A.

TOLEWBAEVA
D.BAOIROVA
I
G.SRATDINOVA

WRITTEN
DISCOURSE
for 2nd year students

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 т. THE MINISTRYOF HIGHER AND SPECIAL SECONDARY
EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

KARAKALPAK STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER

BERDAKH

Department of the English Language and Literature

A.ToIewbaeva, D.Badirova, G.Sratdinova

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WRITTEN
r'.IiVU-
У
Г. DISCOURSE
for 2"** year students

Tashkent
«Yosh aviod matbaa»
2021
 UDC:82.0(075.8)
KBK:28.07ya73
T-21
A.Tolewbaeva,D.Badirova,G.Sratdinova
Written discourse, for 2"'* year students. Methodological
manual.-Tashkent: «Yosh avlod matbaa», 2021.- 88 p.
This methodological manual is prepared for second year
students of English language and literature department to introduce
them with the applying written discourse analysis in English
language teaching contexts and implementing it in real life
situations.
What is written discourse, discourse analysis, text, and language
signs? Students can find answers to this question and develop their
discourse competence abilities. It is highly recommended for
students when it comes to shaping their writing and this therefore
makes students’ writing coherent and easily readable,
Preface
This methodological manual is prepared for second year
students of English language and literature department to introduce
them with Written Discourse analysis and implementing it in real
life situations. Discourse analysis is the study of language in either
spoken or written form. Cohesion, coherence, clause relations
and text patterns are all parts of written discourse. In the course
of such analysis, both the form of the language and its function, and
written texts, are considered, linguistic features of understanding
various texts. An analysis of written texts may include a study of the
development of the topic and the connection benveen sentences.
Texts and teacher instructions of given manual were chosen and
worked out according to the curriculum. The given tasks for
development of discourse competence are integrated with reading,
speaking and writing skills also.
Authors

leading editor; Khadjieva D.T. PhD, Associate Professor

reviewers: KurbanbaevDj.A. PhD, Associate Professor

Tajieva A.U. PhD, Associate Professor

authors: TolewbaevaA,0,Assistant Teacher

BadirovaD.AAssistant Teacher
SratdinovaG.B.Assistant Teacher

C. approved by Academic Council of Karakalpak

btate University on May, 2020.

