UNIT-3

Numerical control can be defined as a form of programmable automation in which

process is controlled by numbers, letters and symbols. In NC, the numbers form a programme of
instructions designed for a particular work part or job. When job changes the program of
instruction changes. This capability to change a program for each new job gives NC its
flexibility.
Numerical control should be considered as a possible mode of controlling the operation
for any production situation possessing the following characteristics:
 Similar work parts in terms of raw material (e.g. metal shock for machining).
 The work parts are produced in various sizes and geometries.
 The work parts are produced in batches of small to medium size quantities.
 A sequence of similar processing steps is required to complete the operation on each
work piece.
 Many machining jobs meet these conditions.

Basic components of NC system

An operational numerical control system consists of the following three basic
components:
1. Program of instructions.
2. Controller unit also called machine tool unit.
3. Machine tool or other controlled process.
The program of instructions serves as input to the controller unit, which in turn
commands the machine tool or other process to be controlled.

Fig. 3.1: Three Basic Components of NC

Program of Instructions:
The program of instructions is the detailed step by step set of instructions which tell the
machine what to do. It is coded in numerical or symbolic form on some type of input medium
that can be interpreted by the controller unit. The most common one is the 1-inch-wide punched
tape. Over the years, other forms of input media have been used, Including punched cards,
magnetic tape, and even 35mm motion picture film. There are two other methods of input to the
NC system which should be mentioned. The first is by manual entry of instructional data to the
controller unit. This is time consuming and is rarely used except as an auxiliary means of
control or when one or a very limited no. of parts to be made. The second method of input is by
means of a direct link with the computer. This is called direct numerical control, or DNC.
Controller Unit:
The second basic component of NC system is the controller unit. This consists of
electronics and hardware that read and interpret the program of instructions and convert it to
mechanical actions of the machine tool. The typical elements of the controller unit include the
tape reader, a data buffer, signal output channels to the machine tool, and the sequence controls
to coordinate the overall operation of the foregoing elements. The tape reader is an electrical-
mechanical device for the winding and reading the punched tape containing the program of
instructions. The signal output channels are connected to the servo motors and other controls in
machine tools. Most N.C. tools today are provided with positive feedback controls for this
purpose and are referred as closed loop systems. However there has been growth in the open
loop systems which do not make use of feedback signals to the controller unit.
Machine Tool:
The third basic component of an NC system is the machine tool or other controlled
process. It is part of the NC system which performs useful work. In the most common example
of an NC system, one designed to perform machining operations, the machine tool consists of the
worktable and spindle as well as the motors and controls necessary to drive them. It also
includes the cutting tools, work fixtures and other auxiliary equipment needed in machining
operation.
The NC Procedure
To utilize numerical control in manufacturing, the following steps must be accomplished.
l. Process Planning. The engineering drawing of the work part must be interpreted in terms of
the manufacturing processes to be used. This step is referred to as process planning and it is
concerned with the preparation of a route sheet. The route sheet is a listing of the sequence of
operations which must be performed on the work part. It is called a route sheet because it also
lists the machines through which the part must be routed in order to accomplish the
sequence of operations. We assume that some of the operations will be performed on one or
more NC machines.
2. Part programming. A part programmer plans the process for the portions of the job to be
accomplished by NC. Part programmers are knowledgeable about the machining process and
they have been trained to program for numerical control. They are responsible for planning the
sequence of machining steps to be performed by NC and to document these in a special format.
3. Tape preparation. A punched tape is prepared from the part programmers NC
process plan. In manual part programming, the punched tape is prepared directly from the part
program manuscript on a type writer like device equipped with tape punching capability. In
computer-assisted part programming, the computer interprets the list of part programming
instructions, performs the necessary calculations to convert this into a detailed set of machine
tool motion commands, and then controls a tape punch device to prepare the tape for the specific
NC machine.
4. Tape verification. After the punched tape has been prepared, a method is usually provided for
checking the accuracy of the tape. Sometimes the tape is checked by running it through a
computer program which plots the various tool movements (or table movements) on paper. In
this way, major errors in the tape can be discovered. The "acid test" of the tape involves trying it
out on the machine tool to make the part. A foam or plastic material is sometimes used for
this tryout. Programming errors are not uncommon, and it may require about three
attempts before the tape is correct and ready to use.
5. Production. The final step in the NC procedure to use the NC tape in production. This
involves ordering the raw work parts specifying and preparing the tooling and any special
fixturing that may be required, and setting up The NC machine tool for the job.
The machine tool operator's function during production is to load the raw work part in the
machine and establish the starting position of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece. The NC
system then takes over and machines the part according to the instructions on tape. When the
part is completed, the operator removes it from the machine and loads the next part.

Types of NC Systems:
When classified according to the machine tool control system, there are three basic
types of NC systems:
1. Point to Point.
2. Straight cut.
3. Contouring.
The classification is concerned with the amount of control over the relative motion between the
work piece and cutting tool. The least control is exerted over the tool motion with the point to
point systems. Contouring represents the highest level of control.

