ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS

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E.H.I.-2
India: Earliest Times to 8th Century AD
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Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance
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answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions given in the assignment.
As these solutions and answers are prepared by the private Teacher/Tutor so the chances of error or mistake cannot be

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denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers/

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Solutions. Please consult your own Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date and exact

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information, data and solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the university.

Note: All questions are compulsory. Marks for each question are mentioned against it.

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Section 1: Answer each question in about 500 words each.

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Q. 1. Write on the sources for reconstructing the history of the Vedic period.
Ans. The Vedas are believed to have been composed by the Aryans. There religious texts are considered to be the

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earliest literary records of India.

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The earlier interprations regarding the early vedic society are based on the theory of Indo-Aryan migration

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from West Asia into India. These migrants, known as the vedic people, are regarded as the authors of the ‘Vedas’.

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The four vedas are :

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(1) Rigveda

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(2) Samveda

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(3) Yajurveda
(4) Atharvaveda
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The Rig Veda is considered to be the earliest text.

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The four vedas are the compilation of prayers and hymns, offered to Gods by various poets and sages and their

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respective families. These texts also represent the oral tradition of the time. These hymns were not written at the time
of composing because these were meant to be recited, learnt and transmitted orally. And that is why the exact date of

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their composition is not certain. But relative dating have led scholars to believe that Rigveda was composed somewhere

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between 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C.

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Rigveda comprises of 10 Books or Mandalas. The language of Rigveda is similar to that of Avesta and Iranian
text.
Archaeological evidence from the Vedic period depicts that the Vedic society indulged in a pastoral form of
occupation where cattle rearing was the major means of subsistence. From the array of cattle ‘cow’ was revered the
most, this we understand from the many references to the cow in the ‘Rigveda’ depict the socio-religious terms
which were derived from the word ‘Gau’ i.e. Cow for e.g. Kinship units were called– ‘gotra’. Godhuli referred to a
measure of time. It is understood that agriculture was not as dominant as cattle rearing, which could be because of
unfavourable climatic conditions, or not so highly due loped implements. Hence, the people in the Vedic period
performed shifting cultivation, this in turn suggests that the people were either nomadic or semi-nomadic. Consequently,

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the economy was simple with no concept of private property, but gifts were an important part of tributes and
presentations during ceremonies. Economy had not developed to a stage of trade and commerce.
The people of Vedic period more deeply religious by nature and their religions was simple prayers and hymns
which were recited and passed on to generations orally. They served the natural forces like the wind, ravi, thunder,
they did perhaps because their livelihood depicted on these natural factors and they had not control over them. The
Gods in the vedic period more dominantly role for e.g. Jadra was the God of strength.
Agni, the God of fire, sacrificed everything hence it was an important part of weddings and Yajnas. Varuna
personified water and hence was a symbol of sustenance of life. Yamuna was the God of death. We see these gods are
followed and reviewed till date. The Vedic religion was simple in the sense that since the people were dependent on
Nature they would offer sacrifices to the specific God and ask to be granted material gains. For the purpose of
sacrificing they used older animals which were of no use to them any more. In this way they eliminated the extra

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burden. Thus, the Vedic religion was a Patriarchal pastoral society.

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The first striking feature of the Early Vedic Society is that it was not based on the caste system, in fact the king,

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priests, artisans, etc. all formed an integral part of a clan network. The tribes had common interests and common
threats and they stood united to sort out any obstacle. The king of the tribe over looked the walking of the tribe and
this post was not hereditey but based on selection among the clansmen.

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The society was patriarchal and so the birth of a son was considered important and a must hence many prayers

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and sacrifices were offered to the respective Gods in order obtain a son. But alongside we see that women were

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equally important–they were educated, they had access to assemblies, also there are mentions of women reciting and

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writing religious hymns.

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The Early Vedic Society was economically stratified as we do find references to such people possessing

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extravagant items like chariots and numerous cattle etc. But the people were self-sufficient because there is no

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mention of beggers or wage earners. All occupational groups complemented one another and accommodated a kind

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of market. For weavers, smiths, carpenters, leatherworkers, priests, chariot makers. However, the chariot makers

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enjoyed a special social status.