UDC: 82.0(075.8)
KBK: 28.07ya73
ISBN 978-9943-7123-5-5
© Tolewbarva A.O.,
BERDAO
BadirovaD.A,Sratdiuova G.B..
gapaoaipao
MAMLEKET^ © «Yosh avlod matbaa»,2021
b^'Mv;::RsiTeTi 3
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 THEORETICAL PART
INTRODUCTION
What is discourse analyses?
Questions for discussion:
1.General overview of Discourse Analysis(DA)
2.Schools and traditions of DA
S.Different approaches to DA
4.Step-by-step research strategies of DA
Discourse analysis is a set of analytical methods for interpreting
various types of texts or statements as products of people's speech
activity, carried out in specific socio-political circumstances and
cultural and historical conditions. The thematic, subject, and
methodological specificity of such studies is intended to emphasize
the very concept of discourse, which is understood as a socially
conditioned and culturally fixed system of rationally organized rules
for the use of words and the relationship of individual sentences in
the structure of speech activity. This understanding of discourse is
based on the definition given by T. A. van Dyck: “In a broad sense,
discourse is a complex unity of lin^istic form, meaning and action,
which could be best characterized using the concept of a
communication event or a communication act.”
Discourse analysis, as an independent branch of scientific
knowledge, originated in the 1960s in France as a result of the
combination of linguistics, critical sociology and psychoanalysis
within the framework of general trends in the development of
structuralist ideology. In the works of the founders of this trend, E.
envenista, L. Altiisser, R. Jacobson, R. Bart, J. Lacan and others,
e ivision of language proposed by F. de Saussureand speech was
con inue w I e trying to combine them with the theory of speech
acts, Imguisttcs of oral speech, cognitive pragmatics of the text and
Z discourse analysis” is a transfer to the French
useH^hl Л analysis”, which denoted the method
аГпгпяеЬ ‘he distributional
approach to the study of super-phrasal language units. In the future.
discourse analysis sought to create such an interpretation technique
that would reveal the sociocultural (ideological, political, religious
and other) preconditions for organizing speech activity that are
present in the texts of various utterances and manifest as their hidden
or explicit engagement. Thisl became the program benchmark and
the common goal of further development of this scientific direction.
The works of these scientists initiated the emergence of various
studies and a whole branch of knowledge, which is usually referred
to as the "school of discourse analysis." It was formed on the
theoretical basis of “critical linguistics”, which arose at the turn of
the 1960s and 1970s and interpreted speech activity primarily from
the point of view of its social significance. According to this theory,
utterances are the result of the activities of communicants (speakers
and writers) in a particular social situation; relations of subjects of
speech usually display various types of social relations
(dependencies and interdependencies); means of communication
(see Communication) at any level of their functioning are socially
determined, therefore the correlation of the content and form of
statements is not arbitrary, but is always motivated by the speech
situation. As a result, most researchers are increasingly turning to the
concept of discourse, defined as a coherent and coherent text, the
actualization of which is determined by various sociocultural factors.
At the same time, to study the context of social communication, it is
important that the discourse reflects not only the language forms of
utterances, but also contains evaluative information, personal and
social characteristics of the communicants, their “background”
knowledge, communication intentions are implicated, and the
sociocultural situation is determined. Moreover, the discourse
analysis is focused primarily on the study of the linguistic level in
the structure of social communication as dominant throughout the
entire historical development of society and culture. And although at
the present stage it is increasingly being replaced by paralinguistic
and especially synthetic levels of communication, based on non
verbal means of transmitting information, its role is still quite large
and significant for all types of social interaction, since the norms and
standards of the Gutenberg era of written culture are often projected
and transferred on the situation "after Gutenberg."
5
 Discourse analysis allows you to highlight not only the essential
characteristics of social communication, but also secondary,
informative and formal indicators (for example, trends in the
variability of speech formulas or the construction of sentences). This
is an indisputable advantage of this approach, therefore, the methods
of modelling discourse, substantiating its components and studying
its structure as a holistic communication unit are actively used by
various researchers. For example, M. Holliday creates a discourse
model in which three structural components interact; a semantic
(thematic) field, tonality (register), and methods of discourse
implementation. These components receive a formal expression in
speech and can serve as an objective basis for highlighting the
informative features of communication, which are determined by the
social context against the background of power relations between the
addressee and the addressee. Also, some methods of discourse
analysis are used in various studies when considering specific texts
of statements of social agents in the communication process. An
analysis of the discourse as a holistic, socially determined unit of
communication, as well as an understanding of the relationship of
various types of discourses (scientific, political, ideological and
others), reveals the prospect of creating a general theory of social
communication. But she, obviously, should be preceded by the
development of situational models that reflect the degree of
influence of sociocultural factors on the communication process. At
the moment, this problem is in the centre of attention of the work of
many research groups and research centers.
From the 1960s to the 1990s, this line of research was
influenced by all the paradigms dominating in various periods of the
history of science: critical, interpretative, positivist (structuralist)
and postmodern (poststructuralist). Accordingly, depending on the
influence of the paradigm that prevailed at one time or another, in
the framework of discourse analysis, ideological and pragmatic
developments, then linguistic (textual) and statistical methods came
to the fore, the need was declared to limit the boundaries of a single
text or to “open it” into a sociocultural context (interdiscourse).
Currently, discourse analysis is perceived as an interdisciplinary
approach, shaped at the intersection of sociolinguistics and
6 7
lingvocultural studies, but absorbing the techniques and methods of
various sciences of the humanitarian profile: rhetoric, linguistics.
philosophy, psychology, political science, sociology and others.
Therefore, it is perfectly acceptable to single out the corresponding
approaches as the main research strategies carried out in the
framework of discourse analysis, for example, psychological
(cognitive, cultural-historical and so on), linguistic (grammatical,
textological, stylistic and others), semiotic (semantic, syntactic,
pragmatic), philosophical (structuralist, poststructuralist.
deconstructivist), logical (argumentative and analytical), information
and communication, rhetorical and etc.
From the point of view of ethnocultural (regional) preferences in
the history of the formation and development of the theory of
discourse, the following schools and traditions, as well as their
main representatives, can be distinguished:
1. French structural and semiological (R. Barth, C. Todorov. A.
J. Greimas, P. Serio. M. Pescaut);
2. German linguistic (R. Meringer, W.Schuhart);
3. Dutch cognitive-pragmatic(T.A. van Dyck);
4. English logical and analytical (J. Austin, J. Searle, W. van O.
Quine);
5. sociolinguistic (J. Gilbert, M. Malkay).
In various traditions represented by these schools, attempts are
being made to simulate many theoretical and practical aspects of the
functioning of discourse in the processes of social communication.
And then the main problem is not how to develop the most accurate,
objective and comprehensive research methodology in the
framework of discourse analysis, but how to coordinate many
similar developments among themselves. The main approaches in
the framework of communication modeling of discourse are mainly
associated with a generalized idea of the structure of its conceptual
organization. It is considered as a mechanism for organizing our
knowledge about the world around us, its ordering and
systematization, regulating our behavior in certain situations (in the
process of work, rest, play, ritual, and so on), creating social
orientation of communication participants, and functioning of the
main components of discourse in an adequate interpretation of
information and human behavior. Here, the cognitive aspect of
discursive practices merges with the pragmatic aspect, where the
social conditions for the interaction of communicants play an
important role.
With these aspects in mind, such analytical models of discourse
as the “mental model” were created, representing a generalized
scheme of knowledge about the world; a model of “frames” was
developed as a scheme for organizing ideas about various behaviors