Point-to-Point NC:
Point to point is also sometimes called a positioning system. In PTP the objective of the
machine tool control system is to move the cutting tool to predefined location. The speeder path
by which this movement is accomplished is not important in point to point NC. Once the tool
reaches the desired location, the machining operation is performed at that position. NC drill
presses are a good example of PTP systems. Positioning systems are the simplest machine tool
control systems and therefore the least expensive of the three types. However for certain
processes such as drilling operations and spot welding. PTP is perfectly suited to task and any
higher level of control is unnecessary.

Fig.3.2: Point-to-Point Positioning Control in NC

Straight Cut NC:
Straight cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to one of the
major axes at a controlled rate suitable for machining. It is therefore appropriate for performing
milling operations to fabricate work pieces of rectangular configurations. With this type of NC
system it is not possible to combine movements in more than single axis direction. Therefore
angular cuts on the work piece would not be possible. An NC machine tool capable of
performing straight cut movements is also capable of point to point movements.

Fig. 3.3: Straight Cut Control in NC

Contouring NC:
Contouring is the most complex flexible and the most expensive type of machine tool
control. It is capable of performing both PTP and straight cut operations. In addition the
distinguishing feature of the contouring NC system is their capacity for simultaneous control of
more than one axis movement of machine tool, figure below illustrates the versatility of
continuous path NC. Milling and Turning are the common examples of the use of contouring
control.

Fig.3.4: Contouring control in NC

Applications of NC:
NC has been used in a variety of applications. A complete list of application is probably not
possible but such a list would have to include the following:
 Metal cutting machine tools
 Press working machine tools
 Welding machines
 Inspection machines
 Automatics drafting
 Assembly machines
By far the most common application of the numerical control is for metal cutting machine tools.
Within the category alone, NC equipment has been built to perform virtually the entire range of
material removal processes including:
 Milling
 Drilling and related operation
 Boring
 Turning
 Grinding

Advantages of NC:
N/C proponents find numerically controlled equipment advantageous because of basic
economic reasons. The following illustration identifies a number of these reasons. They provide
sound justifications for the purchase of NC facilities for (1) instruction purposes, and, primarily,
(2) production purposes.
1. Greater operator safety:
The numerical control system is operated from a remote station which in itself is a built-
in safety factor. The operator's attention to the various functions of the machine tool are
drastically reduced or eliminated. The operator is exposed less frequently to moving machine
elements or to the cutting tools.
2. Greater operator efficiency:
Since a numerically controlled machine requires less attention, the operator can perform
other tasks while the machine is operating. In some cases, the operator may be in charge of two
or more machines.
3. Reduction of scrap:
It has been shown that through the consistent high accuracy of numerically controlled
machines and the elimination of most of the human errors, scrap can be reduced to a minimum.
Some companies have reduced the number of scrap parts produced on numerically controlled
machines, as compared to conventional machines, by as much as 50 to 60 percent.
4. Reduced lead time for production:
The set up and tape preparation time for numerically controlled machines is usually short.
Frequently very few jigs or fixtures are required. The jigs and fixtures which may be needed are
usually standard and are readily available from the tool room. The tape may be filed for future
production runs and requires very little storage space in the tool room.
5. Fewer chances for human error:
The numerical control machine operator is not asked to take trial cuts, make trial
measurements, or make positioning movements. All of these are included in the programmed
tape which controls the machine. The N/C system also relieves the operator of tool indexing,
selecting the sequence of operations and other routine functions.
6. Maximal accuracy and interchangeability of parts:
The improvement of the accuracy of the parts produced by numerical control is almost
automatic. More uniform quality is achieved because all parts are produced from the same tape,
under the same conditions, and accuracy is maintained within the limits of the tooling and the
machine tool. Consequently, interchanging of parts is possible.
7. Lower tooling costs:
Only simplified holding fixtures are usually required with numerically controlled
machines. Tool fixture design may be reduced by as much as 70 percent, thereby reducing the
work load on the drafting and tool departments, which would design and build any needed jigs
and fixtures.
8. Increased productivity:
Precise tape control of all machine functions enables parts to be produced faster, with less
setup and lead time than is possible with a hand operated machine.
9. Minimal spare parts inventory:
A large spare parts inventory is unnecessary. Additional quantities of spare parts may be
produced by withdrawing from storage. tapes used for the original quantity produced.
10. Greater machine tool safety:
The possibility of an operator error which could result in damage to the machine is
reduced in proportion to the greatly lowered need for human intervention.
11. Fewer man hours for inspection functions:
The production of uniform quality parts leads to reduced inspection time. Field
experience has shown that once the programmed numerical control tape has been tested, little
other checking is necessary within the expected tool life. Fewer parts in each job lot will need to
be inspected. Many parts will require inspection of critical hole size and dowel hole positions
only. In general, inspection time may be reduced by about one-half.
12. Greater machine utilization:
Numerical control requires less setup time for tooling, and production time may go as
high as 75 to 80 percent up time. Some companies have found it possible to use fewer machines
to complete the same amount of production.
Disadvantages of NC:
Along with the advantages of NC, there are several features about NC which must be considered
disadvantages:
1. Higher investment cost: Numerical control machine tools represent a more sophisticated
and complex technology. This technology costs more to buy than its non-NC counterpart. The
higher cost requires manufacturing managements to use these machines more aggressively than
ordinary equipment. High machine utilization is essential on order to get reasonable returns on
investment. Machine shops must operate their NC machines two or three sifts per day to achieve
this high machine utilization.
2. Higher maintenance cost: Because NC is a more complex technology and because NC
machines are used harder, the maintenance problem becomes more acute. Although the
reliability of NC systems has been improved over the years, maintenance costs for NC machines
will generally be higher than for conventional machine tools.
3. Finding and/or training NC personnel: Certain aspects of numerical control shop operations
require a higher skill level than conventional operations. Part programmers and NC
maintenance personnel are two skill areas where available personnel are in short supply. The
problems of finding, hiring, and training these people must be considered a disadvantage to the
NC shop.
Punched Tape in NC:
The part program is converted into a sequence of machine tool actions by means of the
input medium, which contains the program, and the controller unit, which interprets the input
medium. The controller unit and the input medium must be compatible. That is, the input
medium uses coded symbols which represent the art program, and the controller unit must be
capable of reading those symbols be most common input medium is punched tape. The tape has
been standardized, on that type punchers are manufactured to prepare the NC tapes, and tape
readers part of the controller unit) can be manufactured to read the tapes. The punched tape used
for NC is l inch wide. It is standardized as shown in Figure by the Electronics Industries
Association (EIA), which has been responsible for many of the important standards in the NC
industry.

