholder review of all aspects of the design to
ensure that the various success criteria will still be satisfied.
The project team should be aligned before requesting any
additional funding from senior management.
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 19

FIG. 2. Example of the variability in accuracy ranges for a process industry estimate

The risks of moving forward Gateway to success

without a gated process The most common form of the FEL process contains three
“gates” that must be passed through before proceeding with
In the fats and oils industry, the risks commonly connected to
detailed project execution and start-up. Passing through each
any project include meeting cost and schedule commitments, but
gate requires the completion, presentation, and approval of spe-
more importantly, they also include the risks associated with pro-
cific activities (Fig. 3, page 20).
ducing poor-quality or unsafe product. This possibility demands
the appropriate level of due diligence in project execution at all
FEL I: Conceptual engineering / financial feasibility
levels.
The purpose of the first project phase, often called FEL I, is to pre-
At the same time, the project life cycles in our industry often
pare a conceptual basis for making an informed decision about
reflect the pressure associated with meeting promises to inves-
the project’s viability and whether or not to pursue it. Depend-
tors for quarterly earnings results. Under these circumstances,
ing upon the size and complexity of the project, this stage can
the temptation to push ahead can be irresistible. However, the
typically take approximately three to four weeks. Emphasis is
companies that most consistently deliver successful projects
placed upon establishing the business case, defining criteria for
have mastered the ability to slow down at the
success, and developing the scope of work required to achieve
beginning and to plan appropriately before proceeding
those goals.
with execution.
The criteria for success must establish how the project will
positively impact the business. The business case, of course,
documents the project’s financial benefit. The scope of work
supports a preliminary cost estimate, which will typically have
accuracy limitations due to the need for numerous assumptions
at this stage.

STAGE GATE PROCESS
FEL I FEL II
Conceptual Prelim Design
Expense Pre-Spend
Capital
50%
25%
Freeze
Scope
FIG. 3. The stage gate process
While an FEL I package is generally based upon preliminary
information, getting it right lays the foundation for subsequent
successful FEL phases. One factor that can significantly affect the
level of effort required is the accuracy and availability of docu-
mentation regarding existing conditions. If the information is
not available, it usually leads to simplifying assumptions (about
the adequacy of electrical power or other utilities, for example),
which may not be valid.
FEL II: Preliminary engineering / financial justification
Approval of the FEL I package allows for the project to proceed
through the first gate into the FEL II phase. The critical element
of the FEL II phase is to formalize the project scope. There may
still be some synchronous opportunities to evaluate, but very
limited alternatives to the design basis upon completion.
FEL II begins after the preliminary business case has been
presented to senior management, which will determine whether
to authorize funding to proceed into the next phase. Depending
upon the scope of the project, the FEL II phase may take
anywhere from one to three months.
The primary objective of the FEL II phase is to “freeze” the
project’s scope and eliminate many of the assumptions and risks
identified during FEL I. Other important activities in this phase
include the assignment of an overall project manager, assembly
of a project team, and the identification of key stakeholders who
should (but without a structured program, often don’t) partici-
pate in project development.
FEL II also moves the engineering design ahead to a point
where it becomes possible to validate the business case, identify
and quantify key risks, and forecast the necessary capital
20 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
FEL III Execution Start-Up
Detail Design Final Design CQV
Pre-Spend Capital and Capital and
Capital Expense Expense
Budget and Budget and
Contingency Contingency
10%
Capital
Approved
commitment within a much narrower range. The cost estimate is
refined to an accuracy range of approximately +/- 25%.
In addition, the final FEL II package will typically include a
milestone schedule as well as a procurement strategy, specifica-
tions for long lead equipment, and a preliminary start-up plan to
establish requirements for commissioning, qualification, and
verification.
A well-executed FEL II can produce dramatic cost savings.
During a recent project for the design of a cereal production
line, the conceptual design of a complex dust collection system
included 10 stainless steel platforms for equipment access.
The 30–40 foot-long platforms would span over five conveyor
systems, and each one would require 10 handrail gates.
Determined to simplify the overall design before freezing the
scope, the engineering team modified the ductwork layout and
blast gate locations. This relatively simple change made it possi-
ble to eliminate seven of the platforms and cut $471,640 from
the construction budget.
FEL III: Basic engineering / financial budget
A completed FEL III concludes the capital appropriation request
process with the submission of supporting documentation to
senior management and approval committees.
During this phase, the level of engineering definition is gen-
erally between 30% and 50% complete. The overall time frame
for common process industry projects is two to five months,
depending heavily on project complexity. The overall project
execution plan should be well-defined at this point, including the
establishment of an overall project schedule with a critical path
logic worked out, a finalized cost estimate, and the associated
financial modeling.
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 21
The start-up plan developed during this phase includes sup-
plier and operations staffing requirements, materials planning,
final definition of success criteria, and a schedule for the com-
missioning, qualification, and verification (CQV) phases of the
start-up. These activities require lots of planning and coordina-
tion among the stakeholders to be successful.
Often, the FEL III phase will provide fewer opportunities
for cost savings since the basic project scope has already been
established, and a relatively well-developed design is only being
further refined. Any savings in this phase is more likely to be
related to risk reduction that comes with increased definition.
Major design alternatives should have been vetted during FEL
II. Nevertheless, FEL III can still wring significant costs from the
project.
One area of opportunity for cost savings at this stage is in
the development of the construction strategy. An example of
this came up recently in a food plant project which required
the complete demolition and replacement of an upper level
concrete floor—with minimal impact on operations. The engi-
neering team, in conjunction with the contractor, developed
a strategy to implement suspended truss forms which did not
require support posts from below. The forms could be relo-
cated to install the new floor one bay at a time, with little to no
interference to the existing plant operations on the lower lev-
els. This solution avoided the removal of process equipment
that would provide the shoring support required by a more typ-
ical forming approach. By figuring out the construction strat-
egy during the FEL III phase of the project and including all the
appropriate stakeholders, the owner avoided approximately
one month of production down time.
Cost–benefit analysis
Implementing the FEL process throughout capital appropria-
tion and into a project control budget (+/- 10%) may require
35%–50% of the overall engineering budget. While hardly an
insignificant commitment, this figure ensures that the owner,
contractors, vendors, and suppliers all have the information
necessary for good planning, estimating, and project execution.
Resources
 ssociation for the Advancement of Cost Engineering (AACE), Recommended Practice No. 18R-97: Cost Estimate
[1]A
Classification System (www.aacei.org).
[2] Construction Industry Institute (2012), CII Best Practices Guide: Improving Project Performance, Implementation Resource
166–3, Version 4.0, (www.construction-institute.org).
In the processing industries, engineering design typically
accounts for 7%–15% of the total project value, depending on
a wide variety of factors. For example, assuming a project fore-
cast at $8 million with approximately 10% for professional ser-
vices, the total fee would be around $800k. If the FEL process
required an investment of 40% of that amount, that would be
$320k, or just 4% of the overall project value. In fact, the FEL
process is typically identified as 2%–5% of the typical project’s
total installed costs.
On the other hand, poorly defined engineering, scope
omissions, incomplete estimating, unplanned downtime, and
extended start-ups can quickly and easily account for 3% of the
total installed cost. For this reason, following the FEL process
becomes a low risk and cost effective approach.
In fact, using the FEL process can benefit a project by low-
ering the overall cost—often by as much as the costs of execut-
ing the FEL process itself.
According to a 2009 survey whose results were published
in the CII Best Practices Guide: Improving Project Performance
[2], owners using front-end planning spend on average 8% less
than owners who never or infrequently use this method. This
result is quite significant when expressed in terms of a large
company’s annual capital plan.
A separate study of front-end planning benefits conducted
by Research Team 213 of the Construction Industry Institute
reviewed a sample of 609 projects with a projected total value
of $37 billion. The analysis indicated that proper use of front-
end planning resulted in 10% less total cost, 7% shorter delivery
periods, and 5% fewer changes.
Jens Ebert is a senior project manager and senior associate at
SSOE Group. Jens has over 26 years of experience in the field
of consulting engineering for clients in the food/beverage,
industrial, nutraceutical, and defense sectors. Many projects
have included developing new and unique technologies and
products for the market. Jens can be reached in SSOE’s St. Paul,
Minnesota (USA) office at +1. 651.726.7672 or by email at
Jens.Ebert@ssoe.com.

Crystallizers: the crystal-clear
answer to trans-fat-free
margarine production
Anders Mølbak Jensen
No trans fats on your new ingredients list? Congratulations: Life as a production manager at a
margarine manufacturer is about to get much more interesting.
• Producing high-quality marga-
rine without partially hydroge-
nated oils is challenging. Every
part of the production process
becomes more sensitive to a
variety of factors, requiring
significant changes in produc-
tion parameters.
• For example, the slower
crystallization speed of trans-
fat alternatives can reduce
production capacity, create
build-up on tube chiller shafts,
and result in a more brittle
product that may also be more
sensitive to recrystallization
when subjected to storage
temperature variations.
• This article examines how
crystallizers can be used to
address such production issues.
22 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
Partially hydrogenated oils have long enabled margarine to step up to the plate,
forming more stable products and supporting mouth-feel to deliver an eating
experience not far from that of butter. Their positive effect on shelf-life is
well-documented, too.
Without trans fats, it’s much more difficult to consistently produce high-
quality margarine. In fact, every part of the production process becomes more
sensitive to a variety of factors that were comfortably, even transparently,
handled by partially hydrogenated oils in the past.
Higher melting point
One such factor is the higher melting point of other fat types. For optimum
flavor release, it’s best to use fats that melt at approximately mouth tempera-
ture: around 35 oC (95 oF). In the old world, trans fats fit the bill perfectly. In the
new one, the only economically feasible, readily available fat type is palm oil,
fractions of palm oil, or interestified fat types.
That said, the melting point of palm oil is still a little higher than that of trans
fats, and it lacks comparable functionality.
The melting point of a fat isn’t just important for the consumer’s eating
experience, it also affects the ability of manufacturers to work with the fat
during the production process. In a trans-fat-free world, you get a mixture of
high-melting-point fractions and liquid oil, resulting in a higher melting point and
a tendency toward softer products.
Perhaps the most important phenomenon for margarine manufacturers to
consider, however, is the slower crystallization speed of trans-fat alternatives.
The effects of slower crystallization
Much has been done to address slow crystallization but realistically, manufac-
turers are simply unable to produce as much margarine from the same produc-
tion lines as before. Process parameters, including machine settings, must be
adjusted to cope with the slower crystallization, requiring investments in new
tube chillers or the use of two machines where only one was needed before.
Whichever route is chosen, final product quality just isn’t the same as it was with
trans-fat-containing recipes.
Without trans fats, margarine begins to crystallize on the tube chiller shaft,
reducing production capacity by perhaps 20% from morning to afternoon,
as there is gradually less volume to work with. Flushing the tube with heat to
restore capacity is one way to fix the problem, but has its own set of drawbacks
and can’t be recommended.
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 23
Trans-fat replacement

Lower production capacity is one effect of slower crystal-
lization. Another is that, due to the slower crystallization speed
of alternative fats, crystallization continues to develop for
longer than the usual 24 or so hours during pre-storage. This
changes the structure of the product over an extended period
of time, so you’re likely to end up with a more brittle product.
Because storage has a much greater effect on the final product,
storage temperature variations introduce further sensitivity to
recrystallization.
Consequently, pre-storage, which was rarely the focus of
a margarine production process in the good old trans-fat days,
suddenly takes on new significance with respect to product
quality. Now, manufacturers must focus on controlling pre-
storage during the first 5 to 7 days following production, mak-
ing pre-storage part of the overall production process. For
example, an attempt might be made to reduce brittleness and
ensure consistency by varying pre-storage temperatures from,
say, 21 oC for the first five days then reducing it to 16 oC there-
after. One implication for many manufacturers is the need to
invest in pre-storage facilities that can enable the required
temperature control.
Slower crystallization, therefore, is a manufacturer’s night-
mare, imposing both immediate limitations on total produc-
tion capacity and gradually reducing capacity during production
days due to crystallization buildup on chiller shafts. Non-hydro-
genated products will have a slower crystallization speed, and
interestified products have a tendency to become overworked
and very soft.
properly examine the role played by emulsifiers in relation to
crystallization, and make recommendations to margarine man-
ufacturers based on our findings. We set the bar high: Our tests
would be conducted with one of the most difficult beasts in the
business—puff pastry margarine.
What affects crystallization in
margarine and shortening?
When chilling begins in the margarine production process,
there are initially no crystals. Then the first crystals appear,
creating a “seat” for more to build upon, finally arriving at a
much firmer mass. This firmness needs to be broken down
somewhat, restoring plasticity.
To tackle this problem, we used one of our pilot plants to
start the seating earlier in the process. This allowed the prod-
uct to spend more time in the machine to reduce post-crystal-
lization time. Longer time in the equipment, however, resulted
in greater effect from the pin machine and the following tube
chillers, resulting in a quite different product.
In our trials, we compared hydrogenated, interesterified,
and non-hydrogenated fat in puff pastry margarine. Hydroge-
nated fat, as might be expected, performed best, crystallizing

