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History of CNC

NC and CNC In 1813, Charles Babbage, an English mathematician, invented

a machine that could rapidly and precisely calculate

Machines long lists of various functions, including logarithms.

At the end of this lecture, students will be able to At the same time, a French mechanic, J. M. Jacquard,
introduced a punch card system to direct the
operations of a weaving loom.
 explain the differences among NC, CNC and DNC machines
In 1930, Konrad Zuse built a simple computer that was used to
 describe hardware and interfaces required for various NC machine calculate wing designs for the German aircraft industry.

In 1971, Intel Corporation introduced the microprocessor, a

 identify the controls devices used in computer numerical control chip that contained CPU unit for a single computer,
that could be programmed to do any number of tasks,
from spacecraft to operating watch or controlling PCs.
 list the steps required to produce a part by CNC machine
Currently, Machine tools with such systems of automatic control
 explore advantages and disadvantages of numerical control systems can be used to advantage in batch and mass
production efficiently and effectively.

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What is a NC machine? What is a NC machine?

Numerical control (NC) may be defined as- A machine tool is said to be numerically controlled if

‘a method of accurately controlling the operation of a  it operates in a semi-automatic or automatic cycle

machine tool by a series of coded instructions, consisting of  as per instructions transmitted to it in a coded form.
numbers, letters of the alphabet, and symbols that the  Coded instructions are expressed through numerals,
machine control unit (MCU) can understand’. letters, punctuation marks, and other symbols.

Instructions Electrical pulse Machine guide unit

CNC have brought tremendous changes to the metal

working industry; industries are consistently produce
parts to the ► desired accuracy ► with amazing speed,
► quality, ► efficiency, and
► repeatability.
Requirements of numerical control inside a machine tool.

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Types of CNC machines
NC Machine controls are divided into three groups.
1. Traditional numerical control (NC)
2. Computer numerical control (CNC)
3. Distributed numerical control (DNC).
Numerical Control machines:
 The traditional NC machines were referred to as NC
machine tool.
 They have generally hardwired control, whereby
control is accomplished through the use of punched
tapes or cards.
 Many other problems arise from the use of NC tapes,
e.g., need to manual reload the NC tapes for each new
part and the lack of program editing abilities, which
increases the lead time.
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Computer numerical control (CNC):
An NC system that utilizes a dedicated, stored program
computer to perform some or all of the basic numerical
control functions.
Computer allows machining programs to edit, store in the
computer memory, permit diagnostics & quality control.
The advantages of CNC systems include:
 Higher flexibility: Programmability facilities for multiple
operations in one machining center. It can edit programs,
execute cycles of machining commands, etc.
 Increased productivity: Due to low cycle time, higher MRR
and low set up times achieved by faster tool positioning,
changing, automated material handling etc.
 Improved quality: Due to accurate part dimensions and
excellent surface finish, precision motion control and
improved thermal control by automatic coolant flow.
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Problems with the NC machine
 Part programming mistakes: In preparing the punched
tape, part programming mistakes are common. The
mistakes can either be syntax or numerical errors.
 Non optimal speeds and feeds: The control system
does not provide the opportunity to make changes in
speeds and feeds during the cutting process.
 Punched tape: Problem related to programming is the
tape itself.
 Tape reader: It interprets the punched tape is the least
reliable hardware component of the machine.
 Controller: The NC controller unit cannot be easily
alerted to incorporate improvements into the unit.
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 Reduced scrap rate: Use of Part programs that are
developed using optimization procedures.
 Reliable and safe operation: Advanced design and
manufacturing, automated monitoring, improved
maintenance and low human interaction.
However, some drawbacks of CNC systems are:
 Relatively higher cost compared to manual versions.
 More complicated maintenance due to the complex
nature of the technologies.
 Need for skilled part programmers.
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Distributed Numerical Control (DNC): Several advantages of a DNC system are:

