Effect of seat Ergonomics in comfort

level at office and different modes of

Transport
Aditya Maithani a, Prakhar Chauhan a, J Sathish a, Avinash Sharma a and
Darius Gnanaraj Solomon b

a
UG Student, School of mechanical engineering, VIT university, Vellore, India
b
Department of Design and Automation, SMEC, VIT university, Vellore, India

Abstract:

Ergonomics is engineering concerned with designing and arranging things people use so
that the people and things interact most efficiently and safely. Poor workplace posture is a
major explanation for back pain, workplace stress and may cause repetitive strain injuries. This
can result in poor employee health and low morale which can ultimately cause reduced
productivity, lost time and higher business costs. During the last decade human factors are
drawing more attention within the design, engineering, production, and maintenance of latest
industrial products. Ergonomic quality is becoming a critical criterion for the success of the
many products. One of the main concerns of automobile manufacturers is the optimization of
car comfort. For this reason, the mixing of clients' perceptions within the manufacturing
process is an important aspect of product development. This paper aims to review the
perception of young drivers over the weather of discomfort that occur while driving a vehicle.
Airplane interiors are made keeping in mind the various aspects that impact ergonomic
features, some of which can lead to sickness, compartment pressurization and oxygen,
movement and vibration. The study deals with the seat dimensions in airplanes and how the
ergonomic features rely on seat dimensions to function appropriately. The review investigates
the ergonomic assessment of front seats with anthropometric proportions of travellers and
furthermore looks at the seat aspects to required standards of safety. In conclusion it shows
that anthropometric measures and standard vehicle seat aspects are not considered during seat
planning, which leads to serious repercussions relating to the safety and comfort of the
travellers.
1. Introduction:

During the previous couple of years interest has developed in applying ergonomics to the event
of complex products. Comfort is one of the requirements of manufacturers dealing with
repetitive movements and involvement of humans, who must take into account both aspects of
physical phenomena occurring in the occupants' environment, and perceptions of such persons.
Therefore, comfort study involves a multidisciplinary approach, in terms of a minimum of
three scientific fields, such as: architecture, engineering sciences and social and human
sciences. Regardless of the sector, discipline or branch of science that conducts the research,
vehicles must be functional. Therefore, designers must include as many of the concept cars
users’ requirements and find the simplest ways to use them. In this paper we study 4 case
studies of applying ergonomics of posture and comfort for development of different kinds of
products or creating optimum environments for humans.

In this respect, one of the studies has been focused on vehicle architecture or efficient
functioning of its components. Nowadays, all manufacturers and suppliers already recognize
ergonomics as a crucial aspect of auto design. Therefore, attention has been given to make sure
that the driver and passengers can reach all the controls, see and understand dashboard
displays, feel comfortable in seats, and like the aesthetics of the car. Study has been done to
ensure the comfort of the driving force and passengers taking under consideration the issues
related with reach ability, visibility, accessibility, and a premium as well as comfortable
driving experience for the long drive passengers by considering the posture and regulating the
blood flow in the perianal region of the body. Study has also been done to inspect the
relationship between the car’s style and some implicit references such as the cultural identity
of a specific country. Analysis has been performed in order to increase lumbar/sacral comfort
level while driving.

Airplanes these days provide a maximum amount of safety but trade-offs have to be made with
comfort and ergonomic and aesthetics. The study focuses on the very specific problem of seat
extension and its effect both on the airplane’s interior ergonomic safety and planning as well
as individual seat comfort. Another review handles the subject of pressure points on seats and
the materials required for fabricating and even better stress relieving properties. Hypothesis
led to utilization of less foam for uniform pressure distribution with uniform foam thickness
and stiffness for optimum pressure distribution.

Time spent by an average office worker is 71–80% of the total time to add a sedentary seated
position equating to over 6 h per day. In the working environment, stationary sitting is
exacerbated by outside of work hours. Prolonged sitting has been linked to increased rates in
reported musculoskeletal discomfort/pain, especially lower back pain (LBP), a debilitating
condition that will affect approximately 80% of the people at some point during their lives.
Musculoskeletal pain/injury isn't the sole negative side effect associated with sedentary sitting,
it's also been linked to cardiovascular problems, reduction (even occlusion) of blood flow and
reduction in concentration/productivity leading to increased rates of workplace absenteeism.
As a means to reduce time spent in a static seated position, several strategies promoting body
movement (while maintaining workplace productivity) have been proposed in the study shown
below.

Local transport facilities in the South Western Nigeria and Ghana and their seat ergonomics
have been a subject of interest in these studies where the manufacturers have been involved in
designing and redesigning of seat and dimensions without taking in the consideration of
anthropometric data. The design of the seats is analysed and compared to the safety and
comfort guidelines of international standards. Anthropometric parameters and seat fit
parameters are provided which can optimize the seat design as per the safety and comfort
standard. Another study that inspects a European university transport facility and how driving
behaviour and phases of steering, braking and acceleration affects the ergonomics of transport
seats and features. GPS and accelerometers are used to identify unique torques and forces
where comfort linked to seats are compromised. Data collection and analysis reveals the
threshold acceleration beyond which safety and comfort takes a hit.