In-step AIDS
With widespread attention on the ill effects of trans fats, US
food manufacturers and their European counterparts now need
to come up with trans-fat-free recipes that give margarine’s
batch-by-batch quality the best possible chance of success.
According to Palsgaard’s applied research and extensive
experience in the European market, that particular “something”
is most likely to be carefully concocted combinations of crystal-
lizers and emulsifiers.
Crystallizers can do much to ease the production process.
However, they will not have significant influence on the longer-
term storage phase, during which polymorph structure will
make for a firmer margarine over time. This is something that
manufacturers must give special attention to when developing
trans-fat-free strategies.

trans-free production strategies

To understand why crystallizers are the toolbox of choice for
food manufacturers facing the trans-fat ban, we first needed to
gain a better understanding of crystallization processes in mar-
garine oils and fats. We were particularly keen to find out how
various process parameters affected the speed and nature of
crystallization. Equipped with this knowledge, we could then
 24 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)

TRIVIAL NAME MELTING POINT TRIVIAL NAME MELTING POINT

C12:0 Lauric acid 44.4°C (112°F) Trilaurin 46.1°C (115°F)

C14:0 Myristic acid 54.4°C (130°F) Trimyristin 55°C (131°F)

C16:0 Palmitic acids 62.7°C (145°F) Tripalmetin 65°C (149°F)

C18:0 Stearic acids 69.4°C (157°F) Tristearin 72.2°C (162°F)

C22:0 Bebenic acids 80°C (176°F) Tribehenic 82.2°C (180°F)

C18:1 n-9 cis Oleic acid 16.1°C (61°F) Crystallizer : C22 –C18 61.1°C (142°F)

C18,1 trans Elaidic acid 43.8°C (111°F) Crystallizer : C16 –C18 57.2°C (135°F)

C18:2 n-6 cis Linoleic acid - 6.6°C (20°F) Crystallizer : C16 –C18-C22 58.8°C (138°F)

C18:3 n-3 cis Linolenic acid 12.7°C (9°F) Crystallizer : C18 72.2°C (162°F)

TABLE 1. Melting points of fatty acids, triglycerides, and crystallizers

quickly. Much slower to crystallize, non-hydrogenated fats such right place on the chain requires more than a little expertise! With
as palm oil clearly performed worst. In fact, both before and these acids in the right positions, however, the melting point can be
after the pin machine it was hopelessly overworked, and would brought down to as little as 66 oC instead of, for example, 82 oC.
be difficultto pack or, for that matter, to eat. The interesterified
fat medium crystallized well, but again was all too easy to
overwork.
Crystallizing effect of crystallizer
compared with tribehenate
Using tribehenate Mp, with its 82 oC (180 oF) melting point, speeds
Crystallizers: the solution of choice up crystallization greatly in comparison with our reference (40%
At Palsgaard, we’ve determined that the most effective strategy palm oil, 40% palm stearin, and 20% liquid soybean oil without
is to use crystallizers as a trans-fat-free “remedy.” crystallizer), as can be seen in Fig. 1.
These crystallizers can be, for example: The Mp crystallizer we tested almost matches tribehenate Mp’s
• high in behenic acid (C22) and stearic acid (C18); speed, but with a lower melting point of 61 oC (142 oF). Both solu-
• high in stearic acid (C18) and palmitic acid (C16); tions far outstripped the performance of the reference. The tests
• very high in stearic acid (C18); or also revealed that using crystallizers forms more beta prime crystals,
• a mixture of behenic acid (C22), stearic acid (C18), and which have a better absorbing effect than other crystal types.
palmitic acid (C16).
The melting points of various fatty acids, triglycerides, and
crystallizers can be seen in Table 1. A key aim is to determine a
crystallizer whose melting point makes it easy to use in produc-
tion. This can be achieved with stearic acid (18), combined with
behneic acids.
Tribehenic and monobehenics have the most extreme
melting points for crystallizers. At 180 oF (82.2 oC), they can-
not be handled in a normal production environment. If a pipe
were to become blocked, for example, things would become
very problematic. Despite this, and in the name of thorough
research, we did attempt to use this acid in various recipes,
but achieved the same or better results with other prod-
ucts. Other triglyceride compositions, on the other hand, with
behenic acids can produce a lower melting point, making them
easier to handle in production.
Any of these acids can easily purchased, but constructing
these triglycerides—using high melting point behenic acids yet
ending up with something that has a significantly lower melting
point—is no walk in the park. Locating the behenic acids in the FIG. 1. Crystallizing effect of crystallizer compared with tribehenate
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 25

TRIAL 3 TRIAL 4 TRIAL 5 TRIAL 8 TRIAL 9 TRIAL 10

Oil blend: Palsgaard® 6111 1.70% 1.70% 1.70% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%

Palm stearin 40.00% 42.00% 45.00% 40.00% 42.00% 45.00%

RBD. palm oil 40.00% 42.00% 45.00% 40.00% 42.00% 45.00%

Liquid soya oil 6°C 18.30% 14.30% 8.30% 20.00% 16.00% 10.00%

100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Melting point: 56.20% 56.90% 56.20% 51.70% 50.80% 52.80%

Avr. SFC % 10°C/50°F 61.90% 63.00% 67.20% 52.00% 55.40% 59.80%

Avr. SFC % 20°C/68°F 50.00% 51.70% 54.80% 40.20% 42.00% 43.90%

Avr. SFC % 30°C/86°F 31.70% 32.20% 34.20% 21.00% 22.40% 24.80%

Avr. SFC % 40°C/104°F 21.00% 21.80% 22.70% 12.40% 13.00% 13.90%

TABLE 2. SFC values in puff pastry margarine blends with and without crystallizer

SFC values with/without crystallizer
Moving on with our exploration, we examined more or less the
same puff pastry margarine recipe as in the previous trials, this time
adding 1.7 grams of crystallizer. We were keen to determine the
Solid Fat Content (SFC) values that resulted from this addition. These
are depicted in Table 2.
The trials demonstrated a somewhat surprising result: While
1.7% crystallizer is not a large portion of the recipe, its effect on
crystallization was strong, quickly getting the seating in
place upon which to build further crystals. Judging by the
SFC values in Table 2, crystallizers have a strong effect on
fat crystallization because they activate some of the fats to
crystallize more quickly than would otherwise be the case.
With other test methods, 24 to 48 hours at 0 oC (142 oF)
would have been required to do this.

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FIG. 2. The effect of crystallizer doses on production capacity
Crystallizers and capacity
Next up, we took a closer look at the effect of crystallizers on
production capacity. Fig. 2 shows the results of testing a similar
puff pastry margarine recipe to that used in our other trials.
We tested two production capacity levels, each with and
without crystallizers added. In Fig. 2, the pilot plant’s bar pressure
indicates that crystallization is occurring. When producing at low
capacity (40%), the fat has time to crystallize by itself. But at higher
capacity (above 70%), low bar pressure shows the fat is more liquid
and crystallization is less effective.
At low capacity, fast-crystallizing fat types can produce crys-
tallization, but it requires crystallizers to be added to increase con-
tact and result in sufficient crystallization both at higher and lower
capacities.
As a general conclusion, it seems that the more crystallizers
you add, the higher the bar pressure and therefore the better you
can maintain or increase capacity. Without adding crystallizers, you
would need to reduce capacity, allowing the blend to remain in the
tube chillers for longer. So, while adding crystallizers will increase
recipe costs, there’s a worthwhile trade-off in better utilization of
production equipment.
Still in our experimental corner, we decided to look more
closely at the effect of different crystallizer dosages on production
capacity, moving from zero to 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and, finally, right up
to 2%. To make things more interesting, we simultaneously tested
the effect of two different rotation speeds: 400 and 800 rpm
In Figs. 3 and 4, the colored bars represent the four tube
chillers in our pilot lab production setup. It came as no surprise,
of course, that the viscosity needed for margarine required
more energy toward the end of the production line. We also
confirmed that applying crystallizers does indeed increase
viscosity by the end of the process, but the difference they
make is nothing extraordinary.
26 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
Crystallizers and puff pastry
Margarine produced for incorporation into puff pastry is very
thin when first made, expanding in the oven to arrive at the
mouth-feel loved by consumers all over the world. Seen from a
puff pastry expansion point of view, trials with Palsgaard’s crys-
tallizers produce a very stable margarine. No matter how hard
we work the product, it still performs well in this vital regard.
But we were curious to learn what might happen if we were to
conduct a baking test on the final product itself. So we mea-
sured the effect on ten such pastries of increasing crystallizer
dosages from zero to 2%, switching between three different
rotation speeds.
Normally, rotation speed isn’t a parameter most produc-
tion staff can work with. Often, that’s because most produc-
tion machinery has a fixed speed—or enables switching only
between one or two levels. Now however, in a trans-fat-free
landscape, the ability to adjust rotation speed in combination
with various dosages of crystallizers has become a key factor
for achieving the right result.
In Fig. 5, rotation speed strongly affects expansion results,
performing best at around 11 rpm. Introducing crystallizers
smooths out the effects of rotation speeds, enabling a good
expansion result not only with different process parameters
but also on different machines—expansion simply becomes less
sensitive to process parameter variations. There is, of course,
production machinery that can arrive at comparable results
without any addition of crystallizers, but few manufacturers
have invested in the up-to-date equipment that can do it.
Are crystallizers aways necessary?
It is possible to create recipes that perform just as well as—or
at least comparably—to the performance of a trans-fat-con-
taining formulation. For example, cake margarines that use
fast-crystallizing fat types such as palm oil or coconut oil fat
have nothing to be gained by adding crystallizers. But with
cheaper fat types, small amounts of crystallizers can make a
significant difference.
However, in replacing trans, there is no way to avoid
spending some amount of additional funds—and, for most, the
costs will be high. Manufacturers will need to take a look at
their equipment line-up. Most likely, older machinery won’t be
enough to maintain current capacity and product quality on the
new, trans-fat-free playing field—not without applying crystal-
lizer dosages as high as 2%.
The effects of trans fatty acid reduction
• Higher melting point
• Slow crystallization of the fat types
• Easier to overwork the fat product
• Post crystallization
• Change structure over time
• Storage: more sensitive to temperature
variations
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 27
FIG. 3. The effect of crystallizer doses at 400 RPM
FIG. 4. The effect of crystallizer doses at 800 RPM
FIG. 5. The effect of different process parameters on puff pastry expansion
Upgrading opens the door to new and
better technologies that may, for example,
enable the use of CO2 as a more efficient and
effective cooling medium. But even after
upgrading to more modern equipment, man-
ufacturers should still expect to incorporate
from 0.5 to 1% crystallizer content in their
recipes.
A tough journey
For European manufacturers who have been
battling the effects of low or no-trans-fat
recipes for quite some years now, it’s been
a tough journey. The only comfort, perhaps,
was the fact that everyone was in the same
boat. Product quality decreased across the
entire industry, and everyone needed to
come up with their own answer to the prob-
lems. In the United States, things are about
to heat up but there’s much to be learned
from the experiences of their European com-
petitors.
The days of pouring in ingredients, set-
ting the machines, and retreating to the
comfort of the control room are most likely
over. Even minor fluctuations in production
require active—and proactive—efforts, and
the producers of puff pastry will be affected
the most.
Those who succeed in this new real-
ity will develop new production strategies,
experiment with crystallizers and emulsifi-
ers in their recipes, and prepare for signifi-
cant capital investments in equipment. The
sooner these efforts are made, the lower the
overall cost of the necessary transition to
trans-free-products—and the smoother the
journey for both manufacturers and their
customers—will be.
Anders Mølbak Jensen, is Product &
Application Manager, Lipid & Fine Foods at
Palsgaard A/S, Juelsminde, Denmark. Before
joining the company 16 years ago, he held
various roles as a laboratory, quality control
and R&D manager at a large margarine
producer for 10 years. Jensen holds an M.Sc
in food science and technology from the
University of Copenhagen, and a Bachelor
of Commerce, IT. He can be reached at
am@palsgaard.dk, or 011 +45 7682 7682.
More information is available at
www.palsgaard.com.
 28 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)

