TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Topic content:
● Meaning and importance of transport systems

● Absorption of Water and Mineral Salts

• Internal structure of root and root hairs
• Absorption of water
• Active uptake of mineral salts
● Transpiration
• Definition of transpiration
• Review of the structure of the leaf
• Structure and function of xylem
• Factors affecting transpiration
• Forces involved in water movement in plants (Transpiration pull, Cohesion and adhesion, Capillarity, Root pressure)
● Translocation
• Structure and function of phloem
• Materials translocated (omit mechanisms of translocation)

Meaning and importance of transport systems

● Transport of substances occurs in plants as well as in animals.

● Substances like water, mineral salts and manufactured food are constantly and continuously moving
from one part of the plant to another.
● Water and mineral salts are absorbed by the roots from the soil and transported to the leaves. Food
substances manufactured in the leaves are transported to all plant cells and to storage organs.
● In unicellular organisms and simple plants like algae and mosses, transport of substances occurs by
simple diffusion, osmosis and active transport from cell to cell. This is because they have a large
surface area to volume ratio.
● In higher plants, substances are transported through a specialized transport system known as a
vascular system, made up of vascular bundles.
● The vascular bundle comprises of xylem and phloem tissues.

● Xylem tissue transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves, while phloem tissue
transports manufactured food substances, such as sugars, from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Internal structure of Roots and Stems

The Root
The primary functions of roots are;
(i) Anchorage (holding the plant firmly in the soil)
(ii) Absorption (uptake of mineral salts and water)
Other functions are;
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 (i) Storage (certain specialised roots such as carrots, store food)
(ii) Gaseous exchange (plants such as mangroves have breathing roots called pneumatophores.

Internal structure of the root

A cross-section the root shows the following layers;

✔ Piliferous layer

✔ Cortex

✔ Vascular bundles

✔ Endodermis

✔ Pericycle
The tip or apex of the root is covered by a root cap which protects the growing part of the root.

Piliferous layer
● The piliferous layer is the outermost layer of the root.

● It is a special epidermis which has root hairs, and is found in young roots.

● Its cells are thin-walled to reduce distance for passage of water and mineral salts.

● As the root tissues mature, the piliferous layer is replaced by a less permeable suberized epidermis.
Cortex
● This comprises of loosely packed, thin-walled parenchyma cells.

● In young roots it forms the extensive region between the epidermis and the vascular bundles; water
molecules pass through this tissue to reach the vascular bundles.
● The cortex acts as a storage tissue for food and water.
Endodermis

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● This is single layer of cells surrounding the vascular bundles.

● It has starch grains and a casparian strip which is impermeable or impervious.

● The endodermis actively controls the amount of water entering the vascular bundles.
Pericycle
● This is a single layer of cells immediately below the endodermis that gives rise to the lateral roots.
The vascular bundles are located below it.

Vascular bundles
● These occupy the central position of the root.

● Each bundle consists of xylem vessels and phloem tissue.

● In monocotyledonous plants the xylem and phloem tissues alternate in their arrangement forming a
ring.
● In dicotyledonous plants the xylem tissue forms a star at the centre of the root with the phloem tissue
located between the arms of the xylem. (Draw the diagrams in your books)

Structure of the Root hair

● Root hairs are microscopic outgrowths of epidermal cells.

● They are elongated to increase surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts.

● They are also numerous to increase surface area for absorption.

● They have thin cell walls to reduce the distance through which water and mineral salts pass to get into
the cell.
● Root hairs are in close contact with soil particles and penetrate into the crevices.

● They have a short life span, but are continuously replaced as new ones develop near the tip of the root.

Internal structure of the Stem

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 Cross section of a stem -
In cross section the stem consists of;
✔ Epidermis

✔ Cortex (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma)

✔ Vascular bundles

✔ Pith

a) Epidermis
● This is made up of a single layer of cells covering all other stem tissues.

● The outer wall which is exposed to air is usually thicker than the other walls and is coated with a waxy
substance known as cuticle.
● The cuticle is impermeable to air and water.

● The epidermis protects the inner tissues from drying, infections and from mechanical damage.

● Young stems usually possess guard cells and therefore have stomata on the stem epidermis. These are
pores through which air enters and leaves the underlying stem tissues.
● Older stems which have bark possess lenticels for gaseous exchange.

b) Cortex
● This occurs beneath the epidermis.

● It extends inwards to the vascular bundles and has three tissues; parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma.
i. Parenchyma
✔ This tissue forms the greater part of the cortex.