2. CASE STUDY:

2.1 Airplane:

According to Porta et al1 the change in the proportions of human anthropometry with time
should be taken into account while designing the seats in the economy class of the airplane.
The main aim of this research is to highlight the incompatibility in the seating space for
passengers by taking a group of Spanish adults. Initially for this research a group of 201
females (average age:29.7 years) and 346 males (average age: 28.9 years). The exclusion
criteria for this were BMI (body mass index) greater than or equal to 30 or the presence of
physical deformations. The three main criteria in the design of any airplane seat are Seat pitch
(SP) (i.e., distance between two consecutive rows of seats), Leg room (LR) (distance where
passengers can place the buttock knee length) and Seat width (SW) (i.e., distance between
armrests of a seat). In the case of a test subjects thirteen measurements were taken namely
Stature, seated height, seated sagittal abdominal diameter, body mass, buttock-popliteal length,
buttock-foot length, buttock -knee length with knee extended, gluteal and bideltoid diameter,
popliteal height with 90-degree knee flexion, tibia length, arm span and umbilical height.
Ergonomics data was collected according to the 50th, 95th and 99th percentile. It was observed
that males had higher values compared to females on all parameters except seated gluteal
diameter. Results of the study showed that both males and females desired an increase in the
SW and LR of a seat in the economy class. A minimum of 68.1 – 70.1 cm was required in the
LR space. This was lower than the AN64 revision seat design put forth by the Civil aviation
Authority (CAA). The research experiment study also mentioned that in case of SP a dimension
of 83.8 cm is considered as comfortable. Kremser et al. also analysed the difference in comfort
level with varying SP and LR dimensions. The results of the study showed that 81.2- 101.6 cm
for LR and 86.3 to 106.6 cm for SP was considered as comfortable. The research by Porta. Et
al also showed that for P95 and P99 percentile the regular SW of 43.1 and 45.7 cm was
considered inadequate. This discomfort among passengers exposed them to the risk of
developing pulmonary embolism as well as gastrointestinal problems and deep vein
thrombosis during flights in economy class for both long and short duration. Thus, the
conclusion of the study showed that in an economy class the minimum LR required is between
68.1 to 70.1 cm and the minimum SW required is between 50.2 to 52.3 cm. In addition to it
the research also laid focus that space for the movement of body parts during flights was
important to reduce the risk of developing deep vein thrombosis. Lastly the paper also laid
stress on the formation of an international law to regulate the minimum SP, LR and SW for
commercial long or short duration flights.

In this paper by Anjani et al2 the author conducted an experiment on three hundred and eleven
participants, in order to check the effects of comfort and discomfort on 17- inch-wide and 18-
inch-wide seats in a Boeing 737 airplane. The various psychological and physical factors that
have an influence over these feelings were also discussed. The experiment was conducted for
10 minutes after which a questionnaire was prepared to answer. The control group comprised
78 males and 118 females with the average age of group as 18.33 years. Initially the control
group was divided into two parts. Then half of the members were made to sit on 17-inch-wide
seats while the other half on the 18-inch-wide seat. After 10 min the seats were interchanged
between the two groups. This entire session lasted for thirty minutes. After every 10-minute
seating the participants were made to answer three questionnaires. First on psychological
comfort, second a CP-50 scale on discomfort and thirdly a Local perceived Discomfort (LPD)
body map. Besides this a “Not applicable” option was also provided to see if the question is
according to the condition. Once the answers were recorded the validity of answers was
checked first. Incomplete datasets were removed for analysis whereas complete datasets were
recorded. Since the participants were mainly Dutch therefore the anthropometric
measurements were compared to that of Dutch population. Since it was observed that the
feeling of comfort and discomfort did not follow a normal distribution with population
therefore Shapiro Welk test, a statistical tool used for measuring data that doesn’t follow
normal distribution, was used. Observations showed that the group with wider hips had more
comfort in the 18-inch-wide seat as compared to the 17-inch-wide seat. The CP-50
questionnaire showed that the average score of discomfort in an 18-inch-wide seat was
“medium category” as compared to 17-inch-wide seats which had a lower score. Nearly 14.9%
participants marked “not applicable” to the question. “The seat was wide enough for my body
to fit” for the other questions the rate was 0.5 to 3.9%. In the LPD questionnaire the participants
highlighted that buttock discomfort was not related to seat width, highlighting the fact that it
could be mainly due to the quality of the seat cushion. Further analysis with the help of linear
models proved that various parts like knees, lower legs, feet and shoulder had less discomfort
in an 18-inch-wide seat due to high freedom of movement. It was noticed that the comfort level
after sitting on an 18-inch-wide seat was the same as that on a 17-inch-wide seat with an extra
pitch of 4 inches. Hence increasing the seat width of a 17-inch-wide seat would be more
economical and efficient as compared to the increase in pitch concerned with the usage of floor
area.

Wang et al3 through his research tried to increase the seat comfort as well as decrease the seat
weight. He performed his analysis on an optimally pre-shaped foam support which could
enhance the seat comfort while reducing the weight of the seat simultaneously. In this
experiment 19 participants (6 short females, 6 average height males and 7 tall males) were
selected. Their various anthropometric measurements were taken and recorded. Three types of
seat configuration were taken, two new (Cushion N_soft and Cushion N_hard) and one as a
reference. The n_soft was slightly softer and n_hard was slightly harder than the reference one.
The participants were then made to sit on the respective seats for 50 minutes to watch a series.
A questionnaire was prepared for test subjects to answer. Observations showed that
participants on n_hard showed the lowest discomfort. The group (male average height obese)
had lowest discomfort while groups (female short obese and male tall obese) had maximum
discomfort. Significant differences in discomfort were observed for all body parts except the
neck. Buttocks and thigh regions had low discomfort for participants with high BMI. Analysis
of shear and pressure on the seat pan showed that the two seat pans had lower mean pressure,
peak pressure, mean gradient and uniform pressure distribution. When the responses to the
questionnaire were analysed, there were significant differences in all questions except those
connected to seat pan hardness and inclination. Both new seat configurations had shorter
duration of moderate and large chair movement. It was thus concluded that both the new
optimized seat configurations were better than the reference seat. However out of the two new
seat configurations the N_hard was perceived as the better one with lower discomfort.