Fig.3.5: Tape Reader

There are two basic methods of preparing the punched tape. The first method associated
with manual part programming and involves the use of a typewriter like device. Figure
illustrates a modern version of this kind of equipment. The operator types directly from the part
programmer’s handwritten list of coded instructions. This produces a typed copy of the program
as well as the punched type. The second method is used with computer-assisted part
programming. By this approach, the tape is prepared directly by the computer using a device
called a tape punch.
By either method of preparation, the punched tape is ready for use. During production on
a conventional NC machine, the tape is fed through the tape reader once for each workpiece. It is
advanced through the tape reader one instruction at a time. While the machine tool is performing
one instruction, the next instruction is being read into the controller unit's data buffer. This
makes the operation of the NC system more efficient. After the last instruction has been read into
the controller, the tape is rewound back to the start of the program to be ready for the next work
part.

Tape Coding and Format

NC tape coding
As shown in Figure, there are eight regular columns of holes running in the lengthwise
direction of the tape. There is also a ninth column of holes between the third and fourth regular
columns. However, these are smaller and are used as sprocket holes for feeding the tape.
Figure shows a hole present in nearly every position of the tape. However, the coding of
the tape is provided by either the presence or absence of a hole in the various positions. Because
there are two possible conditions for each position–either the presence or absence of a hole–this
coding system is called the binary code. It uses the base 2 number system, which can represent
any number in the more familiar base l0 or decimal system. The NC tape coding system is used
to code not only numbers, but also alphabetical letters and other symbols. Eight columns
provide more than enough binary digits to define any of the required symbols.
How instructions are formed
A binary digit is called a bit. It has a value of 0 or l depending on the absence or presence
of a hole in a certain row and column position on the tape. (Columns of hole positions run
lengthwise along the tape. Row positions run across the tape.) Out of a row of bits, a character is
made. A character is a combination of bits, which represents a letter, number, or other symbol. A
word is a collection of characters used to form part of an instruction. Typical NC words are x
position, y position, cutting speed, and so on. Out of a collection of words, a block is formed. A
block of words is a complete NC instruction. Using an NC drilling operation as an example, a
block might contain information on the x and y coordinates of the hole location, the speed and
feed at which the cut should be run, and perhaps even a specification of the cutting tool.
To separate blocks, an end-of-block (EOB) symbol is used (in the EIA standard,
this is a hole in column 8). The tape reader feeds the data from the tape into the buffer in blocks.
That is, it reads in a complete instruction at a time.
NC Words
Following is a list of the different types of words in the formation of a block. Not very
NC machine uses all the words. Also, the manner in which the words are expressed will differ
between machines. By convention, the words in a block are given in the following order:
Sequence Number (N-words): This is used to identify the block.
Reparatory Word (G-words): This word is used to prepare the controller for instructions that
are to follow. For example, the word GO2 is used to prepare the controller unit for circular
interpolation along an arc in the clockwise direction. The preparatory word l& needed S9 that the
controller can correctly interpret the data that follow it in the block.
Coordinates (x-, y-, and z-words): These give the coordinate positions of the tool. In a two-axis
system, only two of the words would be used. In a four- or five- axis machine, additional a-
words and V or b-words would specify the angular positions.
 Although different NC systems use different formats for expressing a coordinate, we will
adopt the convention of expressing it in the familiar decimal form: For example, x + 7.235 or y-
0.5ao. Some formats do not use the decimal point in writing the coordinate. The + sign to define
a positive coordinate location is optional. The negative sign is, of course, mandatory.
Feed Rate (F-word): This specifies the feed in a machining operation. Units are inches per
minute (ipm) by convention.
Cutting Speed (S-word): This specifies the cutting speed of the process, the rate at which the
spindle rotates.
Tool Selection (T-word): This word would be needed only for machines with a tool turret or
automatic tool changer. The T-word specifies which tool is to be used in the operation. For
example, t-05 might be the designation of a 1/2-in. drill bit in turret position 5 on an NC turret
drill.
Miscellaneous Function (M-word): The M-word is used to specify certain miscellaneous or
auxiliary functions which may be available on the machine tool. Of course, the machine must
possess the function that is being called. An example would be M03 to start the spindle
rotation. The miscellaneous function is the last word in the block. To identify the end of the
instruction, an end-of-block (EOB) symbol is punched on the tape.
 Manual Part Programming:
In manual programming, the machining instructions are prepared on a document called a part
program manuscript. Basically, the manuscripts is a listing of the relative cutting tool/ work
piece positions which must be followed in order to machine the work piece. A punched tape is
then prepared directly from the part programmer manuscript.
Manual programming jobs can be divided into two categories: point-to-point jobs and
contouring jobs. Except for complex work parts with many holes to be drilled, manual
programming is ideally suited for point-to-point applications. On the other hand, except for the
simplest milling and turning jobs, manual programming can become quite time consuming for
applications requiring continuous-path control of the tool. Accordingly, we shall be concerned
only with manual part programming for point-to-point operations. Contouring is much more
appropriate for computer- assisted part programming.
The basic method of manual part programming for a point-to-point application is best
demonstrated by means of an example.
Example
Suppose that the part to be programmed is a drilling job. The engineering drawing for the
part is presented in Figure. Three holes are to be drilled at a diameter of 3 in. The close hole
size tolerance requires reaming to 0.500 inches diameter.