Influence of fatty acid composition on proper

Fatty acid composition, scientific name and seed oil content of 25 alternative triglyceride feedstocks
Latin binomial Seed oil C14:0 C16:0 C16:1 C18:0 C18:1 C18:1 C18:1
(wt %) ∆9 ∆6 ∆9 D11
Ailanthus Ailanthus altissima 11 — 3.5 0.3 1.4 — 35.9 4.2
Anise Pimpinella anisum 17 8.2 3.9 0.4 0.9 55.0 7.4 1.4
Arugula Eruca vesicaria 27 0.1 4.3 0.3 1.2 — 15.4 1.1
Black bean Phaseolus vulgaris 2 0.1 10.7 0.3 1.8 — 9.3 1.9
Camelina Camelina sativa 31 0.1 6.8 — 2.7 18.6 1.1
Coriander Coriandrum sativum 27 — 5.3 0.3 3.1 68.5 7.6 1.0
Corn DDGs Zea mays 10 — 12.6 — 2.5 — 27.9 0.9
Cress Lepidium sativum 23 0.1 9.4 0.3 2.8 — 30.6 1.4
Cumin Cuminum cyminum 10 12.7 3.1 0.3 0.7 46.5 5.2 1.2
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare 22 — 4.1 0.4 1.1 69.2 13.9 —
Field pennycress Thlaspi arvense 36 — 2.4 — 0.2 — 11.0 1.2
Great Northern Phaseolus vulgaris 2 0.1 11.5 0.2 2.0 — 5.2 1.8
Hazelnut Corylus avellana 59 — 5.1 0.4 2.1 — 76.9 1.4
Indian cress Tropaeolum majus 8 — 0.6 — — — 3.0 0.2
Kidney bean Phaseolus vulgaris 2 0.1 12.3 0.3 1.4 — 9.5 2.6
Meadowfoam Limnanthes alba 31 — 0.6 — 0.2 — 1.0 —
Moringa Moringa oleifera 35 — 6.5 — 6.0 — 72.2 —
Osage orange Maclura pomifera 25 0.1 7.0 0.1 2.4 — 11.9 0.8
Peanut Arachis hypogaea 45 — 6.7 — 2.3 — 78.2 0.7
Pinto bean Phaseolus vulgaris 2 0.1 12.7 0.2 1.7 — 5.9 1.7
Seashore mallow Kosteletzkya pentacarpos 22 — 24.2 0.6 2.0 — 14.0 0.7
Shepherd’s purse Capsella bursa-pastoris 27 0.1 9.2 0.4 3.9 — 14.2 2.1
Upland cress Barbarea verna 24 — 3.0 0.2 0.4 — 17.6 1.1
Walnut Juglans regia 60 — 7.2 — 2.6 — 15.1 0.8
Wild Brazilian Brassica juncea 38 — 2.5 0.2 0.8 — 9.2 0.9

What makes one feedstock suitable for a particular To investigate this premise, researchers at the
What makes one feedstock suitable whereas those containing high amounts These two summary tables of their
industrial application, while another is not? Could it US Department of Agriculture–National Center for
for a particular industrial application, of saturated FAs find applications in results are from a poster, “Fatty acid
be differences in fatty acid (FA) composition? Agricultural Utilization Research (USDA–NCAUR) in
while another is not? Could it be differ- soaps, cosmetics, and detergents—or profile of 25 plant oils and implications
Saturated FAs have high oxidative stability but poor Peoria, Illinois, USA, determined the fatty acid (FA)
ences in fatty acid (FA) composition? why biodiesel, lubricants, and plasticiz- for industrial applications,” presented at
low-temperature properties; they also lack a double profiles of plant oils extracted from 25 alternative
Saturated FAs have high oxidative ers are typically prepared from vegeta- the 2016 AOCS Annual Meeting & Expo
bond on which to perform chemical modification. Poly- feedstocks, then used these profiles to determine the
stability but poor low-temperature ble oils containing a high percentage of in Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, May 1–4,
unsaturated FAs, on the other hand, exhibit the opposite most suitable application(s) for each oil.
properties; they also lack a double bond monounsaturated FAs. by Bryan Moser, a research chemist at
behavior, while monounsaturated FAs strike a balance These two summary tables of their results are from
on which to perform chemical modi- To investigate this premise, USDA–NCAUR. Large, printable versions
between oxidative stability, cold flow properties, and a poster, “Fatty acid profile of 25 plant oils and implica-
fication. Polyunsaturated FAs, on the researchers at the US Department of both tables are available at [POST IN
chemical functionality. Perhaps this is why paints, var- tions for industrial applications,” presented at the 2016
other hand, exhibit the opposite behav- of Agriculture–National Center for inform|connect; ADD link here]. The
nishes, and coatings are prepared by chemically modi- AOCS Annual Meeting & Expo in Salt Lake City, Utah,
ior, while monounsaturated FAs strike Agricultural Utilization Research (USDA– FA profiles of more than 560 oils, fats,
fying vegetable oils enriched in polyunsaturated FAs, USA, May 1–4, by Bryan Moser, a research chemist at
a balance between oxidative stability, NCAUR) in Peoria, Illinois, USA, deter- and waxes can be found in Physical and
whereas those containing high amounts of saturated FAs USDA–NCAUR. The FA profiles of more than 560 oils,
cold flow properties, and chemical func- mined the fatty acid (FA) profiles of Chemical Characteristics of Oils, Fats,
find applications in soaps, cosmetics, and detergents— fats, and waxes can be found in Physical and Chemi-
tionality. Perhaps this is why paints, plant oils extracted from 25 alternative and Waxes, 3rd Edition, edited by David
or why biodiesel, lubricants, and plasticizers are typically cal Characteristics of Oils, Fats, and Waxes, 3rd edition,
varnishes, and coatings are prepared feedstocks, then used these profiles to Firestone, AOCS Press, 2013, available
prepared from vegetable oils containing a high percent- edited by David Firestone, AOCS Press, 2013, available at
by chemically modifying vegetable determine the most suitable applica- at http://tinyurl.com/jelvfav.
age of monounsaturated FAs. http://tinyurl.com/jelvfav.
oils enriched in polyunsaturated FAs, tion(s) for each oil.
 inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 29 FATTY ACID

ties of industrial products and fuels

C18:2 C18:3 C20:0 C20:1 C20:1 C22:0 C22:1 C22:2 C24:1 Others
∆9 ∆12 ∆9 ∆12 ∆15 ∆5 ∆11 ∆13 ∆5 ∆13 ∆15
54.0 0.4 — — — — — — — 0.3 Ailanthus
20.1 0.1 0.1 — 0.2 0.1 — — — 2.2 Anise
8.3 12.5 0.8 — 9.7 0.9 41.7 — 1.6 2.1 Arugula
31.1 41.7 0.5 — 0.2 0.5 — — — 1.7 Black bean
19.6 32.6 1.5 — 12.4 0.2 2.3 — — 2.1 Camelina
13.0 — — — — — — — — 1.2 Coriander
54.9 1.2 — — — — — — — 0 Corn DDGs
7.6 29.3 2.3 — 11.1 0.6 3.0 — — 1.5 Cress
26.6 0.2 0.1 — 0.1 — — — 0.1 3.2 Cumin
10.0 0.2 0.3 — — — — — — 0.9 Fennel
19.5 8.9 2.2 — 10.2 0.2 36.2 — 3.6 4.4 Field pennycress
33.4 42.8 0.5 — 0.1 0.5 — — — 1.9 Great Northern
13.1 0.2 0.2 — 0.3 — — — — 0.4 Hazelnut
0.2 0.4 — — 18.7 — 74.9 — 1.4 0.6 Indian cress
24.1 46.0 0.5 — 0.2 0.7 — — — 2.3 Kidney bean
0.9 — 0.8 64.2 — 0.2 10.2 18.9 0.6 2.4 Meadowfoam
1.0 — 4.0 — 2.0 7.1 — — — 1.3 Moringa
76.4 0.4 0.6 — — — — — — 0.3 Osage orange
4.4 — 1.2 — 1.9 2.6 — — — 1.9 Peanut
32.1 43.3 0.3 — 0.1 0.4 — — — 1.5 Pinto bean
48.7 — 0.8 — — 0.3 — — — 8.7 Seashore mallow
20.5 32.4 1.6 — 10.0 1.3 1.4 — 0.2 2.7 Shepherd’s purse
21.5 6.0 0.4 — 7.3 0.3 36.8 — 1.8 3.6 Upland cress
60.7 12.8 — — 0.2 — — — — 0.5 Walnut
15.5 11.1 0.8 — 7.7 0.9 44.1 1.9 4.4 Wild Brazilian

Major fatty acid categories and their industrial applications

Typical Advantages Disadvantages Industrial Traditional Selection Alternative feedstocks
examples applications feedstocks criteria for
this study
SFAs C10:0 Oxidative stability Melting point Soaps Animal fats > 20% Moringa
C12:0 Low iodine value Viscosity Detergents Cocoa butter Seashore mallow
C14:0 Cetane number Functionality Surfactants Coconut
C16:0 Palm & palm kernel
C18:0 Rice bran
MUFAs C16:1 Acceptable balance Does not Biodiesel Canola > 40% Ailanthus Cumin Meadowfoam
C18:1 of stability, melting excel in any Lubricants Olive Anise Fennel Moringa
point, viscosity and one particular Hydraulic fluids Soybean Arugula Field pennycress Peanut
functionality category Sunflower (HO) Coriander Hazelnut Upland cress
Cress Indian cress Wild Brazilian

PUFAs C18:2 Melting point Oxidative Paints & Corn > 40% Ailanthus Kidney bean Shepherd’s
α-C18:3 Viscosity stability coatings Cottonseed Black bean Osage orange purse
γ-C18:3 Functionality Low iodine Varnishes Linseed Camelina Pinto bean Walnut
value Plasticizers Safflower Corn DDGs Seashore
Cetane number Soybean Great Northern mallow

VLCFAs C20:0 Oxidative stability Cardiac health Emollients Ben/Moringa > 25% Arugula Meadowfoam
C22:0 Low iodine value Melting point Emulsifiers Rapeseed (HEAR) Field pennycress Upland cress
C22:1 Cetane number Viscosity Cosmetics Indian cress Wild Brazilian
 OLIO 30 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)

New blow to the diet-heart

hypothesis
Laura Cassiday

Olio is an Inform column that highlights research, issues, trends,

and technologies of interest to the oils and fats community.
A recent paper in the British Medical Journal brings to light “lost” data from the Minnesota
Coronary Experiment, a large randomized controlled trial conducted from 1968 to 1973
that was designed to test the so-called “diet-heart hypothesis” (Ramsden, C. E., et al.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i1246, 2016). The article strikes a further blow to the already
crumbling wall of scientific opinion that dietary saturated fat causes heart disease, and should
therefore be avoided.
The BMJ paper, which has been widely covered in the Therefore, researchers led by Christopher Ramsden at
media (e.g., http://tinyurl.com/WP-BMJ-study), resurrects the National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, Maryland, USA)
unpublished data from the Minnesota Coronary Experiment. recovered raw data and other unpublished documents, includ-
This study, conducted by famed nutrition researcher Ancel ing a 1981 master’s thesis, from the Minnesota Coronary
Keys, Ivan Frantz, and coworkers, was designed to test Keys’ Experiment. The researchers focused on the 2,355 patients
diet-heart hypothesis, which postulated that replacing who were on the study diets for more than one year and had
saturated fat in the diet with vegetable oil would lower serum longitudinal measures of serum cholesterol. They recovered
cholesterol and thereby reduce coronary heart disease and 149 autopsy files from the 295 autopsies performed. The sur-
death. Although based primarily on incomplete epidemiologi- prising results: Although the reduced-saturated-fat diet low-
cal data and never confirmed in a randomized controlled trial, ered serum cholesterol compared with the control diet, it was
the diet-heart hypothesis is widely accepted as fact and has actually associated with an increased risk of death. In both
guided nutritional policy in the United States and elsewhere diet groups, a 30 mg/dL decrease in serum cholesterol was
for more than 30 years (Cassiday, L., http://tinyurl.com/ associated with a 22% higher risk of death from any cause.
Inform-fat-controversy, 2015). The autopsy results showed that 41% of participants in
The study participants were 9,423 men and women aged the intervention group had at least one myocardial infarct,
20–97 years who were institutionalized in either a nursing whereas only 22% of participants in the control group did.
home or one of six mental hospitals in the US state of The researchers hypothesize that the increased risk of death
Minnesota. Half of the participants were given diets in which in the high-linoleic-acid diet group could have resulted from
the usual hospital food was modified to reduce saturated fat increased lipoprotein particle oxidation.
intake (from 18.5% to 9.2% of calories) and increase linoleic So why weren’t the original data published? Ramsden and
acid intake (from 3.4% to 13.2% of calories). The linoleic acid colleagues suggest several possible reasons: 1) the original
came from liquid corn oil, which was used in place of the usual investigators were concerned that certain aspects of the
hospital cooking fats or added to various food items. The par- Minnesota Coronary Experiment, such as the complicated
ticipants remained on the study diets for a mean period of 384 histories of the study participants, could have biased the
days. The researchers collected longitudinal data on serum results, or that the trial did not continue long enough to see
cholesterol and cause of death, and a subset of the patients an effect on mortality; 2) statistical software packages for
underwent autopsy after death for signs of atherosclero- analyzing the data were not available at the time; 3) the lack
sis. In 1989, the researchers published data showing that the of prior published results to “support findings that were so
reduced-saturated-fat diet lowered serum cholesterol but contrary to prevailing beliefs and public policy;” and 4) the
did not appear to reduce cardiovascular events or death likelihood of rejection of the study results by medical journal
(Frantz, I. D., Jr., et al., http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01. reviewers.
ATV.9.1.129). Inexplicably, however, the researchers did not Whatever the reason that these results were buried for
include much of the data that were pre-specified by the study, decades, now that they have finally seen the light of day, one
for instance, the association between longitudinal changes in can hope that the US Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee
serum cholesterol and the risk of death, or the autopsy results. will consider them when issuing future Guidelines. As one of
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 31