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The writers of Rigveda describe a group who were different from them, who they addressed as Dasas and

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Dasyus. They were dark, full lipped and snub nosed with a hostile speech. Also they were rich in cattle. Another

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group mentioned as the ‘Panis’ was also rich in cattle. The Dasas and Panis fought and befriended each other time

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and again. The presence of different groups in the same area indicates that the society was heading towards the

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‘Verna system’.

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The Early Vedic Society was a tribal society. The society was not divided along caste lines and even the Rajas,

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the Purohitas, the artisans were parts of the clan networks. Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent and were mostly
related to cattle raids and cattle thefts. The chief of the tribe was the raja or gopati. He was leader in the battle and
protector of tribe. His office was not based on heredity and he was selected from the clansmen. Many clans formed
a tribe. The clans settled in villages or grama. The basic social unit was the Kula, or the family and the Kulapa i.e.
one who protects the family denoted the eldest male member or the head of the family. Society was patriarchal but
women had also important position in it. They were educated and had access to assemblies. They had rights to
choose their partners and could marry late. Education was imparted orally but the tradition of education was not well
developed. Various occupational groups such as those of weavers, smiths, priests etc. are also mentioned in society.
However, there is no reference of beggars and wage earners. The society was economically stratified.

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Later Vedic period was neither purely agrarian, nor was it well advanced in iron technology. The rich iron ore
mines of Bihar were not exploited and the smelting Iron technology was primitive. However, the evidences suggest
a change from pastoral society to a sedentary agrarian society. The socketed iron axes were widely in practice and
were used in clearing the forests and the Gangetic Doab for cultivation purpose. Iron tipped plough shares and hoes
increased the efficiency of the agricultural implements boosting agricultural activities.
Thus it is believed that the knowledge of iron technology was an important factor for the development of
agrarian economy.
The Later Vedic society was not as simple as the Early Vedic society, now the society was not equal it had the
Kshatriyas and Brahmans at top of the hierarchy and then came the Vaisyas and last were the Sudras. This is clearly
narrated in an hymn where the society was divided on basis of parts of the human body. i.e.
the Brahman was the mouth,
Kshatriya was personified by arms,
Vaisya became the thighs,

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Sudra was born of the feet.

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The Brahmans were placed highest because they were the only ones to recite hymns, perform rituals and

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ceremonies in other words they could communicate with the Gods on behalf of the society.

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But the ‘Varna system’ was not rigid by nature and so it did not stop a non-Kshatriya from working towards and

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claiming a Kshatriya status nor Brahmanas from claiming a political stand.

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Marriages took place between couples belonging to different ‘Gotra’ i.e. descent. The families were patriarchal

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and thus the ‘Grihapati’ had a special status as it was he who ordered the sacrifices, decided the finances etc. Women

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are mentioned at rituals and ceremonies by they were not involved in any major decision making or performing of

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rituals.
It is in the Later Vedic society that a man’s life and the path he should choose were laid out for him. A man’s life
was divided into four stages :
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(i) Brahmachari – student.

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(ii) Grihast – householder.

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(iii) Vanaprasthi – partial retirement from household.

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(iv) Sannyasi – Complete retirement from household.

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Now a more organised social structure began to emerge which capsulated politics, economics, religion, family
etc.
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Q. 2. Examine the changes in economy and society of the Guptas.

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Ans. The main source of income of the state of Guptas was land revenue. One sixth of the production was

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declared as the royal revenue 'uparikara' (octroi). It was a type of tax levied on cloth oil etc. when transported from
one city to another. Shulka (commercial tax) was taken from the traders organisation failing to which resulted in the
cancellation of the right to trade and a five of maximum eight times of the original 'Sulka' was laid.
The King's income from royal lands and forests went into his personal treasure, he enjoyed the right to treasure
coin hoards, jewels and other valuable objects. he also enjoyed right to forced labour (visthi).
Several officers like Pustapala and Gopasramini were appointed to carry out the revenue administation. Pustapala
was the record keeper who made enquiries before recording any transaction where as gopasramini entered several
crisis in the accounts register, besides recovered royal dues. He also recovered fines for loss due to neglect or fraud
and checked embezzlements.