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 ✔ The cells are irregular in shape, thin walled and loosely packed creating intercellular spaces filled
with air.
✔ The cells function as a store for water and food.

✔ In very young stems some cells contain chloroplasts hence photosynthesize.

✔ Such cells are called chlorenchyma and they make the stems green.
ii. Collenchyma
✔ The cortex collenchyma lies just beneath the epidermis.

✔ The walls of the collenchyma cells are thickened at the corners with cellulose and pectin.

✔ Due to this thickening, collenchyma serves as strengthening tissue.

iii. Sclerenchyma
✔ This tissue is found in close association with the vascular bundles.

✔ The walls of the sclerenchyma cells are thickened by deposition of lignin, a process known as
lignification.
✔ Sclerenchyma too serves as a strengthening tissue.

c) The pith
● This is the central region of the stem.

● It consists of parenchyma cells which store water and food substances.

● In some stems, the path may be hollow e.g. bamboo.

d) Vascular bundles
● These consist of xylem and phloem tissues.

● The xylem transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves.

● It consists of xylem vessels and xylem tracheids.

● The phloem transports manufactured food substances from the leaves to other parts of the plant in a
process known as translocation. It is made up of sieve tubes and companion cells.

Xylem vessels
● These are tubular non-living tissues.

● During their development their walls become impregnated with lignin which is impermeable.

● Consequently, the cytoplasm disintegrates resulting in a hollow tube running continuously from
the roots through the stem to the leaves.

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 ● They also have bordered pits in their walls to allow passage of water into neighbouring cells.

● Xylem vessels are a characteristic feature in angiosperms.

● The lignin material strengthening the walls prevents them from collapsing.

● There are diverse patterns of lignification of xylem vessels as shown below:

Lignification of xylem vessels40

Xylem tracheids
● These are modified non-living xylem cells with lignified pitted walls.

● Unlike the vessels which are long and hollow, they have tapering or chisel-shaped ends with
perforations in their cross walls.
● They are therefore less efficient than vessels in conducting water.

● They also have bordered pits in their side walls to allow for lateral movement of water into
neighbouring cells.
● They are found in pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Phloem tissue
● This is living tissue consisting of sieve tubes and companion cells.

● During cell differentiation and development of sieve tubes most of the cytoplasm is pushed towards
the cell wall leaving a lumen filled with a slimy sap containing fine protein fibrils called cytoplasmic
filaments.
● The cross walls between adjacent sieve tubes are perforated forming a sieve plate with pores.

● The cytoplasmic filaments are continuous from one sieve tube to the next via the pores in the sieve
plates.
● Materials are believed to be moved either downwards or upwards along these filaments.

● The companion cells possess a dense cytoplasm and prominent organelles.

● They have numerous mitochondria which generate the energy required for translocation.

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 Phloem tissue41

Absorption of water and mineral salts

Absorption of water
● The concentration of water molecules is higher in the soil than in the cell sap vacuole of the root hair
cell, so water is drawn into the root hair cell by osmosis.
● The water dilutes contents of the cell sap vacuole of the root hair cell causing it to have a lower
osmotic pressure than the neighbouring cells in the cortex.
● Water, therefore, moves from root hair cells to cortex cells by osmosis.

● This process continues and water reaches the endodermis.

● In the endodermis there is a band of lignin deposit known as the casparian strip which is
impermeable and so water molecules are carried across it by active transport.
● The water then passes on to the pericycle and then into the xylem vessels.

● From the xylem in the root, water is conducted up the plant by osmosis and various forces namely;

✔ Transpiration pull

✔ Cohesion and adhesion forces

✔ Capillarity

✔ Root pressure

Forces involved in movement of water in plants

a) Root pressure
● This is the force in the root that helps push water up the stem.

● When a stem is cut above the soil level, it continues to exude a liquid from the cut surface; this is
evidence of root pressure.

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● Root pressure is attributed to active pumping of water across the endodermis (which has a casparian
strip) to the xylem vessels; energy is important for this process and respiratory inhibitors such as
cyanide inhibit it.
b) Capillary action
● Capillarity is the tendency of liquids to rise in very narrow tubes; the narrower the tube the higher the
liquid will rise.
● The xylem vessels are narrow thus in combination of adhesive and cohesive forces, water molecules
rise to some extent by capillary action.
● There must be no air bubble in the column for effective capillarity.
c) Cohesion and adhesion forces.
● Water molecules attract one another in such a way that they always stick together; this is called
cohesion force.
● The water molecules are also attracted to the walls of the container (xylem vessels) in which the water
is found; this is called adhesion force.
● Cohesion and adhesion forces are very high in thin columns so they cannot be easily broken.