the largest and most rigorous studies to examine the diet-

heart hypothesis, the Minnesota Coronary Experiment adds
considerable weight to the growing body of evidence that Olio is produced by Inform’s associate
dietary saturated fat does not cause heart disease. Redirect- editor, Laura Cassiday. She can be
ing the focus away from saturated fats and toward other cul- contacted at laura.cassiday@aocs.org.
prits, for example, sugar, may help to reverse the trend of
rising obesity and chronic disease. However, just as in 1989,
there remain firmly entrenched biases against saturated fat
that have more to do with belief than science.

Information
Cassiday, L. (2015) “Big fat controversy: changing opinions about saturated fat.” Inform, June 2015, 342–349, 377. http://tinyurl.
com/Inform-fat-controversy.

Frantz, I. D., Jr., et al. (1989) “Test of effect of lipid lowering by diet on cardiovascular risk. The Minnesota Coronary Survey.
Arteriosclerosis 9, 129–135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.ATV.9.1.129.

Ramsden, C. E., et al. (2016) “Re-evaluation of the traditional diet-heart hypothesis: analysis of recovered data from
Minnesota Coronary Experiment (1968–73).” BMJ 353, i1246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i1246.

Whoriskey, P. (2016) “This study 40 years ago could have reshaped the American diet. But it was never fully published.”
The Washington Post, Wonkblog, April 12, 2016. http://tinyurl.com/WP-BMJ-study.

Statistical
analysis
from Mintec
Loraine Hudson

Palm oil prices rose in March and April due to tightening stocks. Although
global production in 2015/16 is forecast to remain stable year-on-year at 61.7
million metric tons (MMT), consumption is forecast 6% up year-on-year to
62.1 MMT. As a result, ending stocks are forecast to fall 20% year-on-year
to 6.0 MMT, adding upward pressure to palm oil prices.
Rapeseed oil prices also rose due to lower expected rapeseed produc-
tion in 2015/16. The global rapeseed oil production is forecast to fall 3% year-
on-year to 27.0 MMT, driven down by a decline in planted area of rapeseed
due to lower profitability. Global rapeseed planted area is expected to fall
to 33.6m hectares, down 7% year-on-year, driven by falls in Canada (down
3% year-on-year), the EU (-4%) and China (-4%). The forecast has also been
reduced due to lower expected crush. In 2015/16, global crush is forecast at
66.6 MMT, down 3% year-on-year. With rapeseed oil consumption forecast
at 27.1 MMT, ending stocks are forecast to fall 4% year-on-year to 4.3 MMT.
The price differential between palm and rapeseed oil has narrowed
considerably since the end of 2015 largely due to concerns over weather-
related damage to palm oil output, and resulting in rapeseed oil premium
of less than $40 throughout March.

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port@mintec.ltd.uk; Web: www.mintecglobal.com.
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Regulatory Review 34 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)

FSMA final rule on

sanitary transportation
of human and animal
food
Regulatory Review is a regular column featuring updates on regulatory
matters concerning oils- and fats-related industries.
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has finalized the Food Safety Modernization Act
(FSMA) rule on Sanitary Transportation of Human and Animal Food. The rule will help prevent food
contamination during motor or rail transportation by requiring shippers, loaders, carriers, and
receivers to follow recognized best practices for sanitary transportation, such as properly refriger-
ating food and adequately cleaning vehicles between loads. The specific requirements for vehicles
and transportation equipment, transportation operations, records, training, and waivers estab-
lished by the FSMA rule do not apply to transportation by ship or air due to limitations in the law.
The earliest compliance dates for some firms begin one year after publication of the final rule in
the Federal Register. Here is a summary from the FDA press release (http://tinyurl.com/mkwkrd6).

Who is covered? Key requirements

With some exceptions, the final rule applies to shippers, receiv-
ers, loaders, and carriers who transport food in the United
States by motor or rail vehicle—whether or not the food is
offered for or enters interstate commerce. The rule also applies
to shippers in other countries who ship food to the United
States directly—by motor or rail vehicle (from Canada or Mex-
ico), or by ship or air—and arrange for the transfer of the intact
container onto a motor or rail vehicle for transportation within
the United States, only if that food will be consumed or distrib-
uted in the United States.
The rule does not apply to exporters who ship food
through the United States (from Canada to Mexico, for
example) by motor or rail vehicle if the food does not enter
US distribution. Companies involved in the transportation of
food intended for export are covered by the rule until the
shipment reaches a port or US border.
The rule establishes requirements for:
Vehicles and transportation equipment. These requirements
govern the design and maintenance of vehicles and transpor-
tation equipment. For example, such vehicles and equipment
must be suitable and adequately cleanable for their intended
use and capable of maintaining temperatures necessary for the
safe transport of food.
Transportation operations. These are measures taken during
transportation to ensure food safety, such as adequate tem-
perature controls, preventing contamination of ready-to-eat
food from touching raw food, protection of food from contam-
ination by non-food items in the same load or previous load,
and protection of food from cross-contact, such as the uninten-
tional incorporation of a food allergen.
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 35

Training. These include the training of carrier personnel in Compliance dates

sanitary transportation practices and documentation of the
Small businesses. Businesses other than motor carriers who are
training. Such training is required when the carrier and ship-
not also shippers and/or receivers employing fewer than 500 per-
per agree that the carrier is responsible for sanitary conditions
sons, and motor carriers having less than $27.5 million in annual
during transport.
receipts would have to comply two years after the publication of
Records. These include maintenance of records of written pro-
the final rule.
cedures, agreements, and training (required of carriers). The
Other businesses. Businesses that are not small and are not other-
required retention time for such records depends upon the
wise excluded from coverage would have to comply one year after
type of record and when the covered activity occurred, but
the publication of the final rule.
does not exceed 12 months.

Waivers Assistance for industry

The FDA FSMA Food Safety Technical Assistance Network
The Sanitary Food Transportation Act allows the requirements
(http://tinyurl.com/jhakysu) provides information to support
of the FSMA rule to be waived if the agency determines that a
industry understanding and implementation of FSMA. Questions
waiver will not result in the transportation of food under con-
submitted online or by mail will be answered by information spe-
ditions that would be unsafe for human or animal health.
cialists or subject matter experts.
The FDA announced in the proposed rule that it intends to
The FDA plans to develop an online course that would meet
publish waivers for:
the training requirements for this rule, and be available before the
first compliance dates go into effect. The agency will also issue
• S hippers, carriers, and receivers who hold valid permits and
guidance to assist industry in complying with the final rule.
are inspected under the National Conference on Interstate
Milk Shipments (NCIMS) Grade “A” Milk Safety program. This
waiver only applies when Grade A milk and milk products—
those produced under certain sanitary conditions—are being Exempt from the rule
transported. FDA acknowledges that controls for such trans- • Shippers, receivers, or carriers engaged in food trans-
portation operations already exist under the NCIMS pro-
portation operations that have less than $500,000 in
gram, with state enforcement and FDA oversight.
• Food establishments holding valid permits issued by a rel- average annual revenue
evant regulatory authority, such as a state or tribal agency, • Transportation activities performed by a farm
when engaged as receivers, shippers, and carriers in opera- • Transportation of food that is trans-shipped through the
tions in which food is relinquished to customers after being
United States to another country
transported from the establishment. Examples of such
establishments include restaurants, supermarkets, and • Transportation of food that is imported for future export
home grocery delivery operations. FDA acknowledges that and that is neither consumed or distributed in the
controls for such transportation operations already exist United States
under the Retail Food Program, with state, territorial, tribal
• Transportation of compressed food gases (e.g. carbon
and local enforcement, and FDA oversight.
The agency intends to publish these waivers in the Federal dioxide, nitrogen, or oxygen authorized for use in food
Register prior to the date firms are required to comply with and beverage products) and food contact substances
this rule. • Transportation of human food byproducts transported
The FDA also received comments asking for a waiver for
for use as animal food without further processing
transportation operations for molluscan shellfish for entities
that hold valid state permits under the National Shellfish Sani- • Transportation of food that is completely enclosed by
tation Program. The agency continues to review comments on a container, except a food that requires temperature
this request, and will issue a determination in the near future. control for safety
• Transportation of live food animals, except molluscan
shellfish

patents
Supplement composition and method
of use
Murray, F., O3 Animal Health LLC, US9248155, February 2, 2016
The present invention relates to a dietary supplement composi-
tion made of: linolenic expeller pressed soybean oil in the range
of 65–85%, Omega 3 (18/12) fish oil 15–35%, and 1–20% alpha-
tocopherol and a method to use this composition to supplement the
diet of a domestic animal, such as a canine or an equine.
Compositions derived from
metathesized natural oils and
amines and methods of making
Mujkic, M., et al., Dow Corning Corp; Elevance Renewable
Sciences, Inc. US9249360, February 2, 2016
Wax compositions derived from metathesized natural oils and
amines and methods of making wax compositions from metathesized
natural oils and amines are provided. The wax compositions com-
prise amidated metathesized natural oils formed from a metathesized
natural oil and at least one amine. The methods comprise providing
an amine and providing a metathesized natural oil. The methods
further comprise mixing the amine and the metathesized natural oil
in the presence of a basic catalyst or heat, causing a reaction between
the amine and metathesized natural oil, therein forming the amidated
metathesized natural oil.
Small liposomes for delivery of immunogen-
encoding RNA
Geall, A., and V. Ayush, Novartis Ag, US9254265, February 9, 2016
Nucleic acid immunization is achieved by delivering RNA
encapsulated within a liposome. The RNA encodes an immunogen of
interest, and the liposome has a diameter in the range of 60–180 nm,
and ideally in the range 80–160 nm. Thus the invention provides a
liposome having a lipid bilayer encapsulating an aqueous core, where-
in: (i) the lipid bilayer has a diameter in the range of 60–180 nm; and
(ii) the aqueous core includes a RNA which encodes an immunogen.
These liposomes are suitable for in vivo delivery of the RNA to a ver-
tebrate cell and so they are useful as components in pharmaceutical
compositions for immunizing subjects against various diseases.
Branched-chain fatty acids for prevention
or treatment of gastrointestinal disorders
Brenna, J.T., and R. Ran-Ressler, Cornell University, US9254275,
February 9, 2016
The present invention is directed to a method of preventing or
treating a gastrointestinal condition in a subject, that includes
administering one or more branched chain fatty acid to the subject
under conditions effective to prevent or treat the gastrointestinal
condition in the subject. In general, branched chain fatty acids, in
36 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
accordance with the present invention, may be non-esterified fatty
acids or covalently linked to a lipid, including wax esters, sterol
esters, triacylglycerols, or any other lipid-related molecular species,
natural or artificial. The branched chain fatty acid can be a C11 to
C26 branched chain fatty acid and mixtures thereof.
Formulations and dosage forms
of oxidized phospholipids
Sher, N., et al., Vascular Biogenics Ltd., US9254297, February 9,
2016
The current disclosure provides pharmaceutical composi-
tions containing an oxidized phospholipid, such as 1-hexadecyl-
2-(4′-carboxybutyl)-glycero-3-phosphocholine (VB-201) and a
thermosoftening carrier, e.g., a poloxamer. The pharmaceutical
compositions may further comprise an anti-adherent agent, such
as talc and/or a thixotropic agent. The current disclosure further
provides processes for preparing the pharmaceutical compositions.
The disclosure further provides capsules containing the pharma-
ceutical compositions. Uses of such pharmaceutical compositions
and capsules in treating inflammatory disorders are also disclosed.
Supplement composition and method
of use
Fulgham, M., O3 Animal Health LLC, US9254304, February 9,
2016
The present invention relates to a dietary supplement
composition made of: linolenic expeller pressed soybean oil in
the range of 65% –85%, Omega 3 (18/12) fish oil 15% –35%,
1% –20% α tocopherol, and 7.5%–15% acai berry powder and
a method to use this composition to supplement the diet of a
domestic animal, such as a canine or an equine.
Compositions and methods for bacterial
lysis and neutral lipid production
Curtiss, Roy, III, and L. Xinyao
Arizona Board of Regents for and on Behalf of Arizona State
University, US9255283, February 9, 2016
The present invention is directed to a cyanobacterium that
produces neutral lipids or alkanes. Such neutral lipids or alkanes
may be used for biofuel production.
Grease-like gel for repelling rodents
Richard , N., and W. Ryan, Pacific Tech Ind., Inc, US9258997
February 16, 2016
Grease-like compositions are provided for repelling rodents.
The compositions utilize nontoxic mineral, synthetic, or vegetable
oil based gels containing silica, clay, urea, polytetrafluoroethylene,
or metallic soap thickeners and capsaicin.
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 37