Table 3.1: Speeds and Feeds

The NC drill press operates as follows. Drill bits are manually changed by the machine
operator, but speeds and feeds must be programmed on the tape. The machine has the floating-
zero feature and absolute positioning.
 Fig.3.6: Part Drawing

The first step in preparing the part program is to define the axis coordinates in relation to the
work part. We assume that the outline of the part has already been machined before the drilling
operation. Therefore, the operator can use one of the comers of the part as the target point. Let
us define the lower left-hand comer as the target point and the origin of our axis system. The
coordinates are shown in figure for the example part. The x and y locations of each hole can be
seen in the figure. The completed manuscript would appear as in Figure. The first line shows the
x and y coordinates at the zero point. The machine operator would insert the tape and read this
first block into the system. (A block of instruction corresponds generally to one line on the
manuscript form.) The tool would then be positioned over the target point on the machine table.
The operator would then press the zero buttons to set the machine.
 Fig. 3.7: Coordinate system defined for PART IN example
The next line on the manuscript is RWS, which stands for rewind-stop. This signal is
coded into the tape as holes in columns l, 2, and 4. The symbol stops the tape after it has been
rewound. The last line on the tape contains the M30-word, causing the tape to be rewound at the
end of the machining cycle. Other M-words used in the program are M06, which stops the
machine for an operator tool change, and Ml3, which turns on the spindle and coolant. Note in
the last line that the tool has been repositioned away from the work area to allow for changing
the workpiece.
 Fig. 3.8: Part program manuscript for Example.
 Computer Assisted Part Programming:
In computer-assisted part programming, much of the tedious computational work is
transferred to the computer. For complex work part geometries or jobs with many machining
steps, use of computer results in significant savings in part programming time. The part
programmers work consists of typically two tasks. First he must define the configuration of the
work part in terms of basic geometric elements, like lines, points, planes, circles, and so on.
Second he must direct the cutting tool to perform the machining steps along these geometric
elements: drill the holes, mill the surfaces flat. The part programmer accomplishes these tasks by
using special programming language. The computer then interprets the program and performs the
various calculations necessary to prepare the punched tape for the punched tape for NC machine
tool.
After the punched tape has been prepared a method is usually provided for checking the
accuracy of the tape. Sometimes the tape is checked by running through a computer program
which plots the various tool movements (or table movements) on paper. In this way major errors
in the tape may be discovered. The acid test of the tape involves trying it out on the machine
tool to make the part programming errors are not uncommon, and it may require about three
attempts before the tape is correct and ready to use.
The final step in the NC procedure is to use the NC tape in the production. This involves
ordering the raw work parts, specifying and preparing the tooling and any special fixturing that
may be required and setting up the NC machine tool for the job. The machine tool operator
function during production is to load the raw work part in the machine and establish the starting
position of the cutting tool with respect to the work piece. The NC machine then takes over and
controls the rest of the operation. When the operation is complete the operator removes that part
from the machine and loads new part.
It is customary when manufacturing a batch of parts for the quality control inspector to
thoroughly check the first part for conformance to the engineering drawing. After the accuracy of
this initial part has been verified, production of the remaining parts is been completed with
relative assurance that the first part will be duplicated in the subsequent cycles.
Most parts machined on NC systems are considerably more complex. In the more
complicated point-to-point jobs and in contouring applications, manual part programming
becomes an extremely tedious task and subject to error. In these instances it is much more
appropriate to employ the high-speed digital computer to assist in the part programming process.
Many part programming language systems have been developed to automatically perform most
of the calculations which the programmer would otherwise be forced to do. This saves time and
results in a more accurate and more efficient part program. The part programmer’s job the
difference in the part programmer’s job between manual programming and computer-assisted
programming is this. With manual programming, a manuscript is used which is formatted so that
the NC tape can be typed directly from it. With computer-assisted part programming, the
machining instructions are written in English-like statements of the NC programming language,
which are then processed by the computer to prepare the tape. The computer automatically
punches the tape in the proper tape format for the particular NC machine.
When utilizing one of the NC programming languages, part programming can be
summarized as consisting basically of two tasks:
1. Defining the geometry of the work part.
2. Specifying the tool path and/or operation sequence.
Let us now consider these two tasks in computer-assisted part programming. Our frame of
reference will be for a contouring application, but the concepts apply for a positioning
application as well.
Work Part Geometry Definition: No matter how complicated the work part may appear, it is
composed of basic geometric elements. Using a relatively simple work part to illustrate, consider
the component as shown in figure. Although somewhat irregular in overall appearance, the
outline of the part consists of intersecting straight lines and a partial circle. The holes in the part
can be expressed in terms of the center location and radius of the hole. Nearly any component
that can be conceived by a designer can be described by points, straight lines, planes, circles,
cylinders, and other mathematically defined surfaces. It is the part programmer’s task to
enumerate the component elements out of which the work part is formed. Each geometric
element must be identified and the dimensions and location of the element explicitly defined.

