Medieval Cosmology: Plato, Aristotle, and Christianity

Medieval cosmology will be based on basic assumptions of ancient Greek philosophy.

Its dominant components are the placement of the earth in the center of the universe
and its connection to the Christian beliefs of a divine creation. The Platonic world of
ideas and the existence of a divine Craftsman-Creator will accompany these perceptions
until the end of the 12th century, where there is a shift towards Aristotelianism.
Aristotle's scientific discourse and the division of the world into sub-lunar and super-
lunar regions will lead to the justification of several "dark" points in medieval
cosmology, leading to a gradual abandonment of Platonic philosophy for the benefit of
Aristotle.

Plato's Cosmology

The central axis of Plato's cosmology lies in the view of a world of ideas. According to
it, the creation of the world is attributed to the idea-design of a divine craftsman-Creator
and lies on the existence of eternal ideas that constitute the perfect image of each and
every thing. The reflection and copying of these ideas into human reality composes the
existence of the material world, distinguishing the imperfect nature of things from the
perfect nature of ideas. Perfect ideas are eternal and immutable beings that are not
perceived by the human senses, while the absence of matter makes their impossible
spatial determination as they do not take up space. They are, however, a true reality
reflecting the essence of things in all their fullness, when at the same time the material
world appears imperfect, changing and in direct dependence on the world of ideas.

According to Plato the creation of the world is not an inherent and natural process. It is
based on the design of a rational mind that is outside of human reality, thus justifying
both the teleology of the world and the rationality and order of nature. The Craftsman-
Creator is a rational god who applies his rational design to the unformed materials he
encounters in the primordial world he receives. For this reason, the Creator is not
almighty. Unformed materials and their primary properties pre-exist, limiting its
processing options and aiming to create the best possible result.

Taking advantage of the Pythagorean mathematics and the division of Empedocles’

four elements (earth, water, air, fire), Plato will give a combined structure of the world,
reducing the elements into triangles and geometric solids. The two-dimensional and
immaterial essence of triangles is combined with a different element and transformed
into a three-dimensional object. The five geometric solids resulting from the
combinations of the triangles correspond to one element, with fire being reduced to the
tetrahedron, air to the octahedron, water to the icosahedron and earth to the cube, while
the whole universe is attributed to the dodecahedron, due to of its spherical shape. The
mixing of shapes justifies the diversity of the world, while the mutation of the elements
justifies the change, highlighting a reduction of the function of nature with
mathematical principles, inherent in the rational design of the Creator.

According to the geocentric view, Plato places the earth at the center of the world, while
describing as helical the rotational motions of the planets that characterize them in
contrast to the immobile earth. At the same time, the world is a living being that has a
soul, placed in the center of the world, the earth. This element highlights on the one
hand the uniqueness and self-sufficiency of the world, on the other hand justifies all its
movements, comparing them with the corresponding movements of the human body
for which the human soul is responsible. The function of the world is presented as an
soul entirety, following the common rules of a rational divine mind that govern every
aspect of life and are distinguished for their targeted expediency.

Similar propositions that highlight the influence of Platonic ideas on Christian concepts
can be seen in the work of Augustine. Key features of its composition are the concept
of God, the perception of man and the concept of memory associated with time. The
triune God is an eternal being who exists on a different level from the world he creates.
This world, like man himself, depends on divine providence, while time is matched
with the inner man and defined by divine love. The means of understanding time and
the inner man is the memory found in the human soul, while the eternal truth of things
is illuminated and understood through divine enlightenment. At this point the Platonic
world of ideas and the allegory of the cave (the path from darkness to light) show an
apt correspondence.

Aristotle's Cosmology - Differences with the Platonic approach

Aristotle will present a new view of the world. He will initially deny the dependence of
perceptible objects on the world of ideas, arguing for their autonomous existence and
the reduction of their properties to the objects themselves and not to their imaginary
form. Each capacity is attributed to a subject conveying reality to the perceptible world
and not to the fullness of the world of ideas. The capacities are distinguished in form
and matter and through their composition they create the objects that are presented as a
unified whole. The changes observed in the form take place through the alternation of
the elements in their opposites (eg from cold to hot) or the absence of an element, while
the matter remains constant. The change in form is combined with the distinction
between energy and power and its correlation with being. The transition from “being in
potential” to “being in operational” justifies these changes.

The principle of these changes lies in the very nature of objects in which there is an
internal driving force that leads them to adapt certain forms and functions. Four causes
determine this process: a. the specific cause (form), b. the material cause (matter), c.
the making cause (activity) and d. the final cause (purpose). The final cause prevails
over the material as it highlights the essential function of the object (its purpose), an
element that matter cannot carry out on its own. This expediency of the objects also
underlines the Aristotelian teleology of the world that functions as an organized whole
with each object being directed towards its purpose (end) defined by its nature and not
the Platonic Craftsman-Creator.

Aristotle examines the universe, which he considers eternal. The Aristotelian

perception of the world differs from Plato's cosmic whole and corresponds to a sphere
that is divided into two regions with the Moon as its reference axis. The region above
the Moon, the supermoon region, is the celestial region that is distinguished by eternally
unchanging circles, the region below the Moon is the sublunary region of birth, change
and decay, while the Moon itself that separates the two worlds has an intermediate
nature. The immutability of the heavens and the absence of the elements that we find
in the sublunary region leads to the conclusion that the heavens are composed of an
unchanging fifth substance (quintessence), the ether. This fact makes the nature of the
heavens divine and superior to the sub-lunar region.