Fat blend
Krishnadath, B., et al., Loders Croklaan B.V., US9259015,
February 16, 2016
A fat blend comprises: (i) a first fat having a solid fat content at
25 oC of at least 75% and comprising combined SOS and SSO fats
in an amount of greater than 86% by weight, wherein S is saturated
fatty acid having from 16 to 18 carbon atoms and O is oleic acid;
and (ii) a second fat having a SOS content of greater than 75% by
weight and a StOSt content of greater than 70% by weight. The fat
blend has a solid fat content at 20 oC of greater than 80% and a solid
fat content at 35 oC of less than 5%. The fat blend is useful as a cocoa
butter replacer.
High-caloric enteral formulations
Maldonado, Y., et al., Solae LLC, US9259024, February 16, 2016
Compositions and methods relating to high-caloric enteral
formulations are disclosed herein. The invention provides a dietary
composition comprising hydrolyzed soy protein and having a low
viscosity and acceptable shelf life. Methods of using the dietary
compositions of the invention are also disclosed.
Water-based coating compositions
Li, C., et al., Akzo Nobel Coatings Int. B.V., US9260625,
February 16, 2016
Coating compositions are disclosed. In some embodiments, the
coating compositions are used to coat substrates such as packaging
materials and the like for the storage of food and beverages. The
coating compositions can be prepared by reacting an epoxidized
TD NMR Sample Tubes
10, 18, 25(26)mm
flat bottom
plain or with fill mark
For applications in food science,
the medical, polymer, pharmaceutical
and biodiesel fields.
vegetable oil and a hydroxyl functional material in the presence of
an acid catalyst to form a hydroxyl functional oil polyol, mixing the
hydroxyl functional oil polyol (with or without epoxidized polybu-
tadiene) and a functional polyolefin copolymer to form a mixture,
reacting the mixture with an ethylenically unsaturated monomer
component in the presence of an initiator to form a graft copolymer,
and crosslinking the graft copolymer with a crosslinker to form the
coating composition, wherein the graft copolymer or the crosslinked
graft copolymer is inverted into water.
Integrated process for the production of
biofuels from different types of starting
materials and related products
De Angelis, N. US9260678, February 16, 2016
Process for the production of biocombustible or biofuel mix-
tures suitable for different conditions of use, starting from refined or
raw vegetable oils, including those extracted from seaweed, and/or
from used food oils and animal fats, each of which is pre-treated with
specific treatments in order to yield a dried refined oil. The latter
then undergoes transesterification with an excess of lower alcohols
or bioalcohols, and a subsequent separation into a raw glycerine-
based phase and a phase containing mixtures of fatty acid alkyl esters
and the excess alcohols or bioalcohols.
Feed additive composition for ruminants
and method of producing the same
Goto, Y., et al., Ajinomoto Co Inc., US9265273, February 23, 2016
A feed additive composition includes a protective agent, lecithin
in an amount of 0.05 to 6% by weight relative to a total weight of
the composition, a basic amino acid in an amount of at least 40%
by weight and less than 65% by weight relative to the total weight
of the composition, and water. A method of producing a feed
additive composition includes preparing a molten mixture of at
least one protective agent, lecithin and at least one basic amino
acid, and solidifying the molten mixture by immersing the molten
mixture in water or an aqueous liquid. The protective agent includes
hydrogenated vegetable oils and/or hydrogenated animal oils having
melting points of greater than 50 oC and less than 90 oC.

Oxidative Stability Glassware

Reaction Vessels, Air Inlet Tubes
Conductivity Vessels
The New Standard in NMR Sampling®
Patent information is compiled by Scott Bloomer,
a registered US patent agent with Archer Daniels
Midland Co., Decatur, Illinois, USA. Contact him
at scott.bloomer@adm.com.
New Era Enterprises, Inc.
1-800821-4667
cs@newera-spectro.com
www.newera-spectro.com

Quality and value you can rely on!


extracts &
distillates
Soybean- and coconut-oil-based
unsaturated polyester resins:
thermomechanical characterization
Costa, C.S.M.F., et al., Ind. Crops Prod. 85: 403–411, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.01.030.
This paper reports the development of new unsaturated polyes-
ters resins (UPRs) based on soybean oil and coconut oil. Unsatu-
rated polyesters (UPs) were firstly synthesized by polycondensation
from renewable monomers and were further crosslinked using
styrene. The chemical structure of the new UPs was confirmed
by attenuated total reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-
FTIR) and by proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H NMR)
spectroscopies. The thermal and mechanical properties of the UPs
and UPRs were studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
and by dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) to evalu-
ate the impact of the incorporation of renewable monomers in the
properties of the materials. TGA analysis revealed that bio-based
UPs are thermally stable until temperatures of 250°C. The Tg values
obtained for these new UPs varied between −11 °C and 2°C, being
the UP composed by bio-based soybean oil and propylene glycol
the resin with the highest Tg . As expected, after crosslinking UPRs
showed to be thermally more stable than the UPs. The DMTA
analysis revealed that the E' and the Tg could be easily tailored by
varying the monomers in the formulation.
Convective drying of papaya seeds (Carica
papaya L.) and optimization of oil extraction
Chielle, D.P., et al., Ind. Crops Prod. 85: 221–228, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.03.010.
The convective air drying of papaya seeds was studied in order
to optimize the seed oil yield. Papaya seeds were dried under dif-
ferent conditions of air temperature and air velocity. The operation
was characterized by drying rate and drying kinetic curves. Oil was
extracted from the seeds, obtained in all drying conditions and, the
yield was optimized. The results revealed that the constant rate and
falling rate periods occurred during the convective air drying of
papaya seeds. The Overhults kinetic model was suitable to represent
the experimental drying curves. The optimal drying conditions,
which provided the maximum seed oil yield, were: air temperature
of 70 °C and air velocity of 2.0 m s−1. In these conditions, the seed
oil yield was 19.23% and the final moisture content was 7.40%
(w.b.). High quality oil, with about 90% of oleic acid, was obtained
from papaya seeds.
Consumption of dairy foods and diabetes
incidence: a dose-response meta-
analysis of observational studies
Gijsbers, L., et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 103: 1111-1124, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.123216.
A growing number of cohort studies suggest a potential role
of dairy consumption in type 2 diabetes (T2D) prevention. The
38 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
strength of this association and the amount of dairy needed is not
clear. We performed a meta-analysis to quantify the associations
of incident T2D with dairy foods at different levels of intake. A
systematic literature search of the PubMed, Scopus, and Embase
databases (from inception to 14 April 2015) was supplemented by
hand searches of reference lists and correspondence with authors
of prior studies. Included were prospective cohort studies that ex-
amined the association between dairy and incident T2D in healthy
adults. Data were extracted with the use of a predefined protocol,
with double data-entry and study quality assessments. Random-
effects meta-analyses with summarized dose-response data were
performed for total, low-fat, and high-fat dairy, (types of) milk,
(types of) fermented dairy, cream, ice cream, and sherbet. Non-
linear associations were investigated, with data modeled with the
use of spline knots and visualized via spaghetti plots. The analysis
included 22 cohort studies comprised of 579,832 individuals and
43,118 T2D cases. Total dairy was inversely associated with
T2D risk (RR: 0.97 per 200-g/d increment; 95% CI: 0.95, 1.00;
P = 0.04; I2 = 66%), with a suggestive but similar linear inverse as-
sociation noted for low-fat dairy (RR: 0.96 per 200 g/d; 95%
CI: 0.92, 1.00; P = 0.072; I2 = 68%). Nonlinear inverse associations
were found for yogurt intake (at 80 g/d, RR: 0.86 compared with 0
g/d; 95% CI: 0.83, 0.90; P < 0.001; I2 = 73%) and ice cream intake
(at ~10 g/d, RR: 0.81; 95% CI: 0.78, 0.85; P < 0.001; I2 = 86%), but
no added incremental benefits were found at a higher intake. Other
dairy types were not associated with T2D risk. This dose-response
meta-analysis of observational studies suggests a possible role for
dairy foods, particularly yogurt, in the prevention of T2D. Results
should be considered in the context of the observed heterogeneity.
High-quality lard with low-cholesterol
content produced by aqueous enzymatic
extraction and β-cyclodextrin treatment
Wang, Q.-L., et al., Eur. J. Lipid Sci.Technol.118: 553–563, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201400662.
New food processing technology is required for food produc-
tion with high quality and healthfulness. In this study, a novel
application was developed to extract lard from pig fatback, a by-
product of the slaughter plant, by an aqueous enzymatic extraction
method (AEE). Various proteases with different properties includ-
ing Alcalase 2.4 L, Neutrase 1.5 MG, Flavourzyme 1,000 L, and
Protamex were evaluated for their efficiency in oil release and lard
qualities. Alcalase 2.4 L was more effective for oil extraction with
a yield of 95.19%. A high quality of lard was produced by AEE in
comparison with lards produced by conventional extraction meth-
ods in aspects of color, acid value, peroxide value, phospholipids,
cholesterol, and oxidation stability. A further refinement to reduce
cholesterol from lard by β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) was developed
and the optimal conditions were established. The optimal condi-
tions were 7% β-CD addition (w/w) to a mixture of equal amount
of lard and distilled water at reaction temperature 50°C for about
60 min. The cholesterol content of lard from this refinement process
was about 3.2 mg/100 g which was about 93.7% reduction from
51.2 mg/100 g. This simple process by AEE and cholesterol reduc-
tion did not affect the composition of fatty acids and construction
of triglyceride. Factors that were components of lard or produced
during the lard extraction processes were evaluated for their influ-
ence on the cholesterol removal. Phospholipids could slightly
enhance cholesterol removal, while free fatty acids with saturated or
unsaturated aliphatic chains would have inhibitory effects because
of their competition with cholesterol for β-CD.
inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 39
Chemical modifications of ricinolein
in castor oil and methyl ricinoleate
for viscosity reduction to facilitate
their use as biodiesels
Ba, S., et al., Eur. J. Lipid Sci.Technol.118: 651–657, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201500120.
Castor beans contain large quantities of oil and can grow
in harsh environments. Unlike soybean oil, castor oil cannot be
directly used for biodiesel production due to its extremely high
viscosity. Here, we report an alternative source of biodiesel which
possesses an ideal viscosity like soybean oil, and this new biodiesel
could be obtained through simple synthetic routes from castor oil.
Moreover, the properties of our newly designed ketone-containing
triglycerides and its transesterified counterpart as biodiesel were
systematically examined in our study, and their structures were
characterized by using 1H NMR and 13C NMR.
Heating two types of enriched margarine:
complementary analysis of phytosteryl/
phytostanyl fatty acid esters and
phytosterol/phytostanol oxidation products
Scholz, B., et al., J. Agric. Food Chem. 64: 2699–2708, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.6b00617.
Two phytosteryl and/or phytostanyl fatty acid ester-enriched
margarines were subjected to common heating procedures. UH-
PLC-APCI-MS analysis resulted for the first time in comprehensive
quantitative data on the decreases of individual phytosteryl/-
stanyl fatty acid esters upon heating of enriched foods. These data
were complemented by determining the concurrently formed
phytosterol/-stanol oxidation products (POPs) via online LC-GC.
Microwave-heating led to the least decreases of esters of approxi-
mately 5% in both margarines. Oven-heating of the margarine in
a casserole caused the greatest decreases, with 68 and 86% esters
remaining, respectively; the impact on individual esters was more
pronounced with increasing degree of unsaturation of the esterified
fatty acids. In the phytosteryl/-stanyl ester-enriched margarine,
approximately 20% of the ester losses could be explained by the
formation of POPs; in the phytostanyl ester-enriched margarine,
the POPs accounted for <1% of the observed ester decreases.
Influence of temperature and humidity on
the stability of carotenoids in biofortified
maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes during
controlled postharvest storage
Ortiz, D., et al., J. Agric. Food Chem. 64: 2727–2736,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05698.
Maize is a staple crop that has been the subject of biofortifica-
tion efforts to increase the natural content of provitamin A carot-
enoids. Although significant progress toward increasing provitamin
A carotenoid content in maize varieties has been made, postharvest
handling factors that influence carotenoid stability during storage
have not been fully established. The objectives of this study were to
determine carotenoid profiles of six selected provitamin A bioforti-
fied maize genotypes at various developmental stages and assess the
stability of carotenoids in maize kernels during controlled storage
conditions (12 month period), including elevated temperature and
relative humidity. There were no significant changes in the content
of individual carotenoids within genotypes during kernel develop-
ment from 45 days after pollination through the time of harvest.
Carotenoid losses through traditional grain drying were also mini-
mal (<9%). However, the stability of carotenoids in maize kernels
over storage time after harvest was found to be dependent on both
temperature and humidity, with variation observed among geno-
types. Different forms of provitamin A carotenoids follow similar
degradation rates. The genotype C17xDE3 had a degradation
rate 2 times faster than those of the other genotypes evaluated
(P < 0.001). These differences in carotenoid stability under con-
trolled storage were attributed, in part, to observed differences in
the physical properties of the kernels (surface area and porosity).
These results support the notion that effective control of moisture
content and temperature of the kernels during storage conditions is
essential to reduce the speed of degradative reactions.
Cross-sectional relationships between
dietary fat intake and serum cholesterol
fatty acids in a Swedish cohort of
60-year-old men and women
Laguzzi, F., et al., J. Hum. Nutr. Diet 29: 325–337, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12336.
The present study aimed to describe the relationship between
self-reported dietary intake and serum cholesterol fatty acids (FAs)
in a Swedish population of 60-year-old men and women.
Cross-sectional data collected in 1997–1998 from 4,232 individu-
als residing in Stockholm County were used. Five diet scores were
created to reflect the intake of saturated fats in general, as well as fats
from dairy, fish, processed meat and vegetable oils and margarines.
Gas chromatography was used to assess 13 FAs in serum cholesterol
esters. The association between each diet score and specific FAs was
assessed by percentile differences (PD) with 95% confidence inter-
vals (CI) at the 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th percentile of each
FA across levels of diet scores using quantile regression. Fish intake
was associated with high proportions of eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). For each point increase
in fish score, the 50th PD in EPA and DHA was 32.78% (95% CI
= 29.22% to 36.35%), and 10.63% (95% CI = 9.52% to 11.74%),
respectively. Vegetable fat intake was associated with a high propor-
tion of linoleic acid and total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
and a low proportion of total saturated fatty acids (SFA). The intake
of saturated fats in general and dairy fat was slightly associated with
specific SFA, although the intake of fat from meat was not. In the
present study population, using a rather simple dietary assessment
method, the intake of fish and vegetable fats was clearly associated
with serum PUFA, whereas foods rich in saturated fats in general
showed a weak relationship with serum SFA. Our results may
contribute to increased knowledge about underlying biology in
diet–cardiovascular disease associations.