Fig.3.9: Sample part to illustrate how it is composed of basic geometric elements such as points,
lines and circles
Using the APT programming language as an example, the following statement might be used to
define a point:
P1 – POINT/6.0, 1.125,0.
The point is identified by the symbol P1 and is located at x = 6.0, y = 1.125, and z = 0.
Similarly, a circle in the x–y plane might be defined by the APT statement:
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 1.12
The center of circle C1 is Pi (previously defined) and the radius is 1.125.
The various geometric elements in the drawing of shown figure would be identified in a similar
fashion by the part programmer.
Tool Path Construction: After defining the work part geometry, the programmer must next
construct the path that the cutter will follow to machine the part. This tool path specification
involves a detailed step-by-step sequence of cutter moves. The moves are made along the
geometry elements which have previously been defined.
To illustrate, using figure and the APT language, the following statement could be used
to command the tool to make a left turn from line L2 onto line L3:
GOLFT/L3, PAST, L1
This assumes the tool was previously located at the intersection of lines L2 and L3 and had
just finished a cut along L2. The statement directs the tool to cut along L3 until it just passes line
L1. By using statements similar to the above, the tool can be directed to machine along the work
part surfaces, to go to point locations, to drill holes at those point locations, and so on. In
addition to geometry definition and tool path specification, the part programmer also provides
other commands to the NC system.
The computer’s job in computer-assisted part programming consists of the following steps:
1. Input translation
2. Arithmetic calculations
3. Cutter offset computation
4. Post processor
The sequence of these steps and their relationships to the part programmer and the machine
tool are illustrated in following figure:

Fig.3.10: Steps in CAPP

1. Input Translation:
The part programmer enters the program using the APT or other language. The input
translation component converts the coded instructions contained in the program into computer-
usable form, preparatory to further processing.
2. Arithmetic Calculations:
The arithmetic calculations unit of the system consists of a comprehensive set of
subroutines for solving the mathematics required to generate the part surface. These subroutines
are called by the various part programming language statements. The arithmetic unit is really the
fundamental element in the part programming package. This unit frees the programmer from the
time-consuming geometry and trigonometry calculations to concentrate on the work part
processing.
3. Cutter Offset Computation:
When we described the second task of the part programmer as that of constructing the
tool path, we ignored one basic factor the size of the cutting tool. The actual tool path is
different from the part outline. I is because the tool path is the path taken by the center of
the cutter. It is at the periphery of the cutter that machining takes place.
The purpose of the cutter offset computation is to offset the tool path from the desired
part surface by the radius of the cutter. This means that the part programmer can define the exact
part outline in his geometry statements. Thanks to the cutter offset calculation provided by the
programming system, he need not concern himself with this task.