DNC is similar to CNC, except a remote computer is used
to control a number of machines. An off-site host
computer holds programs and CNC machine tools are
integrated via a LAN or WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network).
Features of DNC systems are:
 Capability to connect and maintain entire computers
properly in a sequence.
 Direct safe access to all released production data and
information
 No redundant data or data chaos in production

 Managing and  Returning optimized NC programs allows for a constant

improvement process.
promptly distributing
control information to NC  Complete, safe, process-controlled process chain via
machines. PLM integration.
 Direct access to part information, such as drawings
 Acquisition and and 3D models
evaluation of operating and
 Shorter throughput times and prevention of rejects.
measurement data.
 Backup system for data and information.
 Changing the control data.
 Operator skill-level requirements are reduced.

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NC vs CNC Hardware and Interfaces
Features NC machine CNC machine
The hardware components include:
Definition Already mentioned Already mentioned

Storage Punch cards are used Directly stored in 1. A man-machine control (MMC) module using
computer memory  an integrated industrial PC, and
Numerical Numeric, symbols, G-codes and M-codes  a control panel with thin film translator (TFT)
codes letters  color display
Flexibility Low High  full numerical control keyboard as an input unit.

Maintenance Less maintenance and More maintenance and

2. The machine control panel for
and cost less cost high cost
 operating the machine by hand,
Program Requires a long time to Requires less time to
 for specifying the type of motion and override
execution execute a program for execute a program for
the set of given features the set of given features
3. A numerical control unit (NCU)
Accuracy Less High
 with an integrated NC and PLC.
Operator’s skill Operators are highly Operators are marginally
 multiprocessor NCU module with digital converter
skilled skilled
 drive modules.
Running time Cannot run continuously Can run for 24 h Profibus/ Profinet can connect input/output modules for machine
Integration No capability of Support CAD and CAM control directly to the NCU.
integration integration
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NC/CNC Machine Construction
A NC/CNC machine consists of seven elements. These are:
Internal structure: The 3 hardware modules splits
into three hardware components are: 1. Set of instructions or Program
2. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
i. Operating area hardware: for all operation and display
functions; not real-time capable, normally PC-based 3. Punch card or Tape reader
hardware with Windows operating systems.
4. Signal Output Channel
ii. NC kernel hardware: for running geometric calculations and 5. Data buffer
path control, real-time capable, normally special hardware
with a real-time operating system 6. Feedback channel, and
7. Machine tools.
iii. PLC hardware: for machine adaptation of the controller
(logic control); real-time capable, normally special
hardware with firmware for cyclic sequencing.
► Program: A series of coded instructions that guides
the machine tool on how and what to do.
Program input device
 Program input device is the means for part program to be  Each step of the program indicates the movement
entered into the CNC control. and position of the machine tool.
 Three commonly used program input devices are punch  Earlier punched cards, 35mm motion picture film,
tape reader, magnetic tape reader, and computer
and magnetic tapes were used.
communication.

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► Machine Control Unit (MCU): This part is the brain of
a machine. Like, CPU is to the computer.
Essential components of the control unit consist of a punch or
tape reader, a data buffer, a signal output channel, and a
feedback channel.
►Punch card or Tape reader: It is an electromechanical
device that reads the instruction embedded in the
punched card or magnetic tape.
 Coded instructions on the tape are transformed into their
electrical analogues which are utilized for controlling.
 Electromechanical type, there are eight fixed and eight
movable contacts for reading tracts of the punched tape.
►Signal Output Channel : It is responsible for sending
instructions to the machine tool (servomotor) about
what function to perform and how to perform. The
combination of holes read in a character must be
changed into an unambiguous signal, which is utilized
for switching a particular machine tool function or is the
physical equivalent of a numerical quantity.
• This function is carried out by a decoder.
• If there is no hole on the
punched tape, the corresponding
relay remains closed and
occupies position 0
(dotted lines).