Oxidation in EPA- and DHA-
rich oils: an overview
Ismail, A., et al., Eur. J. Lipid Sci. 28: 55–59, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/lite.201600013.
Oxidation of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexae-
noic acid (DHA) rich omega-3 oils (hereafter referred to as either
EPA and DHA or omega-3) is a complicated topic, but an impor-
tant one to understand. A significant number of consumers cite
fishy burp and/or taste, thought to be the result of oxidation, as one
of the main reasons they do not consume EPA and DHA rich oils.
In addition, consumers note that some articles have raised concerns
about the potential for adverse effects associated with consumption
of oxidized oils. Measuring oxidation in omega-3 oils is complicated
due to the differences in chemical and physical characteristics of
many commercially available products, which means not all meth-
ods to determine quality are appropriate for all types of oils. A num-
ber of consumer advocacy groups, product quality seal programs
and academic groups have published data on levels of oxidation in
omega-3 oils. Overall, this data shows that commercially available
omega-3 supplements are low in oxidation. If consumers have a
poor sensory experience with their omega-3 product, they should
try another product as an alternative.
Role of inflammation and
eicosanoids in breast cancer
Basu, S., et al., Lipid Technol. 28: 60–64, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/lite.201600017.
Mutagenetic and epigenetic influences together with obesity,
nutritional, life-style causes and chronic inflammation are potential
risk-factors for breast cancer. Eicosanoids, namely prostaglandins,
leukotrienes and isoprostanes, are biologically potent compounds
derived enzymatically or non-enzymatically from arachidonic acid.
New
Release
List: $175
Member: $123*
*AOCS Members use code AOCS30
at checkout for 30% discount and
free shipping!
Available for purchase at
store.elsevier.com/aocs
Numerous currencies accepted!
IonicLiquids-Mar16i-thirdPg.indd 1
40 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
Their dynamic role in inflammation and oxidative stress, specifically
their interactions with proangiogenic factors in the tumor microen-
vironment, are well recognized in cancer. Even though the involve-
ment of these compounds is one of the key elements in some types
of cancer, knowledge on their role in breast cancer is still limited
due to the underlying molecular complexity and hormonal control
of breast development and function. This review provides a brief
overview of some of the current scientific evidence that recognizes
the role of inflammation and eicosanoids in breast carcinogenesis.
Branched chain fatty acids concentrate
prepared from butter oil via urea adduction
Mudgal, S., et al., Eur. J. Lipid Sci.Technol. 118: 669–674, 2016,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201500110.
Saturated branched chain fatty acids (BCFA) intake in the
US is greater than that of other bioactive fatty acids (FA), yet little
information is available on methodologies to concentrate them. We
report here the effect of urea-to-FA (urea:FA) ratio, adduction time,
and temperature on the enrichment of branched chain fatty acids
(BCFA) from butter oil. Urea adducts precipitate both saturated
and monounsaturated hydrocarbon chains as urea complexes,
leaving solubilized polyunsaturated FA and BCFA in the non-urea
adduct fraction (NUA). The optimum urea:FA ratio was found to
be 4:1 and the optimum temperature to be 4°C. Adduction time
had negligible effect on BCFA enrichment. Anteiso-15:0 was most
enriched across major BCFA under all conditions of temperature,
time, and urea:FA ratio studied. In our preferred embodiment, a
two-stage urea adduction procedure applied to hydrolyzed butter
oil resulted in an enrichment from <2% BCFA in the starting oil
to >11% BCFA, indicating an enrichment factor of >6. The best
method has a first stage performed at 4°C and urea:FA ratio of 4:1,
and a second stage at 30°C and lower urea:FA ratio (2:1). Overall
yield of BCFA in enriched fraction was about 10% of starting BCFA
for two stages.
Ionic Liquids in Lipid
Processing and Analysis
Opportunities and Challenges
Edited by Xuebing Xu, Zheng Guo, and Ling-Zhi Cheong
February 2016 | ISBN 9781630670474 | Available in print and ebook.
This title serves as a reference for those interested in state-of-the-art research
on the science and technology of ionic liquids (ILs), particularly in relation to lipids
processing and analysis. Topics include a review of the chemistry and physics of
ILs as well as a quantitative understanding of structure-activity relationships at
the molecular level. Further, chapter authors examine the molecular basis of the
toxicity of ILs, the prediction of the properties of ILs, and the rationale and steps
toward a priori design of ionic liquids for task-defined applications.
Key Features
● Reviews the state-of-the-art progress applications of ionic liquids in lipid
processing and relevant areas from a variety of perspectives
● Summarizes the latest advances in the measurement of the physical/chemical
properties of ionic liquids and available database of thermodynamic properties
● Presents the tremendous opportunity and challenges of ionic liquids as a
newly emerging technology for lipids processing area
1/26/16 2:53 PM
 inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 41
Trans fats
replacement
solutions
Utkarsh Shah
On June 16, 2015, the US Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) finalized and published its determination that partially
hydrogenated oils (PHO), the primary dietary source of artificial
trans fats in processed foods, are not “generally recognized as
safe” (GRAS) for use in human food. The FDA order specifies a
compliance date of no later than June 18, 2018. We are already
into June 2016, leaving the industry two years to comply.
Substantial efforts have already been made to develop replace-
ment solutions for industrially produced trans fats. Trans fats
replacement solutions reviews most aspects of trans fats and
replacement solutions.
The book discusses several enabling technologies, such
as formulation, trait-enhanced oils, palm and coconut oils and
their fractions, and interesterified fats, that can be used to
replace trans fats in food products. While manufacturers have
been successful in creating PHO-free products, there is still
a concern that the fats used to replace PHO might increase
the amount of saturated fats in these products, as one of the
easiest and cheapest ways to replace trans fats while achiev-
ing solid fat functionality is to replace PHO with saturated fats
such as palm oil. This could potentially become an issue in the
near future.
As manufacturers begin looking for innovative techniques
to create trans-free fats with the lowest possible levels of satu-
rated fats, Trans fats replacement solutions is a good platform
for considering multiple replacement strategies. For exam-
ple, the book puts an interesting spin on how to design ideal
designer fats and oleogels that function as trans-free solutions
without adding saturated fats. Per the book, such approaches
may serve as long-term solutions as opposed to straight
replacement through saturated fats. However, the cost,
functionality, and feasibility of implementing such solutions
on a commercial scale has not been discussed and remains
uncertain. It would have been helpful had the book included
more discussions about the limitations of such technologies.
Further discussion about the potential of trans-fat replace-
ment to increase saturated fats in the diet, and the use of oleo-
gels and designer fats in preventing such an increase, would
be meaningful in the coming years and worth a read for future
formulators.
Book Review
 harma R. Kodali (ed.)
D
AOCS Press, 2014, 468 pages
ISBN: 9780988856509
http://tinyurl.com/z9shu5z
When communicating about trans fats, general audiences
often do not understand that there are different kinds of trans
fats, including the artificially processed trans fats that are pro-
duced through partial hydrogenation, the artificially processed
trans fats that are used to create CLA supplements, natural
trans fats, and ruminant trans fats. This book nicely touches
upon the need for a proper definition of trans fats, and the
authors successfully define the multiple types of trans fats and
their effects on health with clarity. It would have been interest-
ing if the authors had similarly explained the effect these multi-
ple types of trans fats have on the functional properties in food
applications. The most comprehensive work covered in the
book relates to trans fat analysis, which becomes crucial as we
move away from industrially produced PHOs completely. The
importance of quick analytical techniques using Fourier trans-
form-near infrared spectroscopy (FT-NIR) are re-emphasized,
although validation work for FT-NIR still needs to be done.
What really impresses me about this book is the breadth of
its content, and its balanced coverage of chemistry, processing,
analysis, and regulation. Initially, the book comes across as a
technical book, but then it neatly covers the regulatory details
as well. Moreover, it provides a global perspective on the
replacement efforts and regulations of highest importance to
global multi-national companies. The geographical regions dis-
cussed include North America, Europe, South America, China,
Japan, India, Malaysia, Australia, and New Zealand, with a com-
prehensive chapter dedicated to each one of those regions.
Therefore, this book will be of value to a wide range of read-
ers, from experienced scientists and technical leaders to regu-
latory professionals in all parts of the world. The simplicity of
the language used to explain highly technical terms also makes
the book appealing for general audiences. All in all, Trans fats
replacement solutions is a valuable book for all trans-free fat/
oil designers, trans-free product re-formulators, and regulatory
professionals.
Utkarsh Shah is a senior scientist at The Hershey Company.
He can be contacted at ushah@hersheys.com.
Welcome New Members
AOCS is proud to welcome our newest members*.
*New and reinstated members joined from January 1 through March 31, 2016.
Maha Abd. Elrahman, University of Gezira
Raja-Elie Abdulnour, Brigham And Women’s
Hospital
Sanjeev Agarwal, Technochem International
Inc
Jennifer Altstadt, Sea-Land Chemical Co
Rivia Amaral, Instituto de Tecnologia de
Alimentos ITAL
Nuri Andarwulan, Bogor Agricultural
University
James Anderson, Corbion
Jamie Anderson, Sun Products Corp
Kathleen Anderson, DSM Nutritional Products
Chandra Ankolekar, Kemin Industries Inc
Rodrigo Araya
Adrian Argudo
Pavel Aronov, Impossible Foods
Paul Ashcraft, Flotek Chemistry
Didem Aykas, Ohio State University
Thirupathi Azmeera, Indian Inst of Chemical
Technology
Manochehr Bahmaie, Behshahr Ind Co
Vivek Bansal, Brissun Technologies Pvt Ltd
Amitkumar Barot
James Barren, Kalsec Inc
Chyree Batton, SC Johnson & Son
Scott Bean, USDA ARS CGAHR
Eric Bell, Valtris Specialty Chemicals
P. Scott Bening, MonoSol LLC
Jim Benson, Crown Iron Works Inc
Amanda Bergamin, CSIRO Food and Nutrition
Ryan Berko, Cargill Inc
Matthew Bernart, Pharmatech Inc
Cornelius Bessler, Dalli-Werke GmbH & Co KG
Sunil Bhagwat, Institute of Chemical
Technology
Shuang Bi, Northeast Agricultural University
Nirupam Biswas, Monash University
Malaysia
Rebecca Blahosky
Cory Blanchard, Inventure Renewables Inc
Ellen Bloksma
Laurine Bogaert, OLEAD
Christopher Borbone, VICAM
Mike Borel, Context Network
Swadesh Bose, ITS Testing Services (M) Sdn
Bhd
Ryan Boyd
Tatiana Bradaschia, Cargill Agricola SA
Jonathan Brekan, Elevance Renewable
Sciences
Diana Budde, Land O’Lakes Inc
Suzanne Budge, Dalhousie University
Jiajia Cai, Texas A&M University
Richard Cairncross, Drexel University
Rachel Campbell Mertz, Stratas Foods
Wenming Cao, Wilmar (Shanghai) Biotech
R&D Ctr
Mark Carkhuff
Marcos Cau, YPE--Quimica Amparo
Deborah Chance, University of Missouri
Lim Chang Hyuk, Aekyung Industry
David Changaris, Ceela Naturals LLC
Dhirajlal Chauhan
Bing-Hung Chen, National Cheng Kung
University
Jingjing Chen, Jiangnan University
Jingnan Chen, Zhejiang University
Si Chen, Northeast Agricultural University
Wai Keat Chen, University of Malaya