Fig.3.11: Cutter offset problem in part programming

4. Post Processor:
As we have noted previously, NC machine tool systems are different. They have different
features and capabilities. They use different NC tape formats. Nearly all of the part programming
languages, including APT, are designed to be general-purpose languages, not limited to one or
two machine tool types. Therefore, the final task of the computer in computer-assisted part
programming is to take the general instructions and make them specific to a particular machine
tool system. The unit that performs this task is called a post processor.
The post processor is really a separate computer program that has been written to prepare
the punched tape for a specific machine tool. The input to the post processor is the output from
the other three components: a series of cutter locations and other instructions. This is referred to
as the CLFILE or CLDATA (CL stands for cutter location). The output of the post processor is
the NC tape written in the correct format for the machine on which it is to be used.
NC part programming languages.
Probably over 100 NC part programming languages have been developed since the initial
MIT research on NC programming systems in 1956. Most of the languages were developed to
serve particular needs and machines and have not survived the test of time. However, a good
number of languages are still in use today. In this subsection we review some of those which are
generally considered important.
APT (Automatically Programmed Tools):
The API language was the product of the MIT developmental work on NC programming
systems. Its development began in June 1956, and it was first used in production around 1959.
Today it is the most widely used language in the United States. Although first intended as a
contouring language, modern versions of APT can be used for both positioning and continuous-
path programming and continuous-path programming in up to five axes.
AUTOSPOT (Automatic System for Positioning Tools):
This was developed by IBM and first introduced in 1962 for PTP programming. Today’s
version of AUTOSPOT can be used for contouring as well.
SPLIT (Sundstrand Processing Language Internally Translated):
This is a proprietary system intended for Sundstrand’s machine tools. It can handle up to
five axis positioning and possesses contouring capability as well. One of the unusual features of
SPLIT is that the post processor is built into the program. Each machine tool uses its own SPLIT
package, thus obviating the need for a special post processor.
COMPACT II:
This is a package available from Manufacturing Data Systems, Inc. (MDSI), a firm based
in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The NC language is similar to SPLIT in many of its features. MDSI
leases the COMPACT II system to its users on a time-sharing basis. The part programmer uses a
remote terminal to feed the program into one of the MDSI computers, which in tum produces
the NC tape.
ADAPT (Adaptation of APT):
Several part programming languages are based directly on the APT program One of these
is ADAPT, which was developed by IBM under Air Force contract. It was intended to provide
many of the features of AFT but to utilize a significantly smaller computer. ADAPT is not as
powerful as APT, but can be used to program for both positioning and contouring jobs.
EXAPT (Extended Subset of APT):
This was developed in Germany starting around 1964 and is based on the APT language.
There are three versions: EXAPT I designed for positioning (drilling and also straight-cut
milling), EXAPT II designed for turning, and EXAPT III designed for limited contouring
operations. One of the important features of EXAPT is that it attempts to compute optimum
feeds and speeds automatically.
Auxiliary statements are used to identify the part program, specify which postprocessor to use,
insert remarks into the program, and so on. Some examples are following:
Computer Tasks in Computer-Assisted Part Programming:
1. Input translation – converts the coded instructions in the part program into computer
usable form.
2. Arithmetic and cutter offset computations – performs the mathematical computations to
define the part surface and generate the tool path, including cutter offset compensation
(CLFILE).
3. Editing – provides readable data on cutter locations and machine tool operating
commands (CLDATA).
4. Post processing – converts CLDATA into low-level code that can be interpreted by the
MCU
There are four basic types of statements in the APT language:
1. Geometry statements, also called definition statements; are used to define the geometry
elements that comprise the part.
2. Motion commands; are used to specify the tool path.
3. Postprocessor statements; control the machine tool operation, for example, to specify
speeds and feeds, set tolerance values for circular interpolation, and actuate other
capabilities of the machine tool.
4. Auxiliary statements; a group of miscellaneous statements used to name the part
program, insert comments in the program and accomplish similar functions.
APT vocabulary words consist of six or fewer characters. The characters are almost always
letters of the alphabet.

Geometry statements:

The points, lines, and surfaces must be defined in the program prior to specifying the
motion statements.
The general form of an APT geometry statement is the following:
Symbol = Geometry Type/descriptive data as an example;

Points:
Specification of a point can be accomplished by the following:
1) Designating its x-, y-, and z-coordinates;
P1 = POINT/15.0, 10.0, 25.0
2) As the intersection of two intersecting lines;
P2 = POINT/INTOF, L1, L2
L1 and L2 are two previously defined lines.
Lines:
A line in APT is considered to be of infinite length in both directions. Specification of a
line can be accomplished by the following:
1) Two points through which it passes;
L1 = LINE/P3, P4
P3 and P4 are two previously defined points.
2) Passes through point (P5) and parallel to another line (L3) that has been previously
defined;
L2 = LINE/P5, PARLEL, L3
Planes:
In APT, a plane extends indefinitely. A plane can be defined by the following:
1) Three points through which it passes;
PL1 = PLANE/P1, P2, P3
P1, P2 and P3 must be non-collinear.
2) Passes through point (P2) and parallel to another plane (PL1) that has been previously
defined;
PL2 = PLANE/P2, PARLEL, PL1
Circles:
In APT, a circle is considered to be a cylindrical surface that is perpendicular to the x-y plane
and extends to infinity in the z-direction. A circle can be defined by the following:
1) Its center and radius;
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 25.0
2) Three points through which it passes;
C2 = CIRCLE/P4, P5, P6
The three points must not be collinear.
Motion Commands:
All APT motion statements follow a common format, just as geometry statements have
their own format. The general form of an APT motion command is:
MOTION COMMAND/descriptive data
As an example;
GOTO/P1
- At the beginning of the sequence of motion statements, the tool must be given a starting
point. This is likely to be the target point, the location where the operator has positioned the tool
at the start of the job. The part programmer keys into this starting position with the following
statement:
FROM/PTARG
Where, FROM is an APT vocabulary word indicating that this is the initial point from
which all others will be referenced; and PTARG is the symbol assigned to the starting point.
Another way to make this statement is the following:
FROM/-20.0, -20.0, 0
- The FROM statement occurs only at the start of the motion sequence.
Point-to-point motions:
There are two commands; GOTO and GODLTA.
* The GOTO statement instructs the tool to go to a particular point location specified in the
descriptive data. Two examples are:
GOTO/P2
GOTO/25.0, 40.0, 0
* The GODLTA command specifies an incremental move for the tool. To illustrate, the
following statement instruct the tool to move from its present position by a distance of 50 mm in
x-direction, 120 mm in y-direction, and 40 mm in z-direction;
GODLTA/50.0, 120.0, 40.0
* The GODLTA statement is useful in drilling and related machining operations. The tool can be
directed to go to a given hole location; then the GODLTA command can be used to drill the hole,
as in the following sequence;
GOTO/P2
GODLTA/0, 0, -50.0
GODLTA/0, 0, 50.0
Contouring Motions:
These are more complicated than PTP commands are because the tool’s position
must be continuously controlled throughout the move.
• The tool is directed along two intersecting surfaces until it reaches a third surface, as
shown in the following Figure.
1. Drive surface: this is the surface that guides the side of the cutter. It is pictured as a
plane in our Figure.
2. Part surface: this is the surface, again pictured as a plane, on which the bottom or nose
of the tool is guided.
3. Check surface: this is the surface that stops the forward motion of the tool in the
execution of the current command. One might say that this surface “checks” the advance
of the tool.