 Photoelectric type, based upon the principle that if a beam • It provides 24 = 16

of light falls on a photodiode, the latter generates an electrical circuits.
electrical signal. Speed reading from 100 -1000 characters
per second. Similarly, 27 = 128 circuits. Fig. A simple pyramid-type decoder (24 = 16 Channel)
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Feed Back System: The feedback system is also

Data buffer : The buffer storage is a memory device
which temporarily retains data received from the decoder.
The buffer storage is required in a NC system if the speed
of tape reading is not adequate to ensure uninterrupted
execution of programmed movements.
The buffer unit :
 enables the control system to operate on an active
storage while the data for the next movement is kept
in the buffer storage.
 as soon as the movement controlled by the active
storage is completed, data from the buffer storage is
transferred to the active storage.
 time required for data transfer from the buffer
storage to the active storage is measured in
millionths of a second.
referred to as the measuring system.
 It is responsible for sending the data back to the
machine control unit.
 It uses position and speed transducers to continuously
monitor the position at which the cutting tool is
located at any particular instant.
 The MCU uses the difference between reference
signals and feedback signals to generate the control
signals for correcting position and speed.
Open-loop If there is no feedback on the accuracy of execution of the path
systems magnitude commands, such systems are known as open-loop systems.
Closed –loop Numerically controlled systems with a feedback device are known as
system closed-loop systems.

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Fig. 1 Block diagram of a NC Machine tools : It is the part of the machine that
system for simple performs the function or operation.
turning operation.
 For example, suppose an NC machine designed to
perform machine drilling operations. This machine
consists of tools like spindles, motors that control
movement, cutting tools, work tables, work fixtures,
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of a NC and other supporting equipment.
system for simple turning
operation
 Regardless of which type of machine tool is
controlled, it always has a slide table and a spindle
to control position and speed.

 The machine table is controlled in the X and Y axes,

while the spindle runs along the Z axis.
Fig. 3 Block diagram of a
closed loop NC system for
simple turning operation Basically conventional machine have 2 axes, known as X & Y
axis. But in case of CNC machine, there are minimum 3 axes
with spindle moving parallel to Z axis.
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Coordinate Systems in NC/CNC
There are nine standard axes universally used in CNC When faced with an unfamiliar CNC
machining. machine, always look for the Z axis first as it
1. Three are the familiar primary linear (straight-line) will be the easiest to identify. Then with the Z
movements X, Y, and Z. axis under control, apply the righthand rule
2. Three primary rotary axes (A, B, and C) are used to to identify the other two axes.
identify arc or circular movements (rotary motion).
3. Three secondary, straight-line motions called the Z → axis parallel to the main spindle
auxiliary linear axes (U, V, and W). X → usually the longest axis, parallel to the floor
Y → axis perpendicular to both X and Z
The basic axes used to define a three-space (3D)
envelope lie at 900 to each other, and as such are 3 Rotary Axes
called an orthogonal axis set.
In the rotary machine, there are three
primary rotary axes: A, B, and C.
Each is identified by the central primary
linear axis around which it pivots.
A axis rotates around a line parallel to X
B axis rotates around a line parallel to Y
C axis rotates around a line parallel to Z

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These machines are equipped with a spindle Secondary Linear Rule

head that can rotate in one or two planes To identify the secondary linear axes, determine the primary linear
during a cut (A or A 1 B). parallels (X, Y, or Z). If the secondary axis is parallel to
X, it is the U axis
To define which direction a rotary motion is to Y, it is the V axis
occur, clockwise or counterclockwise, we use a Z, it is the W axis
plus or minus sign on the coordinate. Try it
using the rule of thumb.

 First, identify the positive direction for the

central axis around which the rotation
occurs (1X, 1Y, or 1Z).

 Then, pointing the thumb of your right hand

along that positive direction, your fingers
will curl in the positive rotary axis direction.