The following paper by Chiba et al4. was studied to examine the application of an airbag as
an aircraft seat cushion and to get results supporting ideas for further improvements in aircraft
safety by comparing the experimental results of impact tests with simulation results that are
used as an analytical model in a companion article. The procedure followed was that the test
airbag made of nylon with 0.5mm thickness and four holes to equip brackets for a relief wave,
an exhaust orifice, a pressure sensor and a gas inlet was used. The exhaust orifice is covered
by a rubber sheet. The orifice is equipped with the test airbag as a gas exhaust device in which
aluminium foil with 11 micro mm thickness is fitted. When the inner pressure reaches a critical
pressure, it gets ruptured and the inner gas is exhausted. In this case there is a possibility that
inner air might leak from the test airbag. To combat this, an inner seal bag was inserted into
the airbag to protect the leakage. In the impact test, a falling body having mass M = 6.67kg
was dropped from a height of h = 500 mm above to the test airbag that is pre-inflated with
initial inner pressure p. The inner pressure of the airbag, acceleration, displacement of the
falling body was measured. The inner pressure of the test airbag was measured by a pressure
sensor that is set on the bottom of the airbag. The acceleration of the falling body is measured
by an acceleration pick-up fixed on the falling body. In addition, the displacement of the falling
body was measured by a laser displacement sensor fixed on the ground. During the experiment,
the shock energy gets absorbed by others rather than the test airbag. The drop tests were then
conducted for three cases: (a) with both the Paper honeycomb and the mat, (b) without the
Paper honeycomb but with the mat and (c) without the Paper honeycomb nor the mat.
Influences of the exhaust diameter di[mm] and the rupture pressure pmax[kPa] were examined
without the Paper honeycomb and the mat. 1. The exhaust diameter di was then varied when
the rupture pressure, pmax becomes equal to 27kPa 2. The rupture pressure pmax was then
again varied when the exhaust diameter ratio di was 0.8. Influence due to the Paper honeycomb
and floor mat were then studied. The analysis of the results showed that under the three
conditions described earlier, experimental results for the inner pressure p, the acceleration a
and the displacement (Wv) of the falling body were di = 0.8 and p0 = 40 kPa. Under each
condition experiments were conducted three times. The rupture pressure pmax took the
maximum in case (c) as among the three cases. This was because the energy of the falling body
was transferred to the test airbag and not absorbed by the Paper honeycomb or mat.
Rebounding of the falling body was observed in case (c), after crash, this was not observed in
cases (a) and (b). The Paper honeycomb and the floor mat that absorbed the energy of the
falling body, were removed in the experiment hereafter. By increasing the exhaust diameter di,
the rate of decrease of the inner pressure after rupture increases as the exhausted volume per
unit time was also seen to increase.

2.2 Automobile:

In this study Constantin5 et al. tries to gain the perception of comfort and discomfort
experienced by people while driving a car. The author tries to highlight the main elements in
an automobile which causes comfort and discomfort alike. In the final result of this study a
hierarchy was developed which highlighted the various factors of comfort in different age
groups and genders. The author performs his study on 40 participants. These participants were
divided into drivers and participants. The participants were asked to write which elements they
felt led to discomfort in the car. The analysis of the results showed the hierarchy of factors
affecting discomfort with the seat and space in the car having maximum influence on
discomfort (i.e., 11.72% and 10.50 %). Multiple correspondence analysis methods were used
to analyse the various trends in the results that were obtained. After applying the analysis
method two major dimensions or factors (dimension 1 and dimension 2) were obtained which
could explain the relationship between various elements of discomfort. Dimension 1 included
the discomfort which is caused due to the malfunction of parts related to car safety. Brakes,
windscreen wiper, spare wheel, first aid kit, headlights etc. This dimension was related more
towards the psychological comfort, confidence and safety features of the automobile.
Dimension 2 included the discomfort caused due to physical features like size of the trunk,
space in the car, climate and steering wheel position. The perception of discomfort between
drivers and passengers was significantly different in the case of size and visibility. This
discomfort was much higher in drivers as compared to passengers. Passengers did not indicate
any connection with parameters of discomfort in dimension. The results in the study converge
with the results of discomfort as it was found in airplanes. The main factor of discomfort as
shown by Berthelot and Bastien was uncomfortable seats in case of long flights and
temperature (thermal comfort) in case of short flights. Similarly in automotive study, air
conditioning played an important role in the perception of comfort being ranked number 3 in
the hierarchy. It was shown that thermal comfort was ranked at fifth position by women and at
second place by men. Further results showed that older people and children did not have
significant differences in terms of discomfort related to small, medium or minivans.

Bluntzer6 et al. tries to analyse the relationship between the car’s style and some implicit
references such as the cultural identity of a specific country. The analysis is carried out on the
basis of characteristic styling lines of the cars. French cars (Citroen, Peugeot, and Renault) as
well as German cars (Volkswagen) are selected and analysed. It is thus found that a French
style is implicitly embedded in a French car’s design. The proposed approach uses two
paradigms: firstly, the quantitative–qualitative research method secondly, the computational
research method. On the basis of these paradigms, the analysis is performed on the basis of
two important hypotheses. The first hypothesis, called the primitives hypothesis, stipulates that
car of different brands, with their specific style, can be used in order to identify and extract
characteristic styling primitives, these are important for identity and discrimination, at the
macroscopic level and microscopic level. The second hypothesis, known as the generation
hypothesis, indicates that a car’s style is defined as a structured system, with its style generation
being motivated by its own internal mechanism. The use of paradigms through computational
research is based on this hypothesis. The car models to be studied were chosen based on five
hypotheses: the continuity, range, country, period and reference hypothesis. After analysing
the seven characteristic lines of French and German cars and comparing them the following
results were obtained. Upper lateral profile: German characteristic line, the stalls between the
upper grille (vertical), the profile (slope) and the trunk (also vertical). In comparison, the
French design is much more fluid symbolizing a ‘dolphin profile’. Lower lateral profile: There
is a more symmetry present in German characteristic lines than with French characteristic lines,
the curvature of which is more flared at the rear Door profile: difference between the ‘French
style’ and the ‘German style’ is not very important. Roof profile: This characteristic line is not
different from one brand to another. Upper grille profile and lower grille profile: It can be noted
that the French upper grille profile is clearly different from the corresponding German profile.
The French line is marked by a line strongly curved with a high radius while the German line
is usually broken at the upper grille, while right or left lateral profile: the difference is obvious
between these lines. Overall, the French design tends to have elongated forms, with a high
Curvature radius on the fender and going rightward. Thus, the suggested approach indicated
that aesthetic judgements, which are related to the country’s identity of the car, rely on the
car’s important (primitive) characteristic lines, which in order to make this determination are
considered foundational and necessary. Cars of the respective countries showed style and
design in order to cater to the emotional and aesthetic perception in relation to the cultural
identity of the country. Through the comparison, the authors (Jean-Bernard Bluntzer, Egon
Ostrosi and Jean-Claude Sagot) showed that characteristic lines are dedicated to French cars,
such as the upper lateral profile, the lower lateral profile, the upper and lower grille profiles
and the right (or left) lateral profile. The result confirms the hypothesis of the relationship
between the commercial success of French mid - range cars and their aesthetic judgement. The
results of this study proves that the country’s heritage seems to be a key concept in linking the
explicit references or style to the implicit references, i.e., the feeling about the country’s
heritage. Hence, the suggested approach highlights the possibility of extracting the
characteristic lines that evoke a specific identity.