in typical situations, as well as a model of “scripts” or scripts,
providing for the development and change of such typical situations
and their adjustment. To study the communication aspects of the
functioning of discourse, the “situational model” of T. A. van Dyck
is used, combining the principles of analyzing social categories that
determine our ideas and actions in a social context with personal
knowledge of the subject (assessments, opinions, attitudes), as well
as M.’s socio-semiotic approach A. Holliday and his “field model”
of discourse, combining the empirical, logical, interpersonal and
contextual levels of analysis.
As a result, at the moment, the main strategies and tactics in the
framework of discourse analysis appear in the form of a variety of
interdisciplinary studies, which are characterized by a variety of
ways of posing interpretation problems and solving them in terms of
interpreting the content of texts: from simple, extensive (manifest) to
discriminatory interpretative (latent). At the same time, within the
boundaries of this problem field, it is assumed the possibility of
correlating with each other such qualitative methods for studying the
text as structural, semiotic (semiological), systemic, symbolic
(mythological) analysis; analysis of social indicators and narration
(line) of keywords; social-role, rhetorical, performative, genre,
speech activity, psychoanalytic, critical, historical, cultural,
intertextual. phenomenological types of analysis; content and intent
analysis; analysis of communication strategies and free associations;
pragma-, psycho-, socio-, ethno-, cognitive-linguistic analysis.
In order to try to compare and coordinate these methods and
approaches, integrative research programs are needed - new
methods that use general categories of different approaches, selected
on
the basis of the principles of complementarity and verifiability in
8 9
а single metatheoretical framework and conceptual settings of
discourse analysis. It seems possible to summarize and group these
various directions in the form of three main groups, united by the
principle of their attitude to the analysis of individual statements as
texts. And then we can distinguish:
1 .a textual approach as deliberately limiting one's research
interests to the framework of one single text as an isolated.
autonomous speech formation;
2.an inter-or hyper textual approach trying to identify and
analyze semantic relationships (quotes, links, allusions.
reminiscences) between a wide variety of texts;
3.a contextual approach that considers any statement (text) as a
product of the activities of social agents, always included in social
interactions and structures, a specific political and cultural-historical
situation.
In the framework of the fi rst of these areas, which historically
took place before all others, the emphasis is placed on the
consideration of, above all, a single unit of analysis, which may be a
word, sentence, phrase, text fragment or the whole text. At the same
time, it is believed that message texts should be analyzed at various
levels of description, primarily from the point of view of their own
structural organization, when the researcher always focuses
primarily on the text itself and the variety of interpretations made
from various perspectives. Moreover, these positions (more
precisely, the “traces” of their presence) always “manifest” or
“reveal” themselves, being initially placed as if “inside” the
semantic space of the text. Classical examples of this kind of
analysis are presented in the works of Russian formalists (V. B.
Shklovsky, Yu. N. Tynyanov, B. M. Eichenbaum, B. V.
Tomashevsky) and French structuralists (R. Barth, C. Levy-Strauss,
C. Todorov, A. Zh. Greimas, K. Bremont), inspired by the study of
the morphology of the Russian fairy tale by V. Propp.
On the contrary, supporters of the second approach, which can
be described as intertextual and which includes representatives of
the French school of analysis of the discourse of the post
structuralist period (Y. Kristev, J. Derrida, P. Serio, M. Pescaut and
others), seek to identify and analyze these positions as possible
options for interpreting a text (utterance) are always “outside*’, that
is, in the process of comparison and comparison with other texts or
utterances. At the same time, it is believed that it is in the space of
intertextual interaction that a variety of strategies for reading and
understanding texts are implemented, as a result of which various
options for their interpretation become possible. As a result, within
the framework of this direction two ways of research become
possible. The first focuses on the search for a system of stable
values, the invariants of meaning inherent in all the texts under
consideration, which allows us to solve the problem of their
translatability and mutual understanding. The second way, on the
contrary, emphasizes the specificity and originality of each text and.
in a sense, its uniqueness, since “everything flows, everything
changes”, and therefore even the same expression cannot be
repeated twice”, as contexts are constantly changing its generation
and perception (understanding).
This path naturally leads to the third of these approaches, which
can be described as contextual. In the framework of this direction, it
is generally accepted that the text is woven into a certain “web of
meanings’ a network “woven” by both the author and the
addressee, as well as society and culture, in which communication
between them became possible. History itself is revealed in the text
and its interpretations, since any statements, discourses and
“discursive complexes” acquire a certain meaning only in a specific
historical situation. Therefore, the “web of meanings” can be
understood as a culture or “system of meanings” that orient human
beings m relation to each other and the world around them. This
level of interpretation is associated with what exactly the text
presents represents, reproduces, what it points to and what it calls,
^is IS what IS commonly called the "referent” or “denotatum" of
the uttemnce and that opens up to us social relations in the context of
which he communication of subjects takes place, as well as various
cultural codes that can be identified in their speech. Representatives
of this trend include British sociologists M. Malkay and J. Gilbert,
who carry out a discursive analysis of the statements of scientists
mainly in the natural sciences. Their works are devoted to relatively
little studied aspects of scientific activity and allow us to analyze the
10
socio-cultural, institutional, communication and personal aspects of
cognition. The already mentioned Dutch research works by T.A. van
Dyck, who created a situational model of discourse analysis,
considering the processes of communication interactions not as a
rigidly algorithmic, but as a flexible strategic procedure. Starting
from developments in the field of grammar of the text, the
pragmatics of discourse and cognitive modeling of communication.
Van Dyck explores the specifics of the functioning of the language
in the media, taking into account social factors such as opinions,
attitudes of the speaker and listener, their social status, ethnicity and
so on.
As the researcher emphasizes,“Discourse analysis should not be
limited to text or dialogue structures. When discourses are defined as
units of verbal communication or as communication phenomena,
their actual processing or use in social and communication aspects
should be addressed from the perspective of a holistic, integrated
approach ”.
The general methodology of discourse analysis always
reproduces a model of qualitative content analysis, which, in
contrast to formal quantitative methods (for example, content
analysis), is able to reveal not only clearly present and clearly
recorded textual data, but also hidden, latent message meanings. A
generalized model of qualitative meaningful discourse analysis
consists of the following step-by-stepresearch strategies:
- fixation of the studied material; highlighting its formal
characteristics;
— designation of context as a communication situation; choice of
direction and analysis strategy;
-theoretical differentiation and structuring of research stages;
— determination of techniques and means of analysis using a
specific research model;
- definitions of units of analysis; verification of the system of
categories in theory and on empirical material;
- the implementation of the main stages of the study
(description, reconstruction, interpretation);
— recording research results, their generalization, interpretation
and structuring.
11
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14 15
 Myths Legend or ● Creation myths depict the struggle to There’s a Monster in
traditional form the earth. the Alphabet by
narrative, often ● Hero myths describe how people who James Rumford.
based in part on begin life at a low status are elevated to Boston:
historical high status through a good deed. HoughtonMifflin,
events, that ● Myths often pertain to the actions ofthe 2002
reveal human gods.
behavior and
natural
phenomena by
its symbolism.
Fables Narration ● Fables are legendaiy. Aesop’s Fablesby
O)
demonstrating ● Fables are supernatural tales. Jerry Pinkney. New
a ● Morals or lessons are revealed and stated York: Sea Star
useful truth, at the Books, 2000.
especially in end.
which animals ● Characters often have generic names The Ant or the
speak as such as Grasshopper?by Toni
humans. Dog, Rooster, Boy. and Slade Morrison,
● Fable adaptations are now being pictures by Pascal
published. Lemaitre. New York:
Scribner, 2003