 Negative rotary motion would be against

your fingers.
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Interpolation
Point-to-point (Positioning) and Continuous-path (Contouring) Systems In mathematics, interpolation is a method of deriving a simple function
Depending upon the type of functions assigned to the machine tool, from the given discrete data set such that the function passes through the
1. Point-to-point or positioning control systems. provided data points.
2. Positioning-cum-straight-cut systems. In the CNC machining, interpolation is a process of determining the
3. Continuous-path or contouring systems. unknown values that lie in between the known data points.
 In point-to-point systems, the table (or spindle) is
Interpolation is required only for continuous path NC machine tools for
moved by numerical control from one defined
two or more simultaneous cutting movements.
location.
1. The digital differential analyzer (DDA) method.
 Positioning-cum-straight-cut systems are basically
2. The direct function estimation (DFE) method.
positioning systems with the additional capability of
cutting along straight lines parallel to coordinate Inside tolerance
(IN TOL) Linear interpolator is primarily meant
axis.
for straight lines but can be employed
 In the contouring systems the simultaneous to approximate curved profiles too.
movements of the tool and workpiece are
coordinated to generated arcs, circles, segments of Interpolation may be linear, circular,
parabola. parabolic, depending on the given
profile is approximated.

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Drive Systems in NC/CNC
Drives are used to provide controlled motion to CNC elements.
 A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors, and ball
lead-screws.
 The MCU feeds the control signals (position and speed) of each
axis to the amplifier circuits.
 The control signals are augmented to actuate drive motors which
in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to position the machine table.
In machine tools, power is generally required for driving the main
spindle, saddles and carriages and to some auxiliary units.
 The motors used for CNC system are of two kinds:
1. Electrical - AC , DC or Stepper motors
2. Fluid - Hydraulic or Pneumatic
 In CNC, usually stepper and servo electrical drives are used.
 They exhibit favorable torque-speed characteristics and are
relatively inexpensive.
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STEPPER MOTOR
A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that
changes the angular position of the rotor in steps.
Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely
used in low cost, open loop position control systems.
Types of stepper motors:
1. Permanent magnet- Employ permanent magnet, low speed, relatively
high torque
2. Variable reluctance- Does not have permanent magnet, low torque
Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor
• Rotor is a permanent magnet.
• PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be
magnetized at a right angle to its axis.
• These are low cost motors with typical step angle ranging
• between 7.5⁰ to 15⁰.
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Variable Reluctance Motor Advantages of stepper motors

The cylindrical rotor is made of soft steel and has four poles. • Low cost
 It has four rotor teeth, 90⁰ apart and six stator poles, 60⁰ apart. • Ruggedness
 Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator coils • Simplicity of construction
in sequence. • Low maintenance
• Less likely to stall or slip
Hybrid stepper motor • Will work in any environment
Hybrid stepping motors combine a permanent • Excellent start-stop and reversing responses
magnet and a rotor with metal teeth to provide
features of the variable reluctance and
permanent magnet motors together. Disadvantages of stepper motors
• Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
 The number of rotor pole pairs is equal to the • Limited speed
number of teeth on one of the rotor's parts.
• During overloading, the synchronization will be broken.
The hybrid motor stator has teeth creating
more poles than the main poles windings. • Vibration and noise occur when running at high speed.

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SERVO MOTORS
A servo motor is a special electromechanical type of motor that can rotate
with great precise degrees of rotation.
 This motor consists of a control
circuit that provides feedback on the
current position of the motor shaft,
this feedback allows the servo motors
to rotate with great precision.
 A motor is powered by a DC power
supply then it is called DC servo
motor, and if it is AC-powered motor
then it is called AC servo motor.
A servo motor usually comes with a very high torque in small and
lightweight packages.
Apart from these classifications, there are many other types of servo
motors based on the type of gear arrangement and operating features.
Servomotors are also called ‘control motors’ as they are involved in
controlling a mechanical system.
A servomotor is used in a closed-loop
servo system, where a reference input is
sent to the servo amplifier, which
controls the speed of the servomotor.
A feedback device is mounted on the machine, which is either
an encoder or resolver. This device changes mechanical
motion into electrical signals and is used as a feedback.
This feedback is sent to the error detector , which compares
the actual operation with that of the reference input.
If there is an error, that error is fed directly to the amplifier, which
will be used to make necessary corrections in control action.
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DC servomotors Advantages of servo motors