Iftekhar7 et al. through this research tried to provide a premium and comfortable driving
experience for the long drives passengers by considering the posture and regulating the blood
flow in the perianal region (urethra, bladder, prostate and legs) of the body. Also considering
the other factors like the firmness, geometry, breathability and styling for seat comfortability
on long drives. Since automotive industries are paying a lot of attention to establish a good
comforter system in the seats to get rid of the issue related to sitting for a long time, Researchers
through this study have tried to propose a design to eliminate the problem of Back pain for
drivers and passengers travelling in long route vehicles, especially buses and trucks. An
assembly of Pneumatic cylinder and 24 semi-circular designed aluminium buds that moves up
and down along with the comforter foam and sheet for the car/trucks/bus seat to regulate the
flow of blood thus providing comfort to drivers was proposed. Pneumatic cylinders are
controlled by the PLC. With the help of PLC, different patterns of our own desire can be
formed on the seat. In this study a seat comforter was designed with aluminium structure, high
density polyurethane foam (HDPF). Under the seat base, 24 closely fitted pneumatic cylinders
were screwed to an aluminium sheet. Three layers were used to design the seat base. The first
layer is made of elastic silicone sheet, the second layer of HDPF and the third layer consists of
elastic silicon. The top of the pneumatic cylinder comprised semi-circular aluminium buds,
cylinders were connected to the solenoid valves and an air regulator unit which was connected
to the air tank/compressor. Programmable logic controller (PLC), was used to control the
solenoid valves. 100 participants were taken as test subjects for the experiment. A subjective
questionnaire was also prepared for the candidates to answer. Age groups from 20 to 60 years
took part and shared their views after having experience on the comforter with respect to the
pressure of the plunger and pattern of the plunge. After reaching its amplitude point, they return
to a resting position with the help of springs. Amplitude and frequency of cylinders remained
constant till the completion of the process, while the pressure varied accordingly. Pneumatic
pressure sensors were used to calculate pressure distribution on the seat. Sensors installed with
pneumatic cylinders were used to calculate the effective pressure (i.e., the pressure of the
person and air pressure exerted by the compressor) at each point. The weight of the subject
sitting on the seat was 87 kg. At the end an analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique was
applied to statistically evaluate the feedback results. The results from the research showed that
the participants experienced the comfort and blood flow stimulation caused by the pneumatic
cylinder’s pressure with two arrangements of comforting mechanisms, that is, pattern 1 and
pattern 2. Response of participants for different arrangements of pneumatic buds for comfort
and blood flow stimulation was noted. The results showed that a large number of participants
preferred high pneumatic cylinder pressure. It was observed during the survey that among older
participants low pressure was rated excellent. It was also observed that the young participants
within the age group of 20–30 liked high pressure. According to the participants, high pressure
changes their body position and they can’t concentrate on anything sitting on the seat at high
pressure. However, on young people, results showed that low pressure had no specific effect
on the body and it felt as if they were sitting on conventional car seats, but at high pressure,
they felt their muscles relax. Using the ANOVA technique, a Line chart was formed for
Comfort level at low and high pressure with respect to age.

Naddeo8 et al. has tried to develop two physical and virtual models of the lumbar – sacral
support in order to enhance the perceived and lumbar/sacral comfort level while driving. In
order to do this study two prototypes of lumbar support were taken. The first one was integrated
into a seat while the second was shaped as a removable pillow. Fifty participants (17 females
and 33 males) were taken as test subjects for this study. Lab tests were performed on a seating-
buck by the comparison of three configurations namely a standard seat, seat with removable
support and seat with integrated support. Questionnaire for both subjective and objective
dataset was prepared and processed statistically. In order to test the actual comfort of
removable support by comparing it with standard seats, real driving tests were performed.
Results from the analysis showed that two lumbosacral supports reduce lumbar pain. After
comparing three test cases (standard seat, seat with removable support and seat with integrated
support) with static tests. It was proved that the other two solutions were more preferable as
compared to the standard seat. Integrated support seat was specially preferred because it gave
more comfort to the lumbar region. The removable seat gave more comfort to the buttock
region. Medilogic pressure mat was used to gather answers to objective questions whereas
questionnaires were used to gather results of subjective data. Results also indicated that due to
the bigger contact area with lumbar supports perceived comfort was higher in the lumbar-sacral
area. Further lumbar sacral supports were able to stand up to the participants expectation. These
performances were validated with driving tests in which the removable lumbar-sacral supports
were compared with standard seats by the participants.