● These forces contribute in maintenance of an uninterrupted water column in the trees.

Movement of water in a stem42

d) Transpiration pull
● As water vaporizes from the spongy mesophyll cells into sub-stomatal air spaces and is lost through
the stomata, their cell sap becomes more concentrated than surrounding cells.

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● The osmotic pressure of the spongy mesophyll cells increases. Consequently, water flows into the cells
from other surrounding cells which in turn take water from the xylem tissue within the veins of the
leaf.
● This creates a pull or suction force that draws a stream of water from the xylem vessels of the stem
and roots forming a continuous stream of water.
● This force is known as transpiration pull and it creates a transpiration stream and is important in
replacing water lost from the plant through transpiration.

1. Water absorbed into the roots by

osmosis

2.Water moves up the stem by

capillarity, cohesion and adhesion

3. Water lost by transpiration

Transpiration pull43

Absorption of Mineral salts

● Mineral salts are dissolved in soil water.

● They are absorbed by the roots by active transport as they are more concentrated in the roots than
in the soil; small amounts of mineral salts may be absorbed by diffusion.
● The process of active transport involves carriers which combine with mineral ions and then carry
them across the plasma membrane to the cell; the carriers move back and forth carrying salt ions
from soil water to the root hair cells.
● After absorption, mineral ions dissolved in water move into xylem vessels of the vascular tissue in
the centre of the root and are carried up the stem to leaves by a combination of the forces of root
pressure, transpiration pull, cohesive and adhesive forces and capillary action (capillarity).

Transpiration
This is the process by which plants lose water vapour into the atmosphere through diffusion. This loss
occurs mainly through the stomata of the leaves, but may also occur through lenticels in the stem, and
through the cuticle.
Types of transpiration
i. Stomatal transpiration
This is loss of water vapour through the stomata. It accounts for 80-90% of the total transpiration. Stomata
are found on the leaves, but may also occur on the epidermis of young herbaceous stems.

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 Internal structure of a leaf44

ii. Cuticular transpiration

This is loss of water vapour through the cuticle. About 20% of the total transpiration takes place through
the cuticle. However, in plants with thick cuticles, this loss is negligible.

iii. Lenticular transpiration

Lenticels are pores in the stems of woody plants that allow gaseous exchange between the atmosphere
and the internal tissues. A small amount of water, about 1% is lost from the lenticels.

Factors affecting the rate of transpiration

These are grouped into structural and environmental factors.

Structural (Biological) factors

i. Leaf size and shape.

● Plants that have broad leaves have a higher rate of transpiration than those with smaller leaves.

● Broad leaves offer a large surface area over which water can be lost.

● Plants growing in desert regions sometimes have their leaves reduced to needle-like structures to
reduce surface area over which transpiration takes place.
ii. Stomata
● Transpiration mainly takes place through the stomata in leaves; therefore, their position, number and
size are important in determining the rate of transpiration.
● Plants that need to conserve water usually have few or no stomata on the upper surface; they also have
very few stomata on the lower surface which are usually small in size.
● Some close their stomata on a hot dry sunny day; this is called midday closure and it protects the
plant from wilting.
● Desert plants close their stomata during the day and open them at night when the atmosphere is cool;
this phenomenon is known as reversed stomatal rhythm.

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● Some plants have sunken stomata; the stomata are sunken below the epidermis forming pits. Water
vapour accumulates in these pits reducing water vapour diffusion gradient hence reducing
transpiration.
● Most plants close their stomata if the rate of transpiration exceeds the rate of water absorption.
iii. Cuticle
● The cuticle is a covering on the leaf made of a waxy waterproof material.

● Plants growing in dry areas have their leaves covered with a thick layer of cuticle.

● This cuticle reduces the rate at which water is lost from the leaf.

● Examples of such plants include: Cactus, Aloe and sisal.

Environmental (Physical) factors

i. Light intensity
● This affects the rate of transpiration by influencing opening of stomata.

● When light intensity is high, the rate of photosynthesis is also high and so the stomata open fully to
facilitate intake of carbon (IV) oxide.
● With the stomata fully open, the rate of transpiration is high and so high light intensity leads to
high rate of transpiration.
ii. Temperature
● High temperature increases the capacity of the environment to hold more water vapour.

● It also increases the internal temperature of the leaf which in turn enhances evaporation of water
from the leaf cells.
● This increases the rate of transpiration, as more water vapour diffuses out of the leaf.
iii. Humidity
● When humidity of the atmosphere is low, it means that the air contains very little water vapour.