Fig.3.12: Three surfaces in APT contouring that guide cutting tool

 Fig.3.13: Showing commands

Postprocessor and Auxiliary statements:

Postprocessor statements control the operation of the machine tool and play a supporting
role in generating the tool path. Such statements are used to define cutter size, specify speeds and
feeds, turn coolant flow on and off, and control other features of the m/c tool. The general form
of the postprocessor statement is:
Postprocessor Command/descriptive data
In some commands, the descriptive data is omitted. Some examples of the postprocessor
statements are the following:
 Auxiliary statements are used to identify the part program, specify which postprocessor to
use, insert remarks into the program, and so on. Some examples are following:

CNC Systems
CNC Machining is a process used in the manufacturing sector that involves the use of
computers to control machine tools. Tools that can be controlled in this manner include lathes,
mills, routers and grinders. The CNC in CNC Machining stands for Computer Numerical
Control.
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is one in which the functions and motions of a machine
tool are controlled by means of a prepared program containing coded alphanumeric data.
Major components of CNC:

Fig.3.14: Major components of CNC

(i) Input Devices: These are the devices which are used to input the part program in the CNC
machine. There are three commonly used input devices and these are punch tape reader,
magnetic tape reader and computer via RS-232-C communication.
(ii) Machine Control Unit (MCU): It is the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the
controlling action of the CNC machine; the various functions performed by the MCU are it reads
the coded instructions fed into it.
 It decodes the coded instruction.
 It implements interpolation (linear, circular and helical) to generate axis motion
commands.
 It feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis
mechanisms.
 It receives the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
 It implements the auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and tool
change.
(iii) Machine Tool: A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a spindle to control of the
position and speed. The machine table is controlled in X and Y axis direction and the spindle is
controlled in the Z axis direction.
(iv) Driving System: The driving system of a CNC machine consists of amplifier circuits, drive
motors and ball lead screw. The MCU feeds the signals (i.e. of position and speed) of each axis
to the amplifier circuits. The control signals are than augmented (increased) to actuate the drive
motors. And the actuated drive motors rotate the ball lead screw to position the machine table.
(v) Feedback System: This system consists of transducers that acts like sensors. It is also called
as measuring system. It contains position and speed transducers that continuously monitor the
position and speed of the cutting tool located at any instant. The MCU receives the signals from
these transducers and it uses the difference between the reference signals and feedback signals to
generate the control signals for correcting the position and speed errors.
(vi) Display Unit: A monitor is used to display the programs, commands and other useful data of
CNC machine.
Advantages
1. It can produce jobs with highest accuracy and precision than any other manual machine.
2. It can be run for 24 hours of a day.
3. The parts produced by it have same accuracy. There is no variation in the parts
manufactured by a CNC machine.
4. Highly skilled operator is not required to operate a CNC machine. A semi-skilled
operator can also operate accurately and more precisely.
5. Operators can easily make changes and improvements and reduces the delay time.
6. It has the capability to produce complex design with high accuracy in minimum possible
time.
7. The modern design software, allows the designer to simulate the manufacturer of his/her
idea. And this removes the need of making a prototype or model and saves time and
money.
8. Fewer workers are required to operate a CNC machine and saves labour cost.
Disadvantages
Despite of having so many advantages, a CNC machine has some disadvantages too. And these
are:
1. The cost of the CNC machine is very high as compared with manually operated machine.
2. The parts of CNC machines are expensive.
3. The maintenance cost in the case of CNC is quite high.
4. It does not eliminate the need of costly tools.
Functions of CNC:
1. Machine tool control
2. In-Process compensation
3. Improved programming & operating features
4. Diagnostics
Machine Tool Control:
This involves conversion of the part program instructions into machine tool motions
through the computer interface and servo system. The capability to conveniently incorporate a
variety of control features into the software controller unit is the main advantage of CNC. There
are two alternative controller designs in CNC.
1. Hybrid CNC
2. Straight CNC
In Hybrid CNC, the controller consists of the soft wired computer plus hard-wired logic circuits.
In straight CNC system uses a computer to perform all the NC functions.
In-Process Compensation:
1. Debugging the problem and adjusting for the error sensed by in-process probes and
gauges.
2. Recalculation of axis positions when inspection probe is locating the reference on work
part.
3. Adaptive control adjustment to the tool speed and feed.
4. Compute the predicted tool life and select alternative tooling when indicated.
5. Offset adjustment for tool radius and length.
Improved Programming and Operating Features:
The flexibility of soft-wired control of CNC allows the introduction of many convenient
programming and operation features. The main features are listed below:
1. Manual data input and editing of part program at machine - it permits the correction and
optimization of part program.
2. Graphic display tool path help to verify the tape.
3. Support more than one system of units.
4. Use of specially written subroutine program.
5. Types of interpolation technique: Cubic, circular and parabolic interpolation.
6. Large local storage system that having more than one program.
Diagnostics:
CNC machines are very expensive and complicated. The complexity of machine required
well trained and proficient personal for maintenance. The CNC machines are often equipped
with the diagnostic capability to assist during the maintenance of system. The diagnostic
subsystem has several features. One of the main features is that it identifies the reason for a
problem and guide the maintenance personnel so that he/ she can repair the system very quickly.
Second feature that it alerts the imminent failure of certain component, so the maintenance
personnel can check/ replace the faulty component during scheduled downtime and thus avoid
unplanned downtime.
Third possible function is that when a component fails, the diagnostic subsystem
automatically disconnects the faulty component and activate the redundant component. It helps
to avoid the further damage to machine and work; repairs can be done without breaking the
normal operation.