2.3 Office Ergonomics:

Computer-ferocious office work has been associated with a number of threat factors for
developing musculoskeletal symptoms in the neck and shoulders, similar as constrained
postures with inadequate variation, and repetitive movements while performing keyboard and
mouse work. It is generally believed that increased postural variation would drop pitfalls in
computer-ferocious jobs. Barbieri9 et al suggests further variation in computer-ferocious office
work is still batted, let alone the goods of specific interventions of postural variation on
applicable issues similar as fatigue and discomfort. Some studies have argued that vigorous
tasks beyond what's typically allowed of as office work, similar as cleaning, need be introduced
to gain sufficient variation. Sit- stand tables are introduced in services to increase variation in
gross body posture, butt the extent which upper body posture variational affected hasn't
preliminarily been addressed. Neck, box, and upper arm postures (means and nanosecond-to-
nanosecond dissonances) were determined during ages of sitting and standing from 24 office
workers using sit- stage tables to perform computer work. Posture variability performing from
different temporal compositions of sitting and standing computer work was also prognosticate
for the neck, box and upper arm by simulations. Postural variability during computer work
could be increased up to triple when 20 – 60 of the work was performed standing (i.e., 40 – 80
performed sitting), compared to performing computer work only sitting. The exact
composition of sit- stage proportions leading to maximum variability, as well as the implicit
size of the increase stability, differed vastly between workers. Guidelines For sit- stage table
use should note these large inter-individual differences. Sit- stand workstations are getting
increasingly popular in office surroundings, where they're being introduced with the primary
intention of replacing some of the time spent sitting by standing, and therefore reduce
cardiometabolic pitfalls associated with sedentary geste or indeed drop fatigue and
musculoskeletal discomfort. Seated and standing office work may lead to different postural
exposures to the upper body, with possible goods on musculoskeletal issues. For example,
some studies have reported sitting office work involving computer-ferocious tasks to be
associated with further flexed lumbar postures than standing. Lately, the researchers measured
neck, box and shoulder postures when workers performed standard office work tasks while
sitting, standing and walking. They concluded that standing and walking were associated with
further switches between five posture orders (0 – 5, 5 – 15, 15 – 30, 30 – 45 and> 45 °) than
sitting, and concluded that standing and walking were associated with further posture variation
than sitting. The author had 24 actors doing a data entry task in three 20/5 min cycles of sit/
stage. Anon-neutral posture of the neck, elbow and back passed more frequently in sitting than
in standing. The author compared differences in upper extremity posture between sitting and
standing workstations for 20 actors performing simulated office tasks. They showed that
variation (measured as the difference between the 90th and 10th posture percentile) was larger
for shoulder gyration and wrist extension during standing work than during sitting.

The average office worker spends roughly 71 – 80 of their time at work in a sedentary seated
position, equating to over 6 h per day. Plant sedentary sitting is aggravated by outside of work
hours, with most Canadians spending the maturity (90%) of their rest time in a sedentary
position watching Television or using computers. Dragged sitting has been linked to increased
rates in reported musculoskeletal discomfort/ pain, especially lower reverse pain (LBP), an
enervating condition that will affect roughly 80% of the North American population at some
point during their lives. The ideal of this study is to give a biomechanical comparison of two
different types of active chairpersons (AC1 & AC2) versus a static president (NAC). Thirty
healthy actors were signed fifteen healthy ladies and fifteen healthy males. Actors worked at a
computer workstation (1-h per president). Outfit included Pressure pads, Electromyography,
near – Infrared Spectroscopy, and Questionnaires (rate of perceived discomfort, seating
discomfort questionnaire and exit check). A significant increase in anterior – posterior postural
sway was planted on the seat visage with the use of the AC1. An increase in neuromuscular
exertion of the external obliques and an increase in total oxygen indicator (TOI) values in the
gastrocnemius were also planted using the AC1, still the difference wasn't much more
advanced than the NAC and AC2. AC1- An active office president with disunited seat visage.
The seat visage was resolved longitudinally. AC2- An active office president with modified
split seat visage (modified interpretation of AC1) NAC A stationary office president Thirty
(30) healthy actors (15 joker and 15 ladies). were asked to work on a computer workstation
while being seated for one (1) hour, on each of the three different chairpersons. The comfort
situations in each president were measured using Pressure pads, Electromyography, Near
infrared spectroscopy, Seating Discomfort Questionnaire (SDQ). Cardoso10 et al showed that
the AC1 president (i.e., disunited seat visage design) had further biomechanical and
physiological benefits compared to the other two chairpersons. Actors worked at a computer
workstation while being seated for one (1) hour, on each of the three different chairpersons.
Two different types of active president and one static president was used for the trial. Data
regarding the goods of seat design on muscles and other parameters in the body was collected
with the help of colourful instruments (viz., Seated pressure, Electromyography, Near infrared
spectroscopy). Also, these data sets were analysed to estimate the three chairpersons in terms
of their biomechanical parcels. Overall, it can be concluded that having an AC1 office
president (i.e., president split seat visage design) led to biomechanical and physiological
benefits.
Thirty four percent of 1.4 million work-related injuries in the US, in 2002, were caused by
musculoskeletal diseases. WRMD-Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorder is responsible for
a third of the total illness related time down from work days due to work related injuries. The
number of computer druggies is continually on the rise.45.8 of the population in the US was
using computers in 1993 as compared to 53.3% in 2001. Ergonomic assessment identifies a
number of physiological threat factors for work related musculoskeletal diseases, similar as
inordinate strength, static stress, wobbling, repetitiveness and mechanical stress. Literature
documents the actuality of a link between awkward postures and pain, symptoms and
musculoskeletal diseases. Awkward posture is a significant divagation from the neutral posture
of one or further joints. These postures typically include reaching backward, twisting, looking
up, wrist diverting and back diverting. Eyal11 et al says that in order to assess the threat factors
to the body postures related to musculoskeletal diseases, a decision must be made with regard
to the factual posture while performing the task. Colourful styles were developed to assess
neutral posture in order to examine the analysis of the loads working on the body and in order
to assess the possible threat factors for work related musculoskeletal diseases. These styles can
be divided into three a) Direct assessments b) Overlook assessments c) Tone report. Direct
assessments include tools and systems similar as electromyography, protractor, biomechanical
analysis and optic styles, which give information regarding muscular exertion, angles and
forces analysis according to the body postures. Direct assessments are quantitative and
veritably accurate but also precious and time consuming. These limitations lead to an analysis
of a small number of body corridor and a small number of people that can be examined. The
overlook styles don't include direct physical contact (unlike the direct styles taking body
accessories). Circular assessment is dependent upon the hypercritical assessment of the
monitor to identify colourful body postures. The tone report system includes gathering data
from workers regarding their work-related particular gests, by means of questionnaires,
interviews, journals, trailing lists, assessment and grading. Self-report seems to be the most
suitable and practical system to use in large populations exploration. The tone report system
used to assess over time exposure isn't believable or valid enough in order to assess postures
and workloads in comparison to overlook or Direct assessments. In addition, there are different
reports regarding the tone assessment perfection measure indicating trip of over 4 times further
than the real exposure to computer operation. Hence, the overlook system is a good concession
between precious and low cost, private validity of the tone report system. Following a cautious
survey of the writing, Benjamin12 et al says that it's clear that the IR people group needs strong
word related wellbeing ethics intended to limit business related outer muscle wounds. Good
judgment proposals to limit long haul business related outer muscle wounds incorporate the
accompanying 1. Maintenance of generally speaking wellness outside of work, with. explicit
accentuation on centre body strength. 2. Practicing great stance while working — upstanding
position, not bowing forward or sideways — forestalling over back strain.

