Numerical control & robotic Lecture No.

(3)

Conventional Numerical Control

1-Numerical control defined

Numerical control can be defined as a form of programmable automation in

which the process is controlled by numbers, letters, and symbols. In NC, the numbers
form a program of instructions designed for a particular workpart or job. When the job
is changes, the program of instructions is changed. This capability to change the
program for each new job is what gives NC its flexibility. It is much easier to write new
programs than to make major changes in the production equipment.

NC technology has been applied to a wide variety of operation, including

drafting, assembly, inspection, sheet metal press-working, and spot welding. However,
numerical control finds its principal applications in metal machining processes. The
machined workparts are designed in various sizes and shapes, and most machined parts
produced in industry today are made in small to medium-size batches. To produce each
part, a sequence of drilling operations may be required, or a series of turning or milling
operations. The suitability of NC for these kinds of jobs is the reason for the
tremendous growth of numerical control in the metalworking industry over the last 25
years.

2-BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN NC SYSTEM

An operational numerical control system consists of the following three basic
components:

2-1 Program of instructions

2-2 Controller unit, also called a machine control unit (MCU)

2-3 Machine tools or other controlled process

The general relationship among the three components is illustrated in Figure (1).
The program of instructions serves as the input to the controller unit, which in turn
commands the machine tool or other process to be controlled. We will discuss the three
components in the sections below.
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Fig (1): three basic components of a numerical control system: (a) program of instruction;
(b) controller unit; (c) machine tool

2-1 Program of instructions: -

The program of instructions is the detailed step-by-step set of directions which

tell the machine tool what to do. It is coded in numerical or symbolic form on some
type of input medium that can be interpreted by the controller unit. The most common
input medium today is 1-in.-wide punched tape. Over the years, other forms of input
media have been used, including punched cards, magnetic tape, and even 35-mm
motion picture film.

There are two other methods of input to the NC system which should be
mentioned. The first is by manual entry of instructional data to the controller unit. This
method is called manual data input, abbreviated MDI, and is appropriate only for
relatively simple jobs where the order will not be repeated. We will discuss MDI more
thoroughly later. The second other method of input is by means of a direct link with a
computer. This is called direct numerical control, or DNC. We discuss DNC later.

The program of instructions is prepared by someone called a part programmer.

The programmer's job is to provide a set of detailed instructions by which the sequence
of processing steps is to be performed. For a machining operation, the processing steps
involve the relative movement between the cutting tool and the workpiece.
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2-2 Controller unit also called a machine control unit (MCU): -

The second basic component of the NC system is the controller unit. This
consists of the electronics and hardware that read and interpret the program of
instructions and convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool. The typical
elements of a conventional NC controller unit include the tape reader, a data buffer,
signal output channels to the machine tool, feedback channels from the machine tool,
and the sequence controls to coordinate the overall operation of the foregoing elements.
It should be noted that nearly all modern NC systems today are sold with a
microcomputer as the controller unit. This type of NC is called computer numerical
control (CNC). We discuss CNC later.

The tape reader is an electromechanical device for winding and reading the
punched tape containing the program of instructions. The data contained on the tape are
read into the data buffer. The purpose of this device is to store the input instructions in
logical blocks of information. A block of information usually represents one complete
step in the sequence of processing elements.

The signal output channels are connected to the servomotors and other controls
in the machine tool. Through these channels, the instructions are sent to the machine
tool from the controller unit. To make certain that the instructions have been properly
executed by the machine, feedback data are sent back to the controller via the feedback
channels, The most important function of this return loop is to assure that the table and
workpart have been properly located with respect to the tool.

Sequence controls coordinate the activities of the other elements of the controller
unit. The tape reader is actuated to read data into the buffer from the tape. Signals are
sent to and from the machine tool, and so on. These types of operations must be
synchronized and this is the function of the sequence controls.

Another element of the NC system, which may be physically part of the

controller unit or part of the machine tool, is the control panel. The control panel or
control console contains the dials and switches by which the machine operator runs the
NC system. It may also contain data displays to provide information to the operator.
Although the NC system is-an an automatic system, the human operator is still needed
to turn the machine on and off, to change tools (some NC systems have automatic tool
changers), to load and unload the machine, and to perform various other duties.
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2-3 Machine tools or other controlled process: -

The third basic component of an NC system is the machine tool or other

controlled process. It is the part of the NC system which performs useful work. In the
most common example of an NC system, one designed to perform machining
operations, the machine tool consists of the work table and spindle as well as the
motors and controls necessary to drive them. It also includes the cutting tools. Work
fixtures, and other auxiliary equipment needed in the machining operation. Figure (2)
illustrates an NC machine tool.

Fig (2): NC system showing machine tool and controller

The NC machining center was fast introduced in the late 1950s. It is a

multifunction machine which incorporates several timesaving features into a single
piece of automated production equipment. First, a machining center is capable of
performing variety of different operations: drilling, tapping, reaming, milling, and
boring. Second; it has the capacity to change tools automatically under tape command.
A third capability of the NC machining center is workpiece positioning. The machine
table can orient the job so that it can be machine on several surfaces, as required.
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Finally; fourth feature possessed by some machining centers is the presence of two
tables or pallets on which the workpiece can be fixtured. An example of an NC
machining center is shown in Figure (3).