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The main source of revenue of the state during Gupta period came from agricultural production, other occupations
in people were indulged for income were commerce, craft production etc.
Some of the major development in the field of agriculture and trade, the two aspects of economy of Gupta
period are following.
Agriculture : Agriculture attracted the prime attention during Gupta period. Uncultivated land was constantly
brought under cultivation. Land was clarified according to its soil fertility and utility. All the major categories of
crops like barley, wheat, paddy, various pulses, gram, vegetables, even cash crops like cotton and sugarcane were
also grown.
Several of the reservoirs previously made were repaired during Gupta period. Several new methods of irrigation
were deployed, like drawing water from the wells and supplying it to the fields by means of various channels.
Another method was to lie a chain with number of pots which was reached down to the water of the hill. The chain
and pots were continuously rotated. So that pots were filled and emptied with water. Although farmers dependent
mainly on rainfall for irrigation still there were several methods to fulfil the need.

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The practice of gifting land to religious classes became common. This lead to the emergence of a chain of

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people who enjoyed high economic and social status. Peasant population was reduced to a low level.

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Trade and Crafts Production : The production of various items like earthen pots, furniture, baskets, metal

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tools, etc. came under the category of crafts production.

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Some of the luxury items like jewellery of gold, silver and precious stones, ivory objects, silk and cotton cloth

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etc. used to be either made available through trade or were produced locally. The trade linked with Central, West and

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Sout-east Asia. Some organisations like ‘Shreni' etc. were there to facilitate the functioning of both craftsmen and

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traders.

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As far as the social system of the Gupta period is concerned, the ideal social order society divided in four
varmas was preserved during Gupta period. The Brahmans had substantial influence on the Gupta rulers.

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There were major differences between the ways of life of the rich city dwellers and people living in villages.

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The city dwellers were the urbanities who led a life of pleasure and refined culture.

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The position of women was low. The Brahman scripts laid rulers for the women to follow and in the family

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they were expected to function as ideal wife and ideal mother.

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There was a considerable concern towards agricultural production during Gupta period. This was reputed from

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the way irrigation received attention during the period. There were several methods adopted for irrigation. These
were :
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(1) Reservoir : The Sudersana reservoirs of Saurashtra was completely repaired after it was badly damaged

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during Mahakshatrapa. Skandgupta got it repaired.

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(2) Wells : This was another means of irrigation. In this water was drawn from the wells and supplied
means to the fields through carefully prepared channels.
Chain of pot Method : This was a mechanism prevalent even before Gupta period. In this method a number of
pots tried to a chain; the chain with the pots reached down to the water of the hull and by making the chain and the
pots rotate it was ensured that the pots would continuously fill with water and empty it. This method was also known
as Araghatta or Gati Yantra.
In regions like Bengal, rain-water was being collected in ponds and other kinds of reservoir. In South India,
tank irrigation was the method implied. Thus, Gupta empire saw prevalence of various methods of irrigation and the
role of the state was to provide such irrigation facilities to the cultivators.

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Crafts production encompassed a vast variety of items such as earthen pots, furniture, metal tools, baskets etc.
Description of luxury objects are found in the literary texts or inscriptions of the period for an inscription of fifth
century from Mandasor in western Malwa mentions to a guild of silk weavers, migrated from South Gujarat to
Malwa. Mention of several craftsmen and manufactures can be found in the texts like Amarkosha and Brihat
Samhita.
Besides several archaeological sites like Taxila, Ahichchatra, Mathura, Rajghat, Kausambi, Pataliputra etc.
have yielded several craft products like beads, terrecottas, earthen wares etc.
The Varna system, a system of society conceived by the Brahmans, continued in society during Gupta period.
Although several foreign ruling families got assimilated in this system. The new society absorbed every social group
then the social structure kept changing.
The Brahmanas, as usual enjoyed the highest status. They used to get royal patronage which contributed
towards their economic prosperity and prestige in the society.

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The untouchables, a part under group was considered impure and thus the condition of a number of social

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groups continued to get more and more detoriated.

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The position of women too faced a considerable decline during this period. Many Brahmans texts, laid down

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rules for the women to follow.

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Section 2: Answer each question in about 250 words.