Peng Cheng, Nankai University
Anis Chikhoune
Jangwoo Chu, Oh Sung Chemical Ind Co
Min-Yu Chung, Korea Food Research Institute
Rachel Cole, Ohio State University
Fang Cong, Wilmar
Lanfranco Conte, Universita of Udine
Zachary Cooper
Corbion
Marisol Cordova Barragan, UASLP
Jessica Cortopassi, Corto Olive Co
Prudence Dauphinee, DSM Nutritional
Products
Chad De Mill, Utah State University
Marvin De Tar, Molecular Technologies Ltd
Cedric Deherripon, Vandeputte
Oleochemicals
Eduard P.P.A. Derks, DSM Resolve
Shrinivas Deshmukh, Camlin Fine Sciences
Ltd
Charlotte Deyrieux, CIRAD UMR IATE
Stephen Diegelmann, Afton Chemical
William Dillavou, Stepan Co
Jian Ding, Northeast Agricultural University
Jixuan Dong, Northeast Agricultural
University
Xuyan Dong, Oil Crops Research Institute,
CAAS
Michael Dreja, Henkel AG & Co KGaA
Mannu Dwivedi, MSU
Ingolf Ellermann, Crown Iron Works - CMP
Sket
Yussef Esparza, University of Alberta
Francisco Fabregues, Pinnacle Foods, Inc
Aixing Fan, Colgate-Palmolive
Hemlata Faujdar, Indira Gandhi National
Open University
Ben Floan, Crown Iron Works Inc
Garrick Florence, Stratas Foods
Ana Forgiarini, Universidad De Los Andes,
Lab FIRP
Masato Fukui, Lion Corp
Noelle Fuller, University of Georgia
Ramiro Galleguillos, Lubrizol
Richard Galloway, QUALISOY
Kadar Gedi, Sun Products Corp
Majd Ghadban
Jaeton Glover, Surface Chemists of Florida Inc
Sachin Goel, University of Toronto
Luis Gomez, AAK USA Inc
Guillermina Gonzalez, RAGASA
Selene Gonzalez, University of Alberta
Sai Monaj Gorantla, Indian Institute of
Chemical Technology
Tsuyoshi Goto, Kyoto University
Michael Granvogl, Technical University of
Munich
Liwei Gu, University of Florida
Andrea Guedes, EMBRAPA
Alejandro Gugliucci
Fredrik Gumpel, Novozymes
Fatma Gunduz Balpetek, Ege University
Sahil Gupta, Florida State University
Nichole Halliday, Rothsay
Tianxiang Han, Northeast Agricultural
University
Hiroshi Hara, Hokkaido University
Derell Hardman
Marc Harrison
Dustin Hawker, BASF Corp
Brett Healey, Church & Dwight Co Inc
Mike Heard, ConAgra Foods
Kate Hemming, Perdue Agribusiness
Tasha Hermes, Cargill Inc
Derek Hess, Utah State University
Shimizu Hidenori, Nitto Pharmaceutical
Industries Ltd
Jessica Hinkle, NOW Foods
Seng Soi Hoong, Malaysian Palm Oil Board
Fenghong Huang, Oil Crops Reaearch
Institute, CAAS
Natalia Huerta, Clariant
Chazley Hulett, Montana State University,
Northern
Kosuke Ichihashi, Lion Corp
Intertek USA Inc
Chinami Ishibashi, Hiroshima University
Satoru Ishihara, Amano Enzyme USA Co Ltd
Baraem Pam Ismail, University of Minnesota
Alonso Iturralde, Industrial Danec SA
Ashok Jain, Vibrandt Project Consultants
(P) Ltd
Hitesh Jain, Gagan International
Anne-Helene Jan, Montpellier SupAgro
Zan Jiang, Guangzhou Blue Moon Industrial
Co
Mareile Job, Henkel AG & Co KgaA
Philip Johnson, University of Nebraska,
Lincoln
Richard Johnson, Reckitt Benckiser
David Joiner, Novozymes North America Inc
Alexandra Jones, Advanced Fuels Center
Andrew Jones, Activated Research Co
Jennifer Kaiser, Abbott Nutrition
Karina Kamisato, Alicorp SAA
Vikas Kardam, Indian Institute of Technology
Yutaro Kataoka, Nisshin OilliO Group Ltd
Joel Kaufmann, Wenck Associates Inc
Sheshrao Kautkar, GB Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology
Diane Kelly, Swansea University
Lisa Kelly, QUALISOY
Steven Kelly, Swansea University
Alexandra Kendall, University of Manchester
Salma Khalifa, Savola Food Co
Abolhassan Khalili, Iranian Vegetable Oil
Industry Assn
Sachin Khapli, New York University Abu
Dhabi
Dmitriy Khatayevich, Impossible Foods
Kkotsan Kim, Korea University
Taehoon Kim, Korea University
Michael Kimball
Julie Kindelspire, POET LLC
Kohey Kitao, Nitto Pharmaceutical Industries,
Ltd.
Izabela Korwel, HRI Labs
Christoph Krumm, University of Minnesota
Dmitry Kuklev, W2Fuel LLC
Oh-Jea Kwon, Oh Sung Chemical Ind Co
Jonathan Lai, E2P2L - Solvay China
Ricky Lam, AGT Foods
Nikkia Lassere, Intertek USA Inc
Byung Lee, Korea Res Institute of Chem Tech
Jeunghee Lee, Daegu University
Jung-Hoon Lee, Fort Valley State University
Ki-Teak Lee, Chungnam National University
Matt Legg, Phillips 66
Christophe Len, Universite de Technologie de
Compiegne
Bing Li, SC Johnson
Jiani Li, Northeast Agricultural University
Jingbo Li, Aarhus University
Juan Li, Omega Protein Inc
Qiuhui Li, Northeast Agricultural University
Xu Li, Jiangnan University
Junmei Liang, Wilmar Biotech R&D Ctr Co Ltd
Wang Liao, University of Alberta
Carli Liguori
Danilo Lima, brprocess
Sean Liu, USDA ARS
Yuanfa Liu, Jiangnan University
Haihua Long, Guangzhou Blue Moon
Industrial Co
Yao Lu, DSM Nutritional Products
Fernando Luna Cruz, Mone Forwarding
Henrik Lund, Novozymes AS
Xiaolan Luo, Ohio State University
Wenjun Ma, Northeast Agricultural
University
John MacKay, Waters Technologies Corp
Monika Madhav, Intertek USA Inc
Amborummal Madhavan
Samantha Magee, Filtercorp
Robert Maloney, Maloney Commodity
Services Inc
Emerson Mansano, Coamo Agroindustrial
Cooperativa
Ebner Manuel, Sun Products Corp
Hui-Ting Mao, Northeast Agricultural
University
Dallas Matz, SC Johnson & Son Inc
Philip Mausberg, University of Saskatchewan
Vera Mazurak, University of Alberta
 All members contribute to the
success of the Society while
furthering their professional goals.
Anthonette McCoy, Nu Skin
Dennis McCullough, Process Plus LLC
Alex McCurdy, POET LLC
Terence McGeown, Natures Crops
International
Aleisha McLachlan, DSM Nutritional Products
Canada
James McMordie
Sheena McNeill, Intertek Testing Services
Canada Ltd
Rabiatul Adawiyah Md. Nazeri, University
of Malaya
Carlos Isaac Medrano Ceja, Aceitera Mevi
Mexico
Rajesh Meena
Patrick Memoli, Rivertop Renewables
Robert Menzies, Gusmer Enterprises Inc
Francoise Michel Salaun, Diana Pet Food
Matthew Miller
Mudasir Mir, Pondicherry University
Ana Miranda
Yoshitaka Miyamae, Lion Corp
Junki Miyamoto, Hiroshima University
Ahmed Mohamed Gad, Arma Group
Charles Moorefield
Mubetcel Moorefield, Hardy Industrial
Technologies
Arun Moorthy, University of Guelph
Joseph Moritz, BASF Corp
Kelly Muijlwijk, Wageningen University
Remco Muntendam, DSM
Satoshi Nagaoka, Gifu University
Sajo Naik, Oil-Dri Corp of America
Theo Neutzling, Crown Iron Works - CPM Sket
Kah Soon Ng, PGEO Edible Oils Sdn Bhd
Ronald Noble
Leonel Ogando Familia, Cesar Iglesias SA
Carolina Olivares
Jake Olson, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Greg O’Neil, Western Washington University
Brooke Oot, CSM Bakery Solutions
Organic Technologies
Carlos Ortiz, INOLASA
Nurul Aifaa Osman Hassan, University of
Malaya
Mizue Ouchi, Kao Corporation
Mark Oxford, DSM Nutritional Products
Robert Packer, PerkinElmer Corp
Raul Padilla, Clariant (Mexico) SA de CV
Elena Papamiltiadous, La Trobe University
Eun Young Park, Korea Christian University
Hae Ryung Park, Korea University
Chiragkumar Patel
Debjyoti Paul
Corey Paulson, Crown Iron Works Inc
David Pears, Revolymer (UK) Ltd
Cao Peirang, Jiangnan University
Alyssa Perrard, CESI Chemical
Bryan Petrak, AAK USA Inc
James Petrie, CSIRO Agriculture
Pavlos Pettas, Pavlos N Pettas SA
Frank Pifer, Perdue Agribusiness
Prasanth Pillai, Trent University
Dan Piorkowski, Sun Products Corp
Pawitchaya Podchong, Silpakorn University
Poornesh Ponnekanti, New York Institute of
Technology
Surya Prakash, MNIT Jaipur
Palak Pujara, SC Johnson & Son
Andres Puppato, Dallas Group of America
Cecilia Rangel, Instituto Tecnologico
Rupesh Ranjan, UDCT Amravati
Shahidah Rashid, University of Malaya,
UMCIL
Shivam Rathi
Marisa Regitano Darce, Universidade De Sao
Paulo ESALQ
Steven Reider, Lubrizol
Eleazer Resurreccion, Montana State
University Northern
Doug Rivers, ICM Inc
Jim Robertson, Corbion
Cesar Rodriguez, Colgate Palmolive
Brian Rohrback, Infometrix Inc
Kaitlin Roke, University of Guelph
Alfred Rolle, DSM Nutritional Product
Alexandre Romanens, Sani Marc Group
Laurence Romsted, Rutgers, The State
University of New Jersey
Siti Rohayu Rubaidi, University of Malaya
Mackenzie Russo, Kemin Industries Inc
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Madrid
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Rica
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Thanh Vu, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst
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University
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University
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Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society
(April)•
• Hosseini, H., M. Ghorbani, N. Meshginfar, and A.S. Mahoonak,
A review on frying: procedure, fat, deterioration progress and
health hazards
• Xia, W., S.M. Budge, and M.D. Lumsden, 1H-NMR characterization
of epoxides derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids
• Montpetit, A. and A.Y. Tremblay, A quantitative method of analysis
for sterol glycosides in biodiesel and FAME using GC-FID
• Ok, S., Authentication of commercial extra virgin olive oils
• Croat, J.R., M. Berhow, B. Karki, K. Muthukumarappan, and W.R.
Gibbons, Conversion of canola meal into a high-protein feed
additive via solid-state fungal incubation process
• He, W.-S., Q. Liu, H. Yu, X.-J. Si, and J.-K. Zhang, Efficient synthesis
of octacosanol linoleate catalyzed by ionic liquid and its structure
characterization
• Cheetangdee, N. and S. Benjakul, Oxidation and colloidal
stability of oil-in-water emulsion as affected by pigmented rice hull
extracts
Lipids (April)
• Hennessy, A.A., P.R. Ross, G.F. Fitzgerald, and C. Stanton,
Sources and bioactive properties of conjugated dietary fatty
acids
• Emery, J.A., F. Norambuena, J. Trushenski, and G.M. Turchini,
Uncoupling EPA and DHA in fish nutrition: Dietary demand is
limited in atlantic salmon and effectively met by DHA alone
• Czajkowska-Mysłek, A., U. Siekierko, and M. Gajewska,
Application of silver ion high-performance liquid chromatogra-
phy for quantitative analysis of selected n-3 and n-6 PUFA in oil
supplements
• Baack, M.L., S.E. Puumala, S.E. Messier, D.K. Pritchett, and W.S.
Harris, Daily enteral DHA supplementation alleviates deficiency
in premature infants
• Tan, L., X. Xin, L. Zhai, and L. Shen, Drosophila fed ARA and EPA
yields eicosanoids, 15S-Hydroxy-5Z,8Z, 11Z, 13E-eicosatetrae-
noic acid, and 15S-Hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic
acid
44 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
• Álvarez, C.A. and C.C. Akoh, Preparation of infant formula fat
analog containing capric acid and enriched with DHA and ARA at
the sn-2 position
• Jana, S. and S. Martini S., Phase behavior of binary blends of four
different waxes
• Farhoosh, R., A. Sharif, M. Asnaashari, S. Johnny, and N.
Molaahmadibahraseman, Temperature-dependent mechanism
of antioxidant activity of o-Hydroxyl, o-methoxy, and alkyl ester
derivatives of p-hydroxybenzoic acid in fish oil
•M  oreau, R.A., A.F. Harron, M.J. Powell, and J.L. Hoyt, A compari-
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in modern lines and hybrids of grain sorghum
• Macias-Rodriguez, B. and A.G. Marangoni, Physicochemical and
rheological characterization of roll-in shortenings
• Thompson, M.M., et al., Analysis of vitamin K1 in soybean seed:
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• Nguyen, Q., et al., Physicochemical properties and ACE-I inhibitory
activity of protein hydrolysates from a non-genetically modified
soy cultivar
• Chew, S.-C. and K.-L. Nyam, Oxidative stability of microencapsu-
lated kenaf seed oil using co-extrusion technology
• Rao, Y.P.C., P.P. Kumar, and B.R. Lokesh, Molecular mechanisms
for the modulation of selected inflammatory markers by dietary
rice bran oil in rats fed partially hydrogenated vegetable fat
• Ding, B.-J., et al., The yeast ATF1 acetyltransferase effi ciently
acetylates insect pheromone alcohols: implications for the
biological production of moth pheromones
• Cavallini, G., et al., A component of the cellular antioxidant
machinery
• Brose,
 S.A., S.A. Golovko, and M.Y. Golovko, Brain 2-arachidon-
oylglycerol levels are dramatically and rapidly increased under
acute ischemia-injury which is prevented by microwave irradia-
tion
• Rider T., LeBoeuf R.C., Tso P., Jandacek R.J., The use of kits in the
analysis of tissue lipids requires validation
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2016 MbrApp-1p-INF.indd
Latin America Update 46 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)