Fig (3): NC machining center with computer control

3-The NC Procedure
To utilize numerical control in manufacturing, the following steps must be
accomplished.

1-Process planning: - The engineering drawing of the workpart must be interpreted in

terms of the manufacturing processes to be used. This step is referred to as process
planning and it is concerned with the preparation of a route sheet. The route sheet is a
listing of the sequence of operations which must be performed on the workpart. It is
called a route sheet because it also lists the machines through which the part must be
routed in order to accomplish the sequence of operations.

2-Part programming: - A part programmer plans the process for the portions of the job
to be accomplished by NC. Part programmers are knowledgeable about the machining
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process and they have been trained to program for numerical control. They are
responsible for planning the sequence of machining steps to be performed by NC and to
document these in a special format. There are two ways to program for NC:

Manual part programming: - In manual part programming, the machining

instructions are prepared on a form called a part program manuscript. The manuscript is
a listing of the relative cutter/workpiece positions which must be followed to machine
the part.

Computer-assisted part programming: - In computer-assisted part programming,

much of the tedious computational work required in manual part programming is
transferred to the computer. This is especially appropriate for complex workpiece
geometries and jobs with many machining steps. Use of the computer in these
situations results in significant savings in part programming time.

3- Tape preparation: - A punched tape is prepared from the part programmer's NC

process plan. In manual part programming, the punched tape is prepared directly from
the part program manuscript on a typewriter like device equipped with tape punching
capability. In computer-assisted part programming, the computer interprets the list of
part programming instructions, performs the necessary calculations to convert this into
a detailed set of machine tool motion commands, and then controls a tape punch device
to prepare the tape for the specific NC machine.

4- Tape verification: - After the punched tape has been prepared, a method is usually
provided for checking the accuracy of the tape. Sometimes the tape is checked by
running it through a computer program which plots the various tool movements (or
table movements) on paper. In this way, major errors in the tape can be discovered. The
"acid test" of the tape involves trying it out on the machine tool to make the part. A
foam or plastic material is sometimes used for this tryout.

5- Production: - The final step in the NC procedure is to use the NC tape in production.
This involves ordering the raw workparts, specifying and preparing the tooling and any
special fixturing that may be required, and setting up the NC machine tool for the job.
The machine tool operator's function during production is to load the raw workpart in
the machine and establish the starting position of the cutting tool relative to the
workpiece. The NC system then takes over and machines the part according to the
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instructions on tape. When the part is completed, the operator removes it from the
machine and loads the next part.

4-NC Coordinate System

In order for the part programmer to plan the sequence of positions and
movements of the cutting tool relative to the work-piece, it is necessary to establish a
standard axis system by which the relative positions can be specified. Using an NC drill
press as an example, the drill spindle is in a fixed vertical position, and the table is
moved and controlled relative to the spindle. However, to make things easier for the
programmer, we adopt the viewpoint that the workpiece is stationary while the drill bit
is moved relative to it. Accordingly, the coordinate system of axes is established with
respect to the machine table.

Two axes, x and y, are defined in the plane of the table, as shown in Figure (4).
The z axis is perpendicular to this plane and movement in the z direction is controlled
by the vertical motion of the spindle. The positive and negative directions of motion of
tool relative to table along these axes are as shown in Figure (4). NC drill presses are
classified as either two-axis or three-axis machines, depending on whether or not they
have the capability to control the z axis.

Fig (4): NC machine tool axis system for milling and drilling operation

In addition to the three linear axes, these machines may possess the capacity to
control one or more rotational axes. Three rotational axes are defined in NC; the a, b,
and c axes. These axes specify angles about the x, y, and z axes, respectively. To
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distinguish positive from negative angular motions, the "right-hand rule" can be used.
Using the right hand with the thumb pointing in the positive linear axis direction (z, y,
or z), the fingers of the hand are curled to point in the positive rotational direction.

For turning operations, two axes are normally all that are required to command
the movement of the tool relative to the rotating workpiece. The z-axis is the axis of
rotation of the workpart, and x-axis defines the radial location of the cutting tool. This
arrangement is illustrated in Figure (5). The purpose of the coordinate system is to
provide a means of locating the tool in relation to the workpiece. Depending on the NC
machine, the programmer may have several different options available for specifying
this location.

Fig (5): NC machine tool axis system for turning operation

Fixed zero and floating zero: -The programmer must determine the position of the
tool relative to the origin (zero point) of the coordinate system. NC machines have
either of two methods for specifying the zero point. The first possibility is for the
machine to have a fixed zero. In this case, the origin is always located at the same
position on the machine table. Usually, that position is the southwest corner (lower left-
hand corner) of the table and all tool locations will be defined by positive x and y
coordinates.