DC operated servomotors are usually respond to error signal abruptly and  Provides high intermittent torque, high torque to inertia
accelerate the load quickly. A DC servo motor is actually an assembly of ratio, and high speeds
four separate components, namely:
1. DC motor  Work well for velocity control
2. Gear assembly  Available in all sizes
3. Position-sensing device  Quiet in operation
4. Control circuit
 Smoother rotation at lower speeds

AC servo motor Disadvantages of servo motors

Magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and current which o More expensive than stepper motors
further produce the torque. o Require tuning of control loop parameters
• It has no brushes so there is little noise/ vibration.
• Provides high precision control with the help of high resolution encoder. o Not suitable for hazardous environments or in vacuum
• The stator is composed of a core and a winding. o Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization
• Digital encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. of DC type servo motor
• It gives digital signals, which are in proportion of rotation of the shaft.

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LINEAR MOTION DRIVES
Linear motion drives are mechanical transmission systems which are
used to convert rotary motion into linear motion.
 The conventional thread forms like vee or square are not suitable
in CNC because of their high wear and less efficiency.
 Generally employ ball screw for driving their workpiece carriages.
 It provide backlash free operation with low friction wear.
 Most widely used linear motion drives are ball screws.
motor
table
ball screw
Bearing
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Justification of NC/CNC
Some of the most important applications of CNC are:
 CNC machining is a versatile and cost-effective manufacturing
process. This process is compatible with a huge range of materials.
 Manufacturers and machinists use CNC in various ways: in the direct
and indirect manufacturing process, or in conjunction with other
processes.
 The benefits of CNC are desirable in virtually any industry. They are:
Aerospace industry: The machining of metal aircraft
components occurs at the highest level of precision.

guide block
Automotive industry: Industries regularly enjoy the uses of
ball screw nut CNC machining for both prototyping and production.

guide rail
Consumer electronics: CNC machining helps in the
prototyping and production of consumer electronics such
Fig. Components of a linear motion drive as laptops, smartphones, smart watch and many others.
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Defense industry: The military sector frequently turns Some of the most important advantages of CNC are:
to CNC machining for the prototyping of rugged and 1. Greater operator safety. 7. Complex machining operations.
reliable parts.
2. Greater operator efficiency. 8. Lower tooling costs.
Rapid prototyping: CNC machines have greatest
applications in the fabrication of precise parts in a short 3. Reduction of scrap. 9. Increased productivity.
space of time.
4. Reduced lead time for production. 10. Minimal spare parts inventory.
Healthcare sector: CNC machinable medical parts include
surgical instruments, electronic enclosures, orthotics, and
5. Fewer chances for human error. 11. Greater machine tool safety.
implants.
Oil & gas Industry: CNC machines for precise, reliable 6. Maximum part accuracy and 12. Fewer worker hours for
parts such as pistons, cylinders, rods, pins, and valves. interchange. inspection.

Production: CNC machining is precise enough to create Disadvantages of CNC machines

high-quality components for the end-use application of
numerical control.
Regardless of size, shape, or scope, several industries use the
manufacturing process to create usable final parts.
► They are costly. ► Trained operator is required to operate CNC.
► Highly skilled professional is required to solve the problem.
► Reduction in manual labor can lead to unemployment.
► Its installation cost is high.

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Programming in NC/CNC

A Part A group of commands given to the CNC for operating CNC Program Structure
Program the machine is called the program. There are four basic terms used in CNC programming
It consists of: Character Word Block Program
 Information about part geometry
 Motion statements to move the cutting tool • A program block may contain multiple words, sequenced
 Cutting speed, feed, depth of cut in a logical order of processing.
 Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle
The program comprises of multiple lines of instructions,
direction
blocks, which will be executed by the machine control unit
Today, nearly all programs are generated using CAM software. (MCU).
1. Complete control of a machine tool, one must be able to read the Word is a combination of alpha-numerical characters. This creates
program
a single instruction.
2. CAM program (or any program) is rarely a perfect work.
Each word begins with a capital letter, followed by a numeral.
3. The need often arises for a quick program to make soft jaws, a
These are used to represent axes positions, feedrate, speed,
fixture, or some other provision for holding the work during a
preparatory commands, and miscellaneous functions.
machine setup.
4. Code writing is a backup skill. Character is the smallest unit of CNC program. It can have digit/ letter
The main objective is not to memorize codes, although doing so will accelerate mastery. / symbol.
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Zero Positioning System Modal and Non-Modal Commands