● This normally creates a steep diffusion gradient between the inside and outside of the leaf.

● Consequently, the rate of diffusion of water vapour from the leaf increases, leading to a high rate
of transpiration.
● The difference in water vapour concentration between the inside and the outside of the leaf is
known as the saturation deficit.
● In a dry atmosphere the saturation deficit is high and so the rate of transpiration is high.

● When humidity is high, diffusion gradient or saturation deficit is low, and so the rate of
transpiration is also low.

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 ● Under such conditions, some plants, especially hydrophytes, secrete water in form of droplets or
liquid through specialized pores known as hydathodes; this process is known as guttation.
iv. Air movements or wind
● Wind carries away water vapour as it diffuses out of the stomata.

● This maintains a high diffusion gradient between the inside and the outside of the leaf, because water
vapour does not remain around the leaf to make the air around it saturated with moisture.
● Consequently, the rate of transpiration increases and transpiration is high on a windy day.

● In still air, the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapour and therefore diffusion will be low, so
transpiration rate will also be low.
v. Water availability
● The higher the amount of water a plant absorbs the more the water the mesophyll cells will have and
this increases the rate of transpiration.
● Insufficient amount of water leads to closing of stomata hence reducing the rate of transpiration.
vi. Atmospheric pressure
● Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of the earth.

● High altitude areas have lower atmospheric pressure than low altitude areas.

● The lower the atmospheric pressure the higher the rate of evaporation and hence the higher the rate of
transpiration.
● Plants growing in high altitude areas therefore experience a higher rate of transpiration.

The importance of transpiration to plants

1. Transport of water and mineral salts

Due to the transpiration pull, water and dissolved mineral salts are raised from the roots and rapidly
distributed to all the leaves.
2. Replacement of water lost through transpiration.
The continuous stream of water created by the transpiration pull replaces any water lost from the plant
through transpiration.
3. Cooling of the plant
Heat is generated when the plant carries out cell respiration. The plant also receives heat directly from the
sun. This heat can cause the temperature of the plant to rise to dangerous levels. Transpiration brings
about cooling of the plant since latent heat of vaporization is drawn from the plant.
4. Removal of excess water
This is useful especially for plants growing in waterlogged soil or in fresh water. If a plant absorbs too
much water, its sap contents become dilute, lowering the osmotic pressure of the cells and this could
interfere with the functioning of the cells. Excess water, therefore, needs to be eliminated.
5. Causes drooping
When a plant cannot obtain enough water to replace the water lost through transpiration, it droops or wilts.
This reduces the surface area exposed to direct sunlight and consequently reduces the rate of transpiration.

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Translocation of organic compounds
● This is the transport of soluble organic products of photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of
the plant.
● It takes place in the phloem tissue of the vascular bundles.

● The products of photosynthesis are mainly sugar, amino acids and vitamins.

● They are translocated to different regions of the plant for various purposes, such as:

✔ The growing regions of the plants such as young shoots, leaves, flowers, fruits, roots.

✔ Storage organs such tubers, corms, bulbs, rhizomes, seeds.

✔ Secretory organs such as nectar glands in some insect-pollinated plants e.g. Morning glory.

Adaptation of phloem to its functions.

1. Cytoplasmic filaments are contractile in nature and are able to push food materials from one
sieve tube cell to the next.
2. The sieve tubes are hollow to allow passage of food materials from one point to another.
3. Companion cells are densely packed with mitochondria which generate energy for active
transport of food.
4. Presence of sieve pores allows passage of food materials from one sieve tube to the next.
5. There are plasmodesmata that connect sieve tube cells with companion cells to allow the
exchange of materials between the two cells.

Evidence of translocation in the phloem

The ringing experiment:

● A ring of bark, which contains the phloem tissue, is removed from a young tree as shown below.
The plant is watered well and given sufficient sunlight to allow photosynthesis.
● After a few days, the outer tissue just above the ring swells up while the outer tissue along the
lower edge of the ring shrinks.

Observation made after a few days

Ringed bark of a tree45

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● The swelling is caused by the accumulation of organic compounds that were photosynthesized and
have descended from the leaves located above this ring.
● The downward translocation was interrupted by the gap in the phloem left after the removal of
the bark.
● The tissues below the gap have been deprived of nutrients and therefore shrink.

● The plant may eventually die since little nourishment reaches the roots.

● In conclusion, translocation occurs in the phloem tissue, which is located in the bark.

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