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Q. 3. Discuss the Megalithic culture of India.
Ans. The neolithic phase of south India, which was highlighted by the use of polished stone axe and blade tools,

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was succeeded by the Megalithic cultures (1200 BC-300 BC). Megaliths were tomb spots consisting of burials or

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graves covered with huge (mega) stones. They were, in most cases, located outside the settlement area. These

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Megalith burials have yielded the first iron objects from south India. Besides these the use of black and red ware

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pottery was also a distinctive feature of the Megalithic people. These Megaliths have been found in large numbers

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from the Nagpur area in Maharashtra in north to the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula. Prominent sites that have

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yielded Megalith graves include Brahmagiri, Maski, (Karnataka). Adichallanur (Tamil Nadu) and Junapani near

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Nagpur (Maharashtra).

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Identical iron tools have been found universally from all the Megalith graves. These tools which indicate their

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craft activities and include arrowheads, daggers, swords, spearheads, tridents, battle axe, hoes, ploughshares, sickles

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etc. These artifacts, alongwith the foodgrains such as wheat, rice etc., found at various megalithic sites indicate that

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the megalithic people followed for their livelihood agro-pastoral and hunting activities. The megalithic period in
south India was followed by the Sangam Age.

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The Mesolithic age begins from 800 B.C. is associated with changes in climatic conditions. There was further

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technological development reflected in the production of microliths and small stone tools. The mesolithic tools are

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mainly the blade, core, point, triangle and lunatic. These tools signified a transition in hunting pattern that is from
big game to small game hunting, besides to fishing and fowling.
The transition of this sort can also be noticed is the rock paintings.
Mesolithic people indulged themselves in hunting, fishing as well as in collecting wild roots, tubers, fruits,
honey etc.
The social life and economic activities of the Mesolithic can be comprehended considerably from the paintings
and engravings found at Mesolithic sites, indicating towards the activities like hunting, food gathering, fishing,
sexual union, child-birth, bringing up the child and burial ceremony. They also indicate that the social structure was
more stable during Mesolithic period than that of paleolithic age.

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The glimpse economic, social and cultural life of the Mesolithic people can be had from the pre-historic
paintings.
The Mesolithic tools are basically microliths or small stone tools signifying a shift in hunting pattern from big
game to small game hunting and to fishing and fowling. These material changes are also reflected in rock paintings.
The diet of the Mesolithic people included both vegetarian and non vegetarian food. They not only indulged themselves
in hunting, fishing but also collected wild roots, tubers, fruits, honey etc.
The paintings and engravings found at Mesolithic sites give considerable idea of their social life and economic
activities. These indicate activities like hunting, food gathering, fishing, sexual union, child birth, rearing of child
and burial ceremony, depicting that during the Mesolithic period the social organisation had stablized more than that
of in Paleolithic times. Thus Pre-historic paintings give us a Glance of the economic, social and cultural life of the
people of those times.
Q. 4. Discuss the main features of urbanization in the 6th century B.C.?
Ans. Cities in ancient Indian literature have been referred to as ‘Pura, Durga’ ‘Nagar’ etc.

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The cities in the Vedic literature are defined as fortified settelements or temporary places of refuge. Later on

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these are referred as the residence of the king and his family. Cities were laid out on a chess board pattern. Streets

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were marked for diffirent craftsmen. The cities had defensive walls around them. Cities comprised of wider streets,

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high palaces, crowded markets, fruit gardens, ponds etc. Cities were constructed along the banks of the rivers or

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highways.

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Market in the cities had various commodities on sale like utenisls, tools, cloth, horses from Sindh and Kambojia,

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bangles, ornaments of gold and silver etc.

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Thus, we can say that city was the place where the rich and powerful lived and also a section of poor people.

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The contemporary literature talks about cities in terms of Pura, Durga, Nigama, Nagara, etc.
(a) The term Pura was used to denote fortified settlements or temporary places of refuge or cattle pens.

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Later on it is often used for the residence of king and his retinue or for the families of ruling groups in

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the Gana Samghas. Gradually it came to mean a city.

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(b) Durga was the term used to denote the fortified capital of a king.

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(c) Nigama was frequently used in Pali literature to denote a town, probably a merchant town.