Fixed zero: Origin is always located at Modal commands: Commands issued in the NC program may stay in
some position on machine table. effect indefinitely (until they explicitly cancelled or changed by some
other command), or they may be effective for only the one time that they
 Usually at south west corner or Lower are issued.
left-hand of the tables; Examples include:
 All tool location are defined w.r.t. this • feed rate selection and coolant selection;
zero. • Absolute/ incremental positioning mode (G90/ G91);
• G-code command for setting the measurement units.
Full zero shift: Operator clamps the w/p
in a convenient position on the m/c table. Non-Modal commands: Commands that are effective only when issued
and whose effects are lost for subsequent commands are referred to as
Floating Zero: Very common with CNC non-modal commands.
machine used now-a-days. Examples include:
 Operator sets zero point at any • A dwell command, which instructs the tool to remain in a given
convenient position on M/C table. configuration for a given amount of time;
 The Coordinate system is knows as work • Commands calling "canned cycles" commonly machined features
coordinate system (WCS) such as internal pockets and drilled holes.

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NC Part Program Word Addresses in CNC Machine

An NC part program is made up of a series of commands that are input
into the MCU in a serial manner.
The MCU interprets these commands and generates the necessary
signals to each of the drive units of the machine to accomplish the
required action.
N-Code: Sequence number, used to identify each block with in
an NC program and provides a means by which NC commands
may be rapidly located.
G-Code: These are preparatory and motion words, used as a
communication device to prepare the MCU.

• Commands are inputs into the controller in units called blocks or X, Y, Z- X, Y & Z-Codes are coordinates. These give the coordinate
statements. Several commands are grouped together to accomplish a
specific machining operation, hence the use of a block of information
Code: positions of the tool.
for each operation. F-Code: Feed rate, F code specifies the feed in the machining operation.
• The way in which words are arranged within the block is called
block format. S-Code: Spindle speed, S code specifies the cutting speed of machining.
T- Code: Tool selection, T code specifies which tool is to be used.
Three different block formats are commonly used,
1. Fixed sequential format, 2. Tab sequential format, M- Code: Miscellaneous function, M code is used to designate a particular
3. Word address format. mode of operation for an NC machine tool.
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Mehta, N.K._Machine Tool Design and Numerical Control, 3e, pp 452

Example of Part Programming

The complete program including
the preparatory and miscellaneous
function codes will be written for
the part shown in Figure.

1. Drilling a hole 6 at point 1 and 2.

2. Making a threaded hole M12 at point 3;
Group 1
G00 Move at rapid travel—one or more axes
machining hole M12 involves drilling a hole The machine tool format is
G01 Linear movement at feed rate—one or more axes 10.3 and then tapping (12 mm taps). N3. G2. X3.3. Y3.3. M2.EOB
G02 Circular motion—clockwise at feed rate 2 axis limit
G03 Circular motion—C-clockwise at feed rate 2 axis G90 Prepare the MCU for absolute
G04 Dwell—a stall for a specified time dimension input The coordinates of the programmed points are:
Group 2
G71 Prepare the MCU for absolute
G17 Machining in the X-Y plane—mills only
G18 Machining in the X-Z plane—mills dimension in mm
G19 Machining in the Y-Z plane—mills G00 Prepare the MCU for
Group 3 positioning rapid rate
G70 Inch input (ISO 5 G20) ……
G71 Metric input (ISO 5 G21) G80 Instruction for execute thread.
etc…..