Proverbs A one-sentence A Word to the Wise

utterance and Other
that holds the Proverbsselected by
conventional Johanna Hurwitz,
wisdom ofthe illustrated by Robert
ages Rayevsky. New
York: Morrow Junior
Books, 1994
PERSONAL A record of ● Memoirs may cover only one event or Waiting to Waltz, a
NARRATIVES events based on aspect of Childhood: Poemsby
the writer’s the author’s life. Cynthia Rylant,
Memoirs own ● Memoir is a retrospective account of a drawings by Stephen
observation. memorable event. Gammell. New
● Memoirs for children can be York: Atheneum,
~г>
■ ●a fictionalized. 2001.
; |04
‘ *94 ^ m Don’t You Know
."4 !
i г i There’s a War On?by
; I James Stevenson.
New York:
» t
I
i ■ I
Greenwillow Books,
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18 19
 Collective Lives of
^Biographies of j ● U^ally grouped for auThor’s purpose.
Biographies many ● May inciude a standard format for each Extraordinary
individuals in person. Women - Rulers,
the same book Rebels(and What the
Neighbors
Thought)by Kathleen
Kriill, illustrated by
Kathryn Hewitt.
Scholastic, 2001
(series).
INFORMATIO Factual ● Nonfiction text dealing with an actual. Ice-cream Cones for
ГО NAL BOOKS presentations of real-life subject, Salelby Elaine
documented ● Major types inc lude chapter books, Greenstein. New
knowledge. picture books, photographic essays, and York: Arthur A.
infonnational books with a narrative Levine Books, 2003.
blend.
● Elements of expository \vriting are What Do You Do
description, time sequence, enumeration, with a Tail Like
cause and effect, and comparison/contrast. This?by Steve
● Nonfiction picture books can serve as Jenkins and Robin
models for student content reports. Page. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin,
2003.

Pigby Jules Older,

illustrated by Lyn
Severance.
Watertown, MA:
Charlesbridge, 2004
Essays A short literary ● Often of a persuasive nature. Vote !by Eileen
composition ● May be found in collections. Christelow. New
that reflects the ● Frequently found in magazines and York: Clarion Books,
author’s periodicals. 2003.
outlook or Linda Brown, You
point of Are Not Alone: The
ro view. Brown V. Board of
Education Decision,a
collection edited by
Joyce Carol Thomas,
illustrated by Curtis
James. New York:
Hyperion, 2003.
Process An essay that ● Written in sequential order. Follow the
Explanations explains how ● Steps usually are enumerated. Moneylwritten and
to do ● Explains the procedures for illustrated by Loreen
something accomplishing a task. Leedy. New York:
Holiday House, 2002
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22
 Historical Fiction Imaginative White Socks Onlyby
● May be based upon dates, people, or
stories with eV'ents thatreally happened. Evelyn Coleman,
fictional * Major historical event may be an illustrated by Tyrone
characters and essential. Geter. Morton
events in a ● Accuracy ofthe historical detail is Grove, IL: A,
historical evi<|ent. Whitman, 1996.
setting. ● May include author notes on research.
● Categories of historical fiction are based The Cello of Mr.
uponthe time period or historical era. Oby Jane Cutler,
● Characters and time periods are lifelike. illustrated by Greg
● Conflict allows children to compare the Couch. New York:
ro pastwith the present in order to better Dutton Children's
understandour world Books, 1999.
Adventure Stones Stories of Characters succeed without adult Beardreamhy Will
survival or life assistance. Hobbs, illustrated by
Ш ● Characters, often children, encounter Jill Kastner,
the great situations New York:
outdoors that require quick thinking, problem Atheneum Books for
solving, Young Readers,
and inner strength. 1997.
Sports Stories Events and ● Characters struggle with issues related to The Captain
activities sports. Contestby Matt
within * Team sports are usually emphasized. Christopher,