2.4 Bus:

Advantageous inspection method was utilized in the review and the support of travellers in
Ghana's most utilized public transport facilities. Sophia Tetteh13 et al demonstrates over 300
members agreed to partake in this review, containing nearly half of the female and male
population inside the age scope of grown-ups. Members were qualified to take part in the
concentrate provided that they were occupants of Accra for no less than at least one year and
used public transportation no less than multiple times in a year. Weak populations like pregnant
ladies, the debilitated and crippled were excluded from taking part in this review. With the end
goal of this review, just trotro vehicles with privately manufactured seats were used. A sum of
90 privately created seat aspects were estimated from ninety arbitrarily chosen trotro vehicles
with the authorization of the trotro vehicle driver. The subtleties of the vehicle seat and
anthropometric aspects were utilized in this study. All estimations for this review were taken
via prepared junior year undergraduate biomedical designing assistants and two biomedical
architects, including an employee and an instructing aide. The undergrad biomedical designing
understudies and the showing partners attempted a pilot study before the information
assortment period.

Caroline Crump14 et al investigates the relation of ergonomic capabilities and the safety in the
United States’ most commercial airlines in the states of California, Hawaii, Colorado and
Oregon had shuttle services that were studied for the ergonomic design while there is no seat
belt support. Perceptions were made essentially on-air terminal transports that went on open
roads. These buses moved travellers among inns and leaving regions to the air terminal.
Whenever the situation allows, perceptions were likewise made on private contract transports
which went on open roads. The transports changed in setup and number of accessible seats.
Identical survey and data collection had been implemented. A similar review was led and
information on existing randomly chosen privately made seats was gathered from 30 Toyota
Hiace transports in South western Nigeria regularly utilized small transports. S.O Ismaila15
covers the probe of the information encompassing the seat tallness, seat profundity, seat
broadness and back rest tallness. Likewise, applicable anthropometric information of 200
arbitrarily chosen clients of the front seats was gathered. The age of the subjects ran somewhere
in the range of 20 and 50 years, meaning approximately 38 years. Every one of the estimates
were taken in Ibadan Metropolis which is a cosmopolitan city where all significant ethnic clans
in Nigeria are addressed. The study was completed over a time of 12 weeks. The information
gathered was examined utilizing unmistakable measurements like means, standard deviations,
fifth, 50th and ninety-fifth percentiles utilizing Microsoft packages. Reviewing another
ergonomic study in the Italian region of ergonomic safety. The University of Calabria
resembles Anglo-Saxon grounds; it is situated outside the city in a space where there are both
college offices and private administrations. More than 30,000 understudies go to the college,
which is staffed by 2,000 individuals. A solitary travel organization deals with the metropolitan
transport lines. These lines are pervasively committed to the understudies.

Laura Eboli16 et al deals with an experiment regarding tracking of movements of the shuttle
inside the campus for defining force thresholds and comfort relation. The assistance is
accessible from 7.30 to 00.30. Administration recurrence is 1 run at regular intervals; just
during peak hours recurrence is 1 run like clockwork. These hint at the most excessive and
over utilization of support systems and their ergonomic ability to provide safety and comfort
for students. Post collection data analysis has been reviewed. The casual sitting anthropometric
information estimated contains: shoulder expansiveness - the level distance across the
shoulders estimated between the acromion; hip broadness, sitting - the expansiveness of the
body estimated across the greatest piece of the hips; popliteal tallness distance from the floor
to the wrinkle of the popliteal fossa; butt cheek to popliteal length-the distance from the back
surface of the butt cheek to the wrinkle of the popliteal fossa; and sitting stature the upward
separation from the sitting surface to the vertex. The anthropometric information taken stuck
to ISO 15355 and ISO 7250 principles13. These principles and data regarding anthropometric
information were gathered utilizing conventional techniques for normalized stances. All
anthropometric estimations were obtained with a 5 m estimating measuring tape with a tenth
of the estimation division and a mechanical washroom gauging scale with a most extreme limit
of 120 kg and a 1 kg estimation division. Due to the tropical climate environment in Accra
with normal temperature, estimates were taken with the members wearing their common or
everyday dress. All anthropometric means for this review were taken at the right half of the
member's body with the special case of the height and weight. Every one of the members was
needed to accept a casual sitting situation on the front seat where their back is completely
upheld, knees situated at the right point and thigh completely upheld while the two legs hang
uninhibitedly. Defining the seat aspects with respect to the study done in Nigeria it was clear
that the elements of the locally created seat recorded are: seat tallness distance from the vehicle
floor to the most noteworthy point on the facade of the seat; seat profundity distance estimated
on a level plane on the seat surface from the back to the front of the seat; seat expansiveness
the distance estimated on a level plane across the farthest focuses on the front edges of the seat
surface; and backrest stature the distance estimated in an upward direction from the seat dish
to the highest part of the seat. Also, the separation from the front of the rear of one seat and the
back of the seat from front backrest to backrest was estimated. When the Italian university
system was analysed, two transport lines were dissected. The principal line (U6)
overwhelmingly covers metropolitan streets; however, the last piece of the course is along
quick streaming streets. The covered length is around 11.2 kilometers, with 7 bus stations
predominantly positioned in the first part of the course. The normal travel time is around 30
minutes, with a working pace of around 26 kilometers for every hour. The subsequent line (U4)
covers solely metropolitan streets for a length of around 10.7 kilometers15; the quantity of
transport stops is 14. The normal travel time is around 35 minutes, with a working rate of
around 18 kilometers each hour. The wide contrast between the two benefits of working rate
is clearly because of the diverse number of transport stops of the two lines. The understudies
assessed four comfort perspectives: (1) comfort connected to even out of swarming, seats
accessibility and comfort; (2) clamor and vibrations; (3) course unpleasantness; (4) driving
conduct (because of easing back down, slowing down, guiding, and speed increases). For each
question, clients could decide among five degrees of decisions, from 1 (low degree) to 5
(significant degree). The talks with understudies are similarly spread between male also,
female; true to form, the significant piece of them are matured somewhere in the range of 22
and 25 years (57%). The choice runs were between 10:00 a.m. Furthermore, 6:00 p.m.; they
were portrayed by a not undeniable degree of congestion, and truth be told, 83% of the
understudies involved a seat on the transport.