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(d) Nagara is the most commonly used word for a town or city in literature. These centres combined the

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political function of a Pura and commercial functions of a Nigama.

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As per archaeological findings by about 700 B.C in places like Ayodhya, Kausambi and Sravasti small settlements

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came into existence. The people in these settlements were using various kinds of potteries specially the. Painted

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Grey Ware. By about 600 B.C along with PGW people in the entire zone started using a particular kind of pottery

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having glossy surface called the Northern Black Polished Ware. This deluxe pottery is one of the indicators of the
broad cultural uniformity in the Gangetic Valley towns of 6th century. Coins came into use in this period for the first
time in India. The coins are made of silver and copper. The introduction of coinage promoted organised commerce.
The larger settlements in this period show the use of baked bricks for housing. Soak pits made from super imposed
jars for disposal of dirty water has also been reported. However, the excavated material indicates that many details
regarding cities is are either highly exaggerated or they belong to a later stage.
Q. 5. Write a detailed note on Shungas and Kushanas.
Ans. The Sungas are thought to belong to a Brahmanas who originally worked as officials for the Mauryan
Kings. They were based in the region of Ujjain in Western India. It was Pushyamitra who is believed to set up the

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Sunga dynasty – he started off by assassinating the last of the Maurya Kings Brihadratha is 180 B.C. Pusyamitra is
depicted performing Ashwamedha which tells us that he had ‘royal glory’ and was a keen supporter of Brahmanism.
According to ‘Buddhist’ texts Pushymitra was against Buddhism and persecuted the monks and destroyed
monasteries and other places of worship.
In the Puranas, Pushyamitra’s reign seems to have lasted 36 years after which his son ‘Agnimitra’ succeeds
him, thereafter not much reference is made to the ‘sunga’ dynasty and the original ‘Sungas’ renamed confined to
Maghadha and Central Indian territories. The last of the Sungas kings was Devabhuti who was 4th in succession, he
felt victim to the manipulations of his minister ‘Vasudeva’ and finally the ‘Surga’ dynasty came to an end in 75 B.C.
The most significant ruler of Surga dynasty was Muladeva following him the downfall began.
The Sungas, who belonged to the family of Brahmanas, hailed basically from Ujjain to the west region of India.
Sungas served under Mauryas as officials.
Pushyamitra Sunga was the founder of Sunga dynasty, who became King after having murdered the last Mauryan
emperor. Brihadratha in 100 B.C. He ruled for about 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra.

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Muladeva was perhaps the most significant of the Sunga ruler who also happened to be the last of able rulers of

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this dynasty. Following him the downfall of the dynasty began that was around 75 B.C. The last Sunga King was

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Devabhuti.

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The Sungas are believed to have spread till Magadha and Central Indian territories.

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The Kushanas invaded India around 1st century BC. Of all the foreign invaders the influence of the Kushanas
was widely felt in India. That is why the Kushanas are said to be the most important of all the foreigners who invaded

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India. The Kushanas were a branch of the Yue-chi tribe. Kanishka, the greatest of the Kushanas introduced the Saka

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era or Sakctbda in 78 AD. It was called so because the era was originally introduced by the Sakas. Kanishka only

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reintroduced it. The most important king of the Kushanas was Kanishka. Kanishka, indeed, surpassed all the foreigners
who came to India and established kingdom. Kanishka’s achievements lay in his conquest, economic advancement,

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and patronage to art, literature and religion. As a conqueror, he extended the boundary of the Kushana kingdom. By

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way of new conquest, he conquered Oudh and Pataliputra. His empire spread from the river Oxus in the north to the

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Ganges in the South and Khorasan in the west to Varanasi in the east. Purushpura was his capital. Under Kanishka,
trade relation was established between India and different countries of Central Asia.
Q. 6. Discuss Ashoka’s Dhamma.
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Ans. Dhamma was not any particular religious faith or practice, it is the norms of social behaviour and activities.