the stoiy deal ● Plot and characterization often illustrated by

with the emphasize Daniel Vasconcellos.
characters’ theses such as team play and Boston: Little,
participation in sportsmanship Brown, 1999
sports
Animal Realism An imaginative ● Realistic animal stories may be difficult Dogteamby Gary
story in to write Paulsen, illustrated
which an because the author must have extensive by Ruth Wright
animal is a knowledge of the species. Paulsen. New York:
central ● The central character behaves in a Delacorte Press,
character that manner true [1993].
ГО behaves in a to the breed. A Day in the Life of
СЛ
manner true to ● Problems are realistic for an animal Murphyby Alice
the breed; Provensen. New
usually York: Simon &
realistic. Schuster Books for
Young Readers,
2003
FANTASY Fiction with Divided into low fantasy (world governed The Great Red wall
strange or by the Feastby Brian
otherworldly laws of this world but inexplicable things Jacques, illustrated
settings or occur) by
characters; and high fantasy (set in a secondary world Christopher Denise.
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26
 REALISTIC A story that can ● Realistic characters with possible John Philip Duckby
FICTION actually problems. Patricia Polacco.
happen and is New York:
● Outcomes are reasofl^ble and plausible.
true to life. ● Settings can be cont^niporaiy or Philomel, 2004.
historical. Gettin’ through
● Family stories, school stories, animal Thursdayby Melrose
stories, Cooper, illustrated
mysteries, could all be included in this by Nneka Bennett.
genre. New York: Lee &.
Low Books, 1998.
Contemporary Accurately ● Themes are contemporary and may tend Raymond’s Perfect
ro Realistic Fiction depicts life as it to be Pi*esentby Therese
CO
could be lived controversial. On Louie; illustrated
today. ● Current political and social Issues and by Silling Wang.
kids’ New York: Lee &
problems may be explored. Low Books,
● “Contemporary’* means that by its nature 2002.
the The Recess Queenby
genre Is always changing Alexis O'Neill,
illustrated by Laura
Huliska-Beilh. New
York: Scholastic,
2002.

Mysteries Imaginative ● Suspense. The Mystery ofthe

stories dealing ● Cliffhangers. Monkey’s
with the ● Foreshadowing. Maze,story and
solution ofa ● Detective stories and spy novels. pictures by
secret, ● Often are available in series. Doug Cushman. New
problem, or York: HarperCollins
crime, Publishers,
and involving 1999
suspense or
intrigue.
POETRY Although ● Creates an emotional intensity. The Random House
tS5 difficult to ● Varieties include rhyme, ballads, lyrics, Book of Poetry for
CD
define, narrative Children selected
poetry is brief, poems, free verse, haiku, limericks, and introduced by
intense, and concrete Jack Prelutsky,
illustrated by Arnold
patterned when poems, cinquain, and diamante.
Lobel. New York:
compared ● Uses rhythmic or figurative language:
Random House,
with prose. alliteration, metaphor, simile, symbolism,
1983.(Excellent
“Poetry is a personification, assonance, consonance,
subject index.)
type allusion,
Leap Into Poetry:
of literature in onomatopoeia, internal rhyme, and rhyme More ABCs of
which the scheme.
Poetry by Arvis
sound and ● Uses imagery, compactness, shape. Harley.
 СЛ СЛ
Cohesion
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<u
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c о .s|
a. СЛ
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s
(N sll|8s II
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Questions for discussion:
1 .The definition of cohesion
О
«2 S»Si£“-|“ О u- 2. General categories of cohesive devices
T3 (V C и СВ-Г,,p СЛ
«●a ● »■ —
«я c2't/5 ^-c^o’“b2c>c-^^ (u 3.Importance of cohesive devices
§ О i -s g 1 -c jg -П (g'S « й’сЬЙ c^'S'^^o
^ceOsnwSioCCgic tUO
cjuLi,cs^<>omh-OLa:<<u-UJ[—СЧ Cohesion is a term from the work on textual structure by
о Halliday and Hasan, given to the logical linkage between textual
c units, as indicated by overt formal markers of the relations betvs'een
*o СЛ
texts. In English, cohesion is most simply marked by connectives
<L> 1»
О СЛ
с о О such as and, but, or so. Each piece of text must be cohesive with the
’●В е- ся adjacent ones for a successful communication. However, readers are
ез
и ^ с are
о Q, ti се very creative interpreters, and formal properties of cohesion
тз
се
(U
.о 1 В typically not marked overtly.
В S с
U се о ^ Cohesion is defined as the use of explicit linguistic devices to
JO о
о 2 signal relations between sentences and parts of texts. These cohesive
ся се ее devices are phases or words that help the reader associate previous
С 0) о <1)
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о Н о JZ
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о о. 12 о
(Я ся (Я
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<
С
tlltllll ● ellipsis
● substitution
*о
с
се ся
● lexicalcohesion
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ее _ Й (U ● conjunction
tin (D ТЗ
C ад « в ся ^
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i b А text may be cohesive without necessarily being coherent.
ce о
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ся Cohesion does not spawn coherence. Cohesion is determined by
i£ -2= I8 Sb *-5
cS <
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5 ё 'vhereas coherence is based on semantic relationships.
What are Cohesive Devices?
Cohesive devices, sometimes called linking words,
E4 Jnkers, connectors discourse markers or transitional words.
Cohesive Devices are words or phrases that show the
*'clationship between paragraphs or sections of a text or speech.
‘In
Cohesive devices are words like ‘For example*,
30Ы Conclusion*, ‘however* and ‘moreover*.
ftN S ^ sc
30
31
 Let’s look at these two examples below: For emphasizing, you can use cohesive devices such as:
1 .Netflix has many movies and shows and it is only $9.
Infact Certainly
2.The Christmas tree is natural but it is expensive.
As we can see in the sentences above, and it is used to add Absolutely :| Obviously
something to the previous statement,
In the second sentence, we can see how something positive and Withoutanydoubt I Definitely
negative is said about the Christmas. We know that because the
word but is used to contrast ideas.
Coherence
What are some examples of Cohesive Devices? Questions for discussion:
There are many examples of cohesive devices, they can be l.The definition of coherence
grouped by category. 2.Deferentiation of coherence from cohesion
3.The position of coherence in discourse analysis
If you want to show similarity, you can use cohesive devices
Coherence as a grammatical term contrasts with cohesion, both
such as:
being necessary components of effectively organised and
And jl Equally meaningful discourse.
Coherence is the term used to describe the way a text establishes
Also Identically links in meaning within and between sentences. Essentially
coherence is concerned with the content of a text, the meaning it is
Too Equally attempting to convey. When texts are not coherent, they do not make
sense or they make it difficult for the reader to follow and
Similarly understand.