Olive oil production

in South America:
Uruguayan
extra-virgin
olive oil
Latin America Update is a regular
Inform column that features
information about fats, oils, and
related materials in that region.

Leslie Kleiner
When thinking about olives and olive oil, it is common to picture
scenes from the Mediterranean. However, various Latin American
countries are olive oil producers as well. To learn more about olive oil
production in Uruguay, I interviewed Professor Bruno Irigiaray, from
the Fats and Oils Laboratory at the Chemistry Department School of
the Universidad de la República, Uruguay.
 inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6) • 47
Q: Which MERCOSUR member countries
produce olive oil, and what is their annual
production?
A: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Mexico, and Uruguay
are some of the main olive-oil- producing countries in Latin
America. There is also smaller-scale production in Bolivia,
Colombia, and Ecuador. The producing countries that are
members of MERCOSUR are Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and
Uruguay. However, only Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay
are members of the Consejo Oleícola Internacional (IOC:
International Olive Council). According to information
provided by IOC, the 2014–2015 olive oil production in
Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile, was 1,500, 6,000, and 24,000
metric tons (MT), respectively.
Q: W hat are common methods of olive oil
production in Uruguay?
A: Only extra-virgin olive oil is produced in Uruguay. There
is no refining of oils of lesser quality, due to the lack of indus-
trial plants for that purpose. Furthermore, Uruguay aims to
produce high-quality oils, and in consequence the priority is
to produce extra-virgin olive oil in compliance with analytical
testing as established by the methodology specified by IOC.
Q: How is olive oil characterized, and how
do Uruguayan oils differ from those produced
in Mediterranean regions?
A:
The fatty acid profile is an important parameter when
analyzing olive oil, and this profile is expected to fall within the
parameters established by IOC. Another important factor is
that of the polyphenols present in the oil. Many times, it is dif-
ficult to compare polyphenol levels among samples of different
origins due to differences in the methodology used. However,
recent studies performed in Spain report polyphenol levels on
two- or three-phase extraction olive oil ranging between 50
and 800 ppm. Uruguayan olive oil has polyphenol levels among
the reported ranges but below 400 ppm.
Q: How would you describe the flavor
profile of Uruguayan olive oil?
A:
The flavor profile of Uruguayan olive oil depends, as
in olive oil from any country of origin, on the olive cultivar, its
quality, and other factors such as climate and irrigation. Olive
oil arising from the Arbequina variety tends to be sweet, less
bitter and spicy, and with molasses notes, while other variet-
ies such as Coratina and Picual have intensely bitter and spicy
notes. Uruguay has an IOC-recognized olive oil tasting panel
which has been active since the year 2012.
Q: What are the waxes from Uruguayan
olive like?
A: The waxes profile is influenced by olive variety, stor-
age, and climatic conditions. In general, in Uruguayan extra
virgin olive oils the waxes are mostly comprised of 40 and
42 carbons, and waxes of 44 and 46 carbons are not usually
detected.
Latin America Update is produced
by Leslie Kleiner, R&D Project
Coordinator in Confectionery
Applications at Roquette Americas, Inc.,
Geneva, Illinois, USA, and a contributing
editor of Inform. She can be reached at
LESLIE.KLEINER@roquette.com.

AOCS Meeting Watch
October 4–7, 2016. World Conference on Fabric and
Home Care—Singapore 2016, Shangri-La Hotel, Singapore.
http://singapore.aocs.org
April 30–May 3, 2017. AOCS Annual Meeting and Industry
Showcases, Rosen Shingle Creek, Orlando, Florida, USA.
Tips from
Tips from inform|connect is a regular Inform column that features tips and other discussion
highlights from the community forum board at http://www.informconnect.org/home.
Q:Q: An article in the March 2016 issue of Inform reveals that
process contaminants are created when edible fats and
oils are exposed to high temperatures and long residence
times during traditional deodorization. It seems to me that a
molecular still could prevent, or at least minimize, formation
of harmful compounds, as the exposure to high tempera-
tures is extremely short (a few seconds), compared to hours
of exposure during traditional deodorization. Why aren’t
wiped-film evaporators, short-path distillers, or molecular
A:
stills commonly used for deodorizing edible fats and oils?
A: Here is a summary of the responses.
• Wiped-film evaporators or molecular stills are an order
of magnitude more expensive than the deodorizers used
today. In Southeast Asia, typical capacity requirements
are between 1,500–3,000 tons per day of oil per deodor-
izer. Multiple wiped-film evaporators or molecular stills
would be needed to reach these capacity requirements,
which would drive up capital expenditures. With palm
oil, more time under high temperature is needed to
break down the color and enable the oil to become vola-
tile enough to be stripped. Typically, one hour of resi-
dence time under high temperature is required to meet
the market demand for oil that is low in (red) color. This
long residence time is practical in a tray deodorizer, but
not in a wiped-film evaporator. When the temperature
and pressure conditions required to evaporate some of
the contaminants are reached, the monoglycerides and
diglycerides are then distilled away. This moves a sig-
nificant portion of the yield from high- value palm oil to
lower-value palm fatty acid distillate, which has a signifi-
cantly negative impact on refining margins.
• Molecular distillation was thought to be the best solution
for stripping/physical refining of high-free-fatty-acid (FFA)
rice bran oil (FFA as high as 30%). However, one such
48 • inform June 2016, Vol. 27 (6)
September 11–14, 2017. 17th AOCS Latin American
Congress and Exhibition on Fats and Oils, Grand Fiesta
Americana Coral Beach Hotel, Cancun, Mexico.
For in-depth details on these and other upcoming meet-
ings, visit http://aocs.org/meetings or contact the AOCS
Meetings Department (email: meetings@aocs.org; phone:
+1 217-693-4821; fax: +1 217-693-4865).
A doctoral student in food science wanted to know if bio-
diesel producers would be willing to pay a premium for
distillers corn oil with a lower free fatty acid (FFA) content.
installation in India with huge capital expenditures failed
measurably. Molecular distillation (short-path distilla-
tion) was very selective in removing the fatty acids and
other lipid moieties rapidly, based on molecular weight
as well as absolute pressure in the system, but in doing
so all the broken down color bodies were left behind in
the deodorized/de-acidified oil. The distilled fatty acids
produced were almost water- white, but the oil itself
was dark-colored and could not be reduced by solution,
as it was a totally "fixed color." It is true that forma-
tion of 3-MCPD esters is an issue, but the retention time
required is not for the heat-bleaching alone. Some oils
and specialty fats, such as cocoa butter and sal oil, con-
tain pesticides that can be removed only with a longer
retention at relatively low deodorization temperatures.
• Molecular distillation is a fantastic simple unit operation
for heat-sensitive materials like tocopherols and omega-3
fatty acids. It is also good for smaller-capacity biodiesel distil-
lation, as one can convert non-edible high-FFA oils into low
FFA oils by simple one step molecular distillation.
• Wiped-film/short-path distillation can help recover
some of the valuable nutraceuticals, such as tocopher-
ols, tocotrienols, sesamin, and sterols that are lost during
refining. Wiped-film/short-path distillation has also con-
tributed a lot to the recovery of eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA)/docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) from fish oils, produc-
tion of carotene-rich red palm oil, lecithin recovery, and
the distillation of fatty acids, methyl esters, and glycer-
ine. Capital expenses and color reduction are big issues
when processing some high FFA oils by molecular distilla-
tion, but niche oils such as sesame, rice bran, and corn—
which have a high percentage of unsaponifiables and can
be of huge therapeutic value—can certainly be processed
by wiped film if we are willing relinquish the bias for low
color that has gripped the entire industry for many years.
Crown Refining
We do refining. And we do it well.
Degumming • Neutralizing • Bleaching • Deodorizing • Fat Modification

You already know about Crown’s preparation and extraction technologies, our
engineering expertise and our world-class service. But we also have a long history
of providing complete refining solutions to companies all over the world.

Contact our team of experts to learn more.

Let’s connect.
www.crowniron.com/refining
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