The examination of the frequencies by considering just the decisions of those travellers who
saw a terrible degree of comfort, with the particular meaning to decide an edge of a few
kinematic amounts past which the degree of comfort is low, that is a circumstance of
inconvenience. We expect that the recurrence dispersion of the rate esteems has an expanding
pattern, on the grounds that the quantity brought up of the characterized limits should
increment in a circumstance of uneasiness. Ghana's transport information gathered was
dissected utilizing R measurable programming from 3.0.3 and SPSS rendition 20.0 13.
Illustrative insights, for example, the implies, standard deviations, and fifth, 50th and 95th
percentiles factors were registered for both anthropometric and front seat aspects. The front
seat aspects estimated were the seat tallness (SH), seat profundity (SDa), seat expansiveness
(SB) and backrest tallness (BRH). The seat's broadness aspects were viewed as old as width
(BRW) because of the idea of the seat plan. The anthropometric information estimated contains
hip expansiveness (HP), shoulder broadness (SB), sitting stature (SHa), butt cheek popliteal
length (BPL) and popliteal tallness (PH). Other extra information obtained were age, weight
and stature. An autonomous t-test was utilized to decide whether there were any huge contrasts
in the anthropometric measures in male and female travellers. A Pearson relationship was also
used to decide the relationship among the anthropometric proportions of the multitude of
travellers. Moreover, the deliberate seat aspects were contrasted with suggested norms of auto
seating in Ghana and different places, for example, India, Hong Kong and Australia. The
particular subtleties of the procedures involved registering the rate or match between
anthropometric information and seat aspects. Combinational conditions were utilized in
investigating the ergonomic similarity between the anthropometry and the privately
manufactured seat aspects. A match is the point at which an examination between the
anthropometry and seat aspects is inside the restrictions of the mixed condition. In the
meantime, a low jumble happens when the base farthest reaches of the combinational condition
is higher than the seat aspect, perhaps showing the seat is low, thin or shallow. A high crisscross
happens when the greatest furthest reaches of the combinational condition is lower than the
seat aspect, showing the seat is excessively high, wide or profound. The data analysis for these
collections in shuttle services follows that the information obtained for the travellers was
looked at with the important elements of the seats utilizing Independent Samples T-test 2-tail
and Chi-Square at 95% degree of confidence.

3. Results:

As discussed in the case study the changes in the proportions of human anthropometry with
time should be taken into account while designing the seats in the economy class of the
airplane. Results of the study showed that both males and females desired an increase in the
SW (Seat width) and LR (Leg room) of a seat in the economy class. A minimum of 68.1 – 70.1
cm was required in the LR space. The research showed that for 95th and 99th percentile the
regular SW of 43.1 and 45.7 cm was considered inadequate. The results also showed that 81.2-
101.6 cm for LR and 86.3 to 106.6 cm for SP (Seat Pitch) was considered as comfortable.
Thus, the conclusion of the study showed that in an economy class the minimum LR required
is between 68.1 to 70.1 cm and the minimum SW required is between 50.2 to 52.3 cm. This
reduces the discomfort amongst the passengers and makes them less exposed to the risk of
developing deep vein thrombosis, developing pulmonary embolism as well as gastrointestinal
problems. 1 During the case study of Boeing 737 on 17- inch-wide and 18-inch-wide seats it
was noticed that the comfort level after sitting on an 18-inch-wide seat was the same as that on
a 17-inch-wide seat with an extra pitch of 4 inches. Hence increasing the seat width of a 17-
inch-wide seat would be more economical and efficient as compared to the increase in pitch
concerned with the usage of floor area. 2 Wang et al. through his research tried to increase the
seat comfort as well as decrease the seat weight. Anthropometric measurements of 19
participants were taken and recorded. Three types of seat configuration were taken, two new
(Cushion N_soft and Cushion n_hard) and one as a reference. Results showed that participants
on n_hard showed the lowest discomfort. Significant differences in discomfort were observed
for all body parts except the neck. Buttocks and thigh regions had low discomfort for
participants with high BMI. It was thus concluded that both the new optimized seat
configurations were better than the reference seat with the N_hard being the better one of the
two. 3