Coherence often relies heavily on reader knowledge and

If you want to introduce an item in a series, you can use: sometimes the coherence is weak because too much knowledge is
First Then assumed. For example, a car sticker for Exeter University reads
Exeter
Inthefirstplace Inaddition .. . " P^’f^bahly the best university in the world.
w ic re les on the reader knowing the lager adverts which make use
Inthesecondplace Finally of a similar slogan. Without this knowledge, the use of the
vjordprobably would be most odd!

If you need to compare, you can use cohesive devices such as: Similarly, the following dialogue relies upon the reader making
e appropriate inference or connections between the two sentences.
But However
Jane: You were late again this morning.
Ann:I was up all night with the baby.
Nevertheless Bycomparison
Both speakers leave out information which they expect the other
Meanwhile Incontrast (an a rea er or listener) to fill in. We tend to recognise the implicit
question in Jane's statement, and
to make the inference necessary in
33
32
Ann s reply to read it as an explanation. The sub-text of this dialogue register determines the vocabulary, structure, and some grammar in
could be rewritten thus:
your writing.
Jane: Why were you late
again this morning? The three most common language registers in writing are:
Ann: I was late ● Formal
again because I was up all night with the baby.
● Informal
Another means of maintaining coherence is to ensure that there ● Neutral
IS consistency in the ideas conveyed by the text. So a narrative We use different language registers for different types of
which introduces a character called John Smith in chapter one who writing. Just as we speak differently to different people. You would
mysteriously disappears and is replaced by a Joe Smith in chapter 2 not speak to the President of the United States the same way you
nяn^t●^° (unless the switch is deliberate). Likewise, a would talk to your brothers.
япН ^ maintain consistency between plot settings To your brother: Whafs up? It's awesome that you came to
visit!
this kinH^ "f*Tative action loses coherence. Dickens was a master of
Dlots with^ coherence, managing to interweave intricate, complex To the President: Good morning, Mr. President. We appreciate
your visit.
which is of characters and still arrive at a resolution
^hat has gone before. The formal register is more appropriate for professional writing
and letters to a boss or a stranger.
Firstly, the tonic coherence in several ways,
The informal register (also called casual or intimate) is
vocabulary either "’“У ® certain
i nvite criticism might conversational and appropriate when writing to friends and people
you know very well.
The neutral register is non-emotional and sticks to facts. It is
''o^^.vetc). An '"''●te holidays, sunshine,
uiost appropriate for technical writings,
coherence, whereas na°it”T vocabulary can disrupt the
It. in articles such as these, we tend to mix the formal and informal
У well -chosen vocabulary can enhance
●■cgisters to present the information in an easy to understand and
personal tone.
connections which coherence is in the Let's look closely at the three most common language registers
allows the writer о word and another which Used in the English language.
understanding. Forexampl'e^^^^*^ assume the reader/listener's
Formal Language Register
Everyone ^^hould wear^Ni^s GCSE's with distinction- ● Formal writing is probably the most difficult type of writing,
trainer! It is
impersonal, meaning it is not written for a specific person and is
Written without emotion.
Q^stions ssion: e r and арргорНяру Some kinds of writing are always written in formal English.
l.The
meaning of lan guage register Formalwritingincludes:
● BusinessLetters
● Lettersofcom plaint
It ● Someessays
and style of your writing- ● Reports
situation you are in. The language
34 35
 ● Offlcialspeeches
Examples:
● Announcements ● children'sclassroom
● Professionalemails
e professor’sreport
There are ● elephant'Strunk
discuss .inm in formal writing. We will
the rules
' in ,n дол ‘common rules here. When in doubt, check 2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred
man APA style guide. Examples:
● nineteen
Rules of the formal language reg ister: ● twenty-two
1. Do not use contractions
● seventy-eight
they are very commn"°* formal writing, even though ● six

In formal writing, you should spell out contractions.