The second and more common feature on modern NC machines allows the
machine operator to set the zero point at any position on the machine table. This feature
is called floating zero. The part programmer is the one who decides where the zero
point should be located. The decision is based on part programming convenience. For
example, the workpart may be symmetrical and the zero point should be established at
the center of symmetry. The location of the zero point is communicated to the machine
operator. At the beginning of the job, the operator moves the tool under manual control
to some "target point" on the table. The target point is some convenient place on the
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workpiece or table for the operator to position the tool. For example, it might be a
predrilled hole in the workpiece. The target point has been referenced to the zero point
by the part programmer. In fact, the programmer may have selected the target point as
the zero point for tool positioning. When the tool has been positioned at the target
point, the machine operator a “zero” button on the machine tool, which tells the
machine where the origin is located for subsequent tool movement.

Absolute positioning and incremental positioning: - Another option sometimes

available to the part programmer is to use either an absolute system of tool positioning
or an incremental system. Absolute positioning means that the tool locations are always
defined in relation to the zero point. If a hole is to be drilled at a spot that is 8 in. above
the x axis and 6 in. to the right of the y-axis, the coordinate location of the hole would
be specified as x = +6.000 and y = +8.000. By contrast, incremental positioning means
that the next tool location must be defined with reference to the previous tool location.
If in our drilling example, suppose that the previous hole had been drilled at an absolute
position of x = +4.000 and y = +5.000. Accordingly, the incremental position
instructions would be specified as x = +2.000 and y = +3.000 in order to move the drill
to the desired spot. Figure (6) illustrates the difference between absolute and
incremental positioning.

Fig (6): Absolute versus incremental positioning

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5-Application of Numerical Control

Numerical control systems are widely used in industry today, especially in the
metalworking industry. By far the most common application of NC is for metal cutting
machine tools. Within this category, numerically controlled equipment has been built to
perform virtually the entire range of material removal processes, including (milling,
drilling and related processes, boring, turning, grinding and sawing).

Within the machining category, NC machine tools are appropriate for certain
jobs and inappropriate for others. Following are the general characteristics of
production jobs in metal machining for which numerical control would be most
appropriate:

1- Parts are processed frequently and in small lot sizes.

2-The part geometry is complex.

3-Many operations must be performed on the part in its processing.

4-Much metal needs to be removed.

5-Engineering design changes are likely.

6-Close tolerances must be held on the workpart.

7-It is an expensive part where mistakes in processing would be costly.

8-The parts require 100% inspection.

In addition to metal machining, numerical control has been applied to a variety

of other operations. The following, will give the reader an idea of the wide range of
potential application of NC (Pressworking machine tool, welding machines, inspection
machines, automatic drafting, assembly machines, tube bending, flame cutting, plasma
arc cutting, laser beam process, automated knitting machines, cloth cutting, automatic
riveting and wire-wrap machines).

6-Advantege of NC

1- Reduced nonproductive time: - Numerical control has little or no effect on the basic
metal cutting (or other manufacturing) process. However, NC can increase the
proportion of time the machine is engaged in the actual process. It accomplishes this by
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means of fewer setups, less time in setting up, reduced workpiece handling time,
automatic tool changes on some machines, and so on.

2- Reduced fixturing: - NC requires fixtures which are simpler and less costly to
fabricate because the positioning is done by the NC tape rather than the jig or fixture.

3- Reduced manufacturing lead time: - Because jobs can be set up more quickly with
NC and fewer setups are generally required with NC, the lead time to deliver a job to
the customer is reduced.

4- Greater manufacturing flexibility: - With numerical control it is less difficult to adapt

to engineering design changes, alterations of the production schedule, changeovers in
jobs for rush orders, and so on.

5- Improved quality control: - NC is ideal for complicated workparts where the chances
of human mistakes are high. Numerical control produces parts with greater accuracy,
reduced scrap, and lower inspection requirements.

6- Reduced inventory: - Owing to fewer setups and shorter lead times with numerical
control, the amount of inventory carried by the company is reduced.

7-Reduced floor space requirements: - Since one NC machining center can often
accomplish the production of several conventional machines, the amount of floor space
required in an NC shop is usually less than in a conventional shop.

7-Disadvantege of NC
1- Higher investment cost: - Numerical control machine tools represent a more
sophisticated and complex technology. This technology costs more to buy than its non-
NC counterpart. The higher cost requires manufacturing management's to use these
machines more aggressively than ordinary equipment. High machine utilization is
essential in order to get reasonable returns on investment. Machine shops must operate
their NC machines two or three shifts per day to achieve this high machine utilization.

2- Higher maintenance cost: - Because NC is a more complex technology and because

NC machines are used harder, the maintenance problem becomes more acute. Although
the reliability of NC systems has been improved over the years, maintenance costs for
NC machines will generally be higher than for conventional machine tools.
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3- Finding and/or training NC personnel: - Certain aspects of numerical control shop

operations require a higher skill level than conventional operations. Part programmers
and NC maintenance personnel are two skill areas where available personnel are in
short supply. The problems of finding, hiring, and training these people must be
considered a disadvantage to the NC shop.