DNC Systems
DNC is a manufacturing system in which a number of machines are controlled by a computer
through direct- connection and in real time.
Also, defined by EIA as: DNC is a system connecting a set of NC machines to a common
memory for part program or machine program storage with provision for on- demand
distribution of data to machines.
The tape reader is omitted.
Involves data connection and processing from the machine tool back to the computer.
Components of DNC:
1. Central computer
2. Bulk memory which stores the NC part programs.
3. Telecommunication lines
4. Machine Tools
 Fig.3.15: Components of DNC System

 A central computer connected to a number of machine tools and controls them.

 Part program of all machine tools are stored in the memory of the central computer and
transmitted on direct transmission lines on demand.
 Two way information flow take place in real time.
 Various machine tools can communicate with the computer in real time.
 Programs in full or segment can be transferred to NC machines.
 Computer can be used for program editing.
 No tape readers are used.
 No limitation for the number or size of programs stored.

Functions of DNC:
The functions which a DNC system is designed to perform:
1. NC without punched tape.
2. NC part program storage.
3. Data collection, processing, and reporting.
4. Communication.
NC without punched tape:
Objective in DNC is to eliminate the use of punched tape. All the costs and
inconveniences involved with the tape preparation are eliminated by DND approach.
NC Part Program Storage:
The program storage subsystem must be structured to satisfy several purposes:
1. The program must be made available for downloading to the NC machine tools.
2. The subsystem must allow for new programs to be entered, old programs to be
deleted and existing programs to be edited.
3. The storage subsystem must be structures to perform certain data processing and
management functions, such as file security, displays of programs, and manipulation
of data.
Data collection, processing, and reporting:
1. The purpose of this function is to “monitor” production of the factory.
2. The data concerned are: Tool usage, machine utilization, production piece counts.
3. These data must be processed by the DNC computer, and reports are prepared to provide
management with information necessary for running the plant.
Communication:
1. A “Communication Network” is required to accomplish the previous functions of DNC.
2. The essential communication links in DNC re between the following components of the
system.
  Central computer and machine tools
 Central computer and NC part programmer terminal
 Central computer and bulk memory
Advantages of DNC System:
• Elimination of punched tapes and tape readers
• Convenient storage of NC part programs in computer files
• Greater computational capability and flexibility
• Reporting of shop performance.
• Convenient editing and diagnostic features.

S.No. NC Machine Tool System CNC Machine Tool System DNC Machine Tool System
The part program is fed to the In CNC machine tool system, the The part program is fed to the
machine through the tapes or program is fed to the machine machine through the Main
1. other such media. through the computer. computer.
In order to modify the In order to modify the
program, the tapes have to be The programs can be easily program, single computer is
2. changed. modified with the help of computer. used.
The microprocessor or
In NC machine tool system, minicomputer forms the machine Large memory of DNC allows
tape reader is a part of machine control unit. The CNC machine does it to store a large amount of
3. control unit. not need tape reader. part program.
System has no memory storage Same part program can be run
and each time it is run using It has memory storage ability, in on different machines at the
4. the tape. which part program can be stored. same time.
System can import CAD files and
The data can be processed
5. It cannot import CAD files. convert it to part program.
using the MIS software so as
The system can use feedback
to effectively carry out the
6. It cannot use feedback system. system.
Production planning and
7. They are not software driven. The system is software driven. scheduling.
Table3.2: Comparison between NC, CNC and DNC Machine Tools.

Adaptive Control System:

Fuctions of ACS:

1. Identification of Function:

2. Decision Function
 3. Modification Function:

Where to use adaptive control

Classification of AC systems:
1. ACO System:

2. ACC system:

3. Geometric Adaptive Control:

Benefits of AC