3. Write in third person point of view
Examples: In formal writing, we usually do not use fi rst person or second
In formal writing, you should use: person unless it is a quote.
● i-annotinsteadofcan’t
* !?®';®"°‘'"steadofhaven ’t Avoidusing:
● I
● Willnotinsteadofwon’t
● You
● pouldnotinsteadofcouldn ’t
● Isnotinsteadofisn’t ● We
● Us
These
are just a few
contractions by foUowimotk of contractions. See more Examples:
'ng the contraction link above.
● You can purchase a car for under $10,000.
Contractions CAN
exact words i be used if
you are quoting someone’s One can purchase a car for under $10,000.
»n your writing.
OR
Example:
th" (J
^ carcanbepurchasedforunder $10,000.
^evel, the professor stated^ ^ §‘'3de students can’t read at grade
in mind that an * You will probably see an elephant on an African safari.
contraction.
postrophe does not always make n One
niay see elephants on an African sa fari.
OR

are used in all language register*? ”ouns to show ownership. These

Sisters, including formal. ^Icphantsare a commonsightonAfricansafaris.
36 e decided to invest in the company.
37
л

The group decided to invest in the company. A сГ1сЬё is a phrase that is overused (said too often).
4. Avoid using too much passive voice
In formal writing it is better to use an active v oice. Common cliches:
● too much of a good thing
P assivesentences:
● momentoftruth
● The bone was eaten by the dog. ● Timeismoney.
● The research
was completed by the students in 2009. ● Don'tpushyouriuck.
Active sentences: ● Beauty is only skin deep.
● The dog ate the bone.
6. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms
● The students completed the research in 2009. If you use an acronym or abbreviation, write it out the first time

●n 2009, the students completed the research. When using acronyms, write the entire name out the fi rst time it
appears, followed by the acronym. From then on, you can use the
added to n?uHsm 1" " """ “Apostrophes are also acronym by itself.
nouns to show ownershi p.”
I wrote this Examples:
sentence in a passi ve voice,
● National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
To make it active, I could write: ● Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT)
“Additionally, add
OR ЗП apostrophe to a noun to show ownership- For abbreviations, write the complete word the fi rst time, then
4se the abbreviation.
Use
apostrophes with
nouns to show ownership.” Examples:
5. Avoid ● influenza =>flu
cliches 8 s*ang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and ● United States of America => U.S.A or USA
Slang is common i ● Tablespoon =>tbsp.
●s particular to a certain‘ ''biting and spoken English. Slang ● Kansas => KS

Examples of slang: po not use slang abbreviations or symbols that you would
● awesome/cool **se in friendly emails and texts.
● okay/ok
● checkitout Examples:
● in a nutshell ● UOL (laughoutloud)
● ttyl (talk to you later)
● S
38 39
 ●& ● Symbolsandabbreviations
● b/c (because) ● Acronyms
● w/o (without) ● Incompletesentences
● w/(with) ● Shortsentences
● First person, second person, and third person
7. Do not start sentences with words like and,so, but, also ● Paragraphsornoparagraphs
Here are some good transition words and phrases to use in ● Jokes
formal writing:
● Personalopinions
● Nevertheless
● Extrapunctuation (HiBob!!!!!!!)
● Additionally ● Passiveandactivevoice
● However
● Inaddition
NeutralLanguageRegister
● As a resultof
We use the neutral language register with non-emotional topics
● Although and information.

8. Always write in complete sentences. Neutral writing is not necessarily formal or informal. It is not
usually positive or negative. A neutral register is used to e iver
9. Write longer, more complex sentences. facts.
Informal Language Register
/nfomal writing is written in the way we talk to our friends and Some writings are written in a neutral register. This means they
family. We use informal writing when we are writing to someone we ure not specifically formal or informal.
know very well.
Some kinds of writing can be written in an informal style. Writing in the natural language register includes:
● Reviews
Informalwritingincludes: ● Articles
● Personal e-mails
● Someletters
● Phonetexts
● Someessays
● Shortnotes
● Technicalwriting
● Friendlyletters
● Mostblogs
● Diariesandjoumals

There are no major rules to informal writing

With informal writing, yon can include things such as:
● Siangandcliches
● Figurativelanguage
41