As for the structure of the sublunary region, Aristotle adopts the four elements used by
Plato, but denies the Platonic mathematical relations created by triangles in geometric
solids. Instead, he supports the aesthetic experience of understanding things that springs
from the very nature of objects. The perceptible properties or qualities of things play a
significant role to this direction, with the pairs of two properties, the hot with the cold
and the liquid with the dry, determining the creation of the four elements and the
composition of the world. The four properties can be replaced by justifying the change
of substances that completely fill the world without leaving any gaps, while the whole
universe is "full". Each element is also distinguished by its weight which creates a
system of concentric circles with the heavier and spherical earth being placed in the
center followed by water, air and fire with correspondingly smaller weights.

Aristotle attributes the movement observed in the world to the physical movement
inherent in the nature of things and to the forced or violent movement associated with
the force that causes it and the resistance that this force encounters. Of particular
importance, however, is the view of the primary motion that takes place in the heavens
and moves the whole world. According to it, the first movement is attributed to a real
“First Moving Being” (First Kinun - the being that sets the first movement on the world)
which is an immaterial, “being in operational” and not “in potential”, animate God
who corresponds to the highest virtue. God activates the internal driving force of
objects, moves the celestial spheres and constitutes the ultimate cause, while the smooth
circular motion of the other spheres translates as the desire to imitate the perfection of
the First Mover. Nevertheless, Aristotle emphasizes that an “Immovable Mover” does
not exists for the whole universe. Each celestial sphere has its own First Moving
element that contradicts Plato's view of the existence of a God-Creator of the entire
universe.

Reasons for the adoption of Aristotelian Cosmology by the Church

If Platonic philosophy and the Augustinian composition influenced the formation of

cosmological conceptions until the 12th century AD, the adoption of Aristotelianism is
a dominant fact of the 13th century. This fact is based on the establishment of
universities, the reborn study of science and the emergence of intellectuals who try to
connect scientific principles with the Christian faith. The starting point of the new
dynamics are the numerous and mass translations of the Aristotelian work that
illuminate multiple aspects of human nature, the functioning of the world and the
existence of God. The Platonic positions, moreover, which do not distinguish the world
of the Creator from the world of man, supporting on the one hand the pre-existence of
materials, on the other hand challenging the divine omnipotence and creation from
scratch, need to be reconsidered. Given through a scientific and comprehensible
discourse Aristotle's convincing and logical arguments explain and fill these gaps as
well as all those aspects that the teaching of the Christian scriptures fails to justify. This
development, possibly, is the changing key point in the adoption of cosmological
theories, the adoption of the specific scientific discourse of Aristotle in contrast to the
expanded philosophical thinking of Plato.

The adoption of Aristotelianism, however, is neither indiscriminate nor contrary to the

principles of Christian dogma. It is in line with the theological teachings and accepts
those points where the two perceptions converge. For this reason, science will be
characterized as a servant (therapist) of theology, in an effort to preserve the integrity
of the Christian faith. This fact, however, does not prevent the introduction of
Aristotelian philosophy strengthening the theological positions. Aristotle's views on an
intangible, eternal and divine “First Mover” who moves the world will be parallelized
with the existence of a God who breathes life into man. The division of the world into
two levels goes hand in hand with the Christian faith that recognizes the kingdom of
God in the kingdom of heaven, while the intermediate nature of the Moon and the
existence of the other movements of the planets will be attributed to the angels.

This position is strengthened by the incorruptibility, immutability and eternity of the

heavens which consist of the quintessence of existence (ether), in contrast to the birth,
change and decay observed on earth (sublunary region). The placement of the earth in
the center of the world and the absence of empty space, the identification of God (First
Mover) with the ultimate cause of creation and His parallel consideration as the highest
virtue, the object of desire of all moving things, will justify Christian beliefs for the
goals and purposes of man.

The connection between Aristotelianism and Christianity is strengthened by the

positions of Thomas Aquinas who eliminates the contradictions created by the belief in
theology and the discourse of science through their common origin from God. Aquinas'
efforts for this unification will lead to the adoption of several Aristotelian terms and
concepts such as the distinction of substance and existence, the eternity of the world,
the ultimate cause, the self-existence and the supremeness of God, but also the function
of natural laws. These principles will be enriched with central values of the Christian
faith such as the identification of substance and existence in the face of God, the
creation of the world through divine providence, but also the reduction of the natural
laws to the eternal divine laws. This interpretation of the Aristotelian world in Christian
and theological terms may be the most important contribution of Aquinas' approach to
the adoption of Aristotelianism by the church.

Synopsis

Plato's cosmology is characterized by a distinction between the world of ideas and

sensational reality. The creation of the world is attributed to a rational craftsman-
Creator who acts on pre-existing unformed materials. The relations of the world are
reflected through geometric solids, while emphasizing the importance of the soul as a
mean of understanding the fullness of ideas. The world is taken as a whole with the
earth as the center of existence and the cosmic soul as the connection point.
Combinations of these positions with Christian beliefs are observed in the positions of
Augustine. Aristotle, on the other hand, divides the world into two levels and adds a
fifth eternal and unchanging essence of the heavens, the ether. It denies the
mathematicalization of nature and the reduction to the world of ideas, supporting the
inner cause of things and the perception of the world based on the human senses. The
First Mover is the highest good and lies outside the human reality while at the same
time is the driving force of the world. These views will prevail in the 13th century. and
through the contribution of intellectuals such as Thomas Aquinas will lead to the
combination of science and Christian discourse as well as to the adoption of
Aristotelianism by the Church.