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The Mauryan period witnessed change in the economic structure of the society. Caste system based on four-
fold Varna division was very rigid at that time. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class sharpened the division within

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the society. At this situation Asoka took the reins of Mauryan thorne.
Buddhism began as a schismatic movement from the more orthodox outlook of Brahmanism. Its basic idea was

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to take a “middle path”. It was the set of ethical principals. As it opposed dominance of Brahamanas and the concept
of sacrifice and rituals it appealed to lower class and the emerging social classes.
Asoka attempted a very careful synthesis of various norms which were current in his times as dominism of
Brahmanism and rigid caste separation. This gives rise to demand for a more flexible social organisation, which is
enshrined in Dhamma. Dhamma was an attempt to solve the problems that the complex society faced.
Asoka's private beliefs and his own perceptions to solve the problems of his empire were responsible for the
formulation of the policy of Dhamma.
Dhamma was not given any formal definition or structure. It emphasised on toleration and general behaviour.

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It also laid stress on non-violence and certain welfare measures. We can understand the development of the policy of
Dhamma chronologically by the Edicts:
Major Rock Edict I : declares prohibition of animal sacrifice and holiday of festive gatherings.
Major Rock Edict II : Relates to certain measures of sociely welfare like medical treatment of men and
animals, construction of roads, tree planting etc.
Major Rock Edict III : Says that liberality towards Brahamanas is a virtue, respect to mother and father etc.
are all good qualities.
Major Rock Edict IV : Says that due to Dhamma the lack of morality and disrespect towards Brahamanas,
violence and evils to friends and relatives have been checked. Killing of animals also stopped to a large extent.
Major Rock Edict V : Dhamma–Mahamattas were appointed to look after these things and to spread the
message of Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict VI : Dhama Mahattas were told that they could bring their reports to the king at any time.

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This Elect deals with speedy administration and transaction of smooth business.

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Major Rock Edict VII : is a plea for toleration amongst all the sects. This plea is to maintain unity.

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Major Rock Edict VIII : States that Dharmayatras would be undertaken by the emperor.

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Major Rock Edict IX : Attacks ceremonics performed after birth. illness and marriages. Asoka instead lays

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stress on practice of Dhamma.

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Major Rock Edict X : Denonces fame and glory and resserts the merits of Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict XI : Expasise on respect to elders, abstraining from killing animals and liberality towards
friends.
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Major Rock Edict XII : Says about toleration among sects, and his plea for harmony.

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Major Rock Edict V : This is very important in understanding the Asoka’s policy of Dhamma. This is Ashoka

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testeement against war. It depicts the tragedy of war and shows why he turned against it. Asoka embarked on the

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policy of Dhamma after this war.

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Section 3: Answer in about 100 words each.

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Q. 7. Write short notes on any two of the following:
(iii) Mauryan art
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Ans. The Mauryan art were related to work process of daily life and were not much exclusively produced for a

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privileged group of society. They are found in the form of rock paintings, terracotta, figurines, toys etc. Gradually art

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work, manufactured by specialist craftsmen, came to be produced for exclusive purposes.
There was also, a shift toward using non-perishable material i.e. stone as a medium of creative expression.

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There imerged various schools of arts. Such as Gandhara and Mathura art forms along with those of Sarnath and
Amaravati. Most of the art forms were inspired by Buddhism and Jainism and a few Brahmanical monuments are
found.
(iv) Tamil language T
Ans. As trade flourished in southern India it opened avenues for other activities as well. We see references to the
arrival of immigrates and with that there was an interaction of languages and culture which gave a big boost to
language and literature. The initial literary sources of Tamil words used along with the local adaptations of Sanskrit
and Pali/Prakrit terms. These sources give us a glimpse of professions, places and people of this period. There also
a collection of Tamil heroic poems which is called the ‘Sangam literature’.
The ‘Sangam Literature’ provides major evidence of the old Tamil literary tradition. These poems were called
Sangam literature because they were collected and classified by an academy of scholars called ‘Sangams’. According
to sources there were three Sangams out of them only the works of the last one survived from which were gather our
information. The poems were generally a product of the folk, they were composed by bards or by scholarly poets
who followed the bardic tradition these poems sang praisis of their chiefs. These poems give us a peep into the
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common way of life, their stock phrases or expressions used by the people of those times. Since the Sangam spans
over a few centuries it follows and reflects the development of the Tamil language and literature.