In the automobile case study, an effort was made to gain the perception of comfort and
discomfort experienced by people while driving a car. In the final result of this study a
hierarchy was developed which highlighted the various parameters of comfort in different age
groups and genders. The analysis of the results showed the hierarchy of factors affecting
discomfort with the seat and space in the car having maximum influence on discomfort
(i.e.,11.72% and 10.50 %). The relationship between the car’s style and some implicit
references such as the cultural and identity of a specific country are analysed. French cars
(Citroen, Peugeot, and Renault) as well as German cars (Volkswagen) were chosen based on
five hypotheses: the continuity, range, country, period and reference hypothesis. The results of
this study proves that the country’s heritage seems to be a key concept in linking the explicit
references or style to the implicit references, i.e., the feeling about the country’s heritage.6 The
aim of this research is to provide a premium and comfortable driving experience for the long
drives passengers by considering the posture and regulating the blood flow in the perianal
region (urethra, bladder, prostate and legs) of the body. An assembly of Pneumatic cylinder
and 24 semi-circular designed aluminium buds that moves up and down along with the
comforter foam and sheet for the car/trucks/bus seat to regulate the flow of blood thus
providing comfort to drivers was proposed. The results showed that, during the survey, among
older participants low pressure was rated excellent.7 It was also observed that the young
participants within the age group of 20–30 liked high pressure. Naddeo et al. has tried to
develop models of the lumbar – sacral support in order to enhance the perceived comfort level
while driving. Static tests were performed on three cases (standard seat, seat with removable
support and seat with integrated support). It was proved that the other two solutions were more
preferable as compared to the standard seat. Integrated support seat was specially preferred
because it gave more comfort to the lumbar region. The removable seat gave more comfort to
the buttock region due to the bigger contact area with lumbar supports perceived comfort was
higher in the lumbar-sacral area. 8
In the case of office setting, whether it is a sit or stand desk setup for regular IT professionals
it was found that most of the participants are right-handed and reported at varying educational
levels. On average, they spent 75% of the observed work time at their desks, and they
performed computer work seated (CW-sit) or standing (CW-stand) for 52% time in total. As
for correlations between postural variability observed across different body regions, the neck-
vs-trunk flexion JVR (Job variance ratio) correlation was 0.69 (p < 0.001); neck-vs-arm and
trunk-vs-arm correlation was (0.21 & 0.07) respectively. Thus, we found a clear tendency that
workers with a large JVR for the neck had also a large JVR for the trunk, while upper arm
angle variability was weakly correlated with neck or trunk flexion. Case study of office
workers with access to sit-stand tables suggested that during computer work, postural
variability in the neck, trunk and upper arm could be increased up to three-fold in many
workers by combining seated and standing work in other proportions than those in the present
work. According to simulations, maximum variability could be achieved by performing 40–
80% of the computer work sitting, i.e., 20–60% standing.

The data analysis pertaining to the local transportation seats in Nigeria and Ghana indicate that
the 5th and 95th percentile data point to the extreme cases that rarely have a critical impact on
the anthropological dataset. The mean height of the males came out to be greater than that of
the females. On the other hand, the mean weight and age for females were greater to that of
the males. Female measurements were smaller in comparison to males in respect to popliteal
height, shoulder breadth and sitting height 13,15. A t-test performed for determining the
suitability for parametric test shines the light on the significant differences between the female
and male data for most of the parameters, however finding one peculiar observation, that being,
no difference between popliteal height between the two genders. Following the data analysis
vehicular seat parameters suggest designing the seat for maximum comfort which bears upon
its cushion and material strength as well as adjustability of the lumbar region. The backrest, it
is found, should be wider to give more stability during veer and swerve. The accelerated motion
will also be taken care of during lateral support. It was found that too high a seat causes
compression and discomfort due to blood movement. This leads to slouch posture and back
pain due to the lack of support. The seat being low causes the discomfort of having a feeling
of tumbling off while the vehicle experiences maneuvering. The seat manufacturers are
required to fabricate based on the local Nigerian population. Discusses the very cause of lack
of safety and impediment to comfort the shuttles in the United States were found to have
instances where only a percent of riders were seen to be following guidelines and wearing the
seatbelt14. Finally, the ergonomic capability of the shuttles in one of the Italian Universities
and the experiments of sensing severe torque and tracking the bus for anticipated move that
help the passengers in confining to ergonomic seats that alleviate the shock of braking,
accelerating and maneuvering16. The results of checking comfort level using the kinematic and
other parameters in referenced successfully present a way to provide comfort by analysing
threshold levels of severe forces and torques and evaluating the most simple, comfortable yet
ergonomic way to commute.
4. Summary:

The present study shows how ergonomics plays a vital role in our daily life in several fields of
life. Our study of ergonomics in daily life was inclusive of applications in Airplanes,
Automobiles, Offices and Buses. It was found that during computer work, postural variability
in the neck, trunk and upper arm can be increased up to three-fold in many of the workers by
combining seated and standing add other proportions than those within the present work.
According to the experiments it was concluded that participants felt more comfort and less
discomfort when sitting in the 18- inch-wide seats than that of sitting the 17-inch-wide seats.
By synthesizing the info of a previous study on various pitch sizes, it had been found that to
succeed in an identical level of comfort, increasing the width of a 17-inch-wide seat could be
more efficient than increasing the pitch regarding the usage of floor areas. This discovery could
be useful for airlines in designing a simpler and efficient floor planning of future aircraft. The
bus case study provides anthropometric data that may be used by local bus seat manufacturers
for the design and fabrication of these seats to suit the population. The current research has
proved that there's a further method to assess musculoskeletal disorders risk factors. This
method can address the multiplying and existing challenges in the field of ergonomics in
general and specifically office ergonomics. Remote Online assessment can now help us to
provide ergonomics researchers and specialists with an additional valid tool to continue
researching the office environment musculoskeletal disorders risk factors. Thanks to the virtual
prototyping and the application of previous knowledge, coming from literature and experience,
a solution for improving the overall comfort and reducing the lumbar/sacral pain while driving
has been developed, tested, and assessed. Additionally, the lumbar-sacral supports were able
to confirm the expectations of participants. Besides, participants felt cosier on the seat with a
lumbar-sacral support than the standard seat. These performances are confirmed with the
driving test, where participants compared the removable lumbar-sacral support with the quality
seat.

5. References:

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 Contribution:

ADITYA MAITHANI Case study 2.1 (Airplane) and Introduction

PRAKHAR CHAUHAN Case study 2.2 (Automobile), Results and References

J. SATHISH Case study 2.3 (Office Ergonomics) and Summary

AVINASH SHARMA Case study 2.4 (Bus) and Abstract