к
40
 Grammar and discourse: theme, rheme, reference (anaphoric, consideration is given to the syntactic and semantic relations of an
cataphoric, exophoric)^ eUipsis. renetition. and substitution utterance. The problem posed by relational expressions (especially
verbs) has led to the controversial assumption that theme-rheme
Questions for discussion: structure should not be seen as binary but rather as scalar with
1 The difference between theme and rheme degrees of communicative dynamism: the theme has the smallest
Г’ of reference (anaphoric, cataphoric, exophoric) and the rheme the highest degree of communicative dynamism,
repetition, and substitution because the rheme promotes the communicative process the most.
which Utterances according to communicative criteria The verb is usually in the transitional zone between these two poles.
the sona9 r cornparing question-answer pairs: Who sang Formally, word order and stress indicate w'hich elements are
(sane the information formulated in the question functioning as the theme or the rheme of an utterance. In many
the answer answer and is usually omitted in languages either the left or the right peripheiy' of a sentence is the
the answer p sought in the question is the rheme of preferred place for the rheme, such as in topicalization. left vs right
thematlzina niention is only one of many ways of dislocation, and cleft sentences, in English. The nuclear (i.e. main)
from the Contes theme can also be understood sentence stress is placed within the rheme.
utterances, especially at th^V Pf^vious mention. There are also The boundary' between Theme and Rheme is simple but not
always obvious enough resulting in numerous cases of
only rhematic material T ^ ^8*nning of a discourse, which contain
uninformative and vinint " un utterance without a rheme is terminological confusion which are further enhanced by the various
definitional criteria. Thus for ‘theme* we fi nd the terms ‘topic,*
.'П’е tem,s
background,* ‘presupposition.* and for ‘rheme,’ ‘comment.’
various criteria: The them ^ defined according to ’ 4
‘focus. predication* (in various combinations).
previously mentioned ’ ° understood as ‘known,* ‘given,
context, while the rhem^ P**^supposed’ information present in the Theme is the fi rst element occurring in a clause: the remainder
characteristics. Althouph "[defined as the negation of these clause is Rheme, e.g.:
extent, they nevertheless ° criteria is relevant to a certain
Theme Rheme
one thing, the terms used in ^ definition. For
3nd need clarification Лп m ^ definition are themselves imprecise Thelion beat the unicorn all round the
counter examples: in thp °‘^^^P'■°Ьlem is that there are numerous
town
our mother, the mother .^“f^*'°""3nswer pair Who did you see-
nevertheless the rheme of th" die speakers, but is the lion beat the unicorn
^e unclear со * ● ^ answer,
'^●‘h the feature information cannot be clarifiet* However, theunicom Still did not want to bow to the
^■S- Numerous - ^ ion
pointed to gel into the courtroot»- Thelion
decided to beat him to death
^Pite of Th
first
Utterance, journalists^jj a*oart'^T'i°”* mention m me ● ^l2i^unicom give in to the lion
it i s embedded in ° ■'heme in the second utterance- ^ben the lion got to the battle
field the unicorn was ready for the
“«^■^nce, and a theme rhem""°‘'’"''.P^^‘'i^^tion in the second
battle
e analysis can only be made
43
 From the above division of Themes and Rhemes in the The problems of inappropriately handling the flow of Theme
sentences, we can see that Theme is not equated with the subject of a and Rheme are quite common among inexperienced writers. We can
sentence; nor is Rheme equated with the predicate. However, in the identify three common problems resulting from misuse Theme and
Rheme.
example given above, two sentences e.g. in the first and fourth
sentence, it happens that the Theme ‘The lion* overlaps with the The problem ofthe brand new Theme
grammatical subjects of the sentences. This kind of Theme is called The problem of a brand new Theme is extremely common in the
unmarked Theme. Unmarked sentences typically have Themes that work of inexperienced writers, who introduce new information in
over ap with subjects. On the other hand, marked sentences often Theme position. For example, the illiteracy rate is quite high in
con am a Theme that is separate from the subject containing some rural areas. Here Theme ‘The illiteracy rate’ is in Theme
position in the sentence, however this is the first mention of this
y®*^^’^* 8**oups or prepositional phrases, for example ‘All
cam I ^ Theme in sentence 2 above. From the above ●nformation. Where this goes wrong, the communication can
suddenly break down at the sentence level.
aroun ’vTk "lay be realized by a nominal
The problem of the double Rheme
,depeSdent'chuS°The^h''^'^*^‘^*-^-°“‘'’ phrase ora The problem of the double Rheme means a sentence has two
apnear firct: i ^h^actenstic of these elements is that they Khemes with
of a cLse «represent ‘given’ information. All the rest one of the Rheme not mentioned previously . For
where to place ‘new’ information. Knowing ^xarnp e, the educational reform had a big influence on young
‘'^i^dents' families paid a lot of money for their
sentence requires a r boundary in a more complex children. There are two Rhemes in this clause. One ●/ Rheme
. ./is ‘had a
understand the meaninL^ reading of the sentence in context to b 'g influenc
e on young teachers'. The other Rheme is ‘had a big
spoken data conducted\v ^°"i"i“"'cating. In a study of Influence
^*1^ students' families' . The latter Rheme has had no
that there was a nnbv li^ Lovejoy and Lance in 1991, they tound
P«^evious mention.
tbe beginning of Rh ^ of Theme, and near
problem of the empty Rheme
pitch ifvel. ^ on the Hrst word, an abrupt peak m . T'he problem of empty Rheme is also common in students'
■nie initial place has clause- ^‘“ngs.
Г or who fail to present ‘new' information in Rheme position,
'^iiaiever is cho«;en u ● enormous importance in « - serious
teachers is
interpretation of p influence a reade
cohesive writing ^ comes next. Accordingly^ . infoirnat' serious problem 'fails to offer any
the nof which should be mentioned previously or it is shared by
Theme position^'wh‘ in a clause needs be potential readers.
whprp meanina'c h ^ signpost signaling a re to.
The new informatf ^"d where they are goingThe Then*"' ‘’'^"S'-ession
^●‘Ucial in ^'y.^^jnformation in a sentence from Theme to Rheme is
balance and movemTn "of 1° an
es sential component in m ^ between Theme and Rheme is exchange communicative effectiveness in a message. The
PuirinoQ ‘uformation between successive Theme and Rheme
control the flow of inf ^ cohesive text. If a writer fa ^ "6^ m a text
P'-n gression IS called Thematic Progression . Thematic
text is difficuTfo^ T Theme to Rheme, his orcle^'*h^r to
signpost directing thp follow, because there is no th^ 'У in ^°"tributes to the cohesive development of a text, that is
progression of an idea!n^ therefore cannot easily foUoW '"formation ^ text the distribution of given and new
'oea or argument. types; of Th*^^^ certain patterns. There are several main
cmatic progression, which depends on different text
44 45
 of view, the theme refers to that part of the information presented in
types. For example, in a narrative-type text we often repeat Theme
a sentence or clause which can be inferred from the (verbal or non
of one clause into Theme of subsequent clauses. e.g.:
verbal) context(= given information) whereas the rheme is the non-
Theme inferrable part of the information (= new information) irrespective of
Rheme
its grammatical function as subject or predicate or its position at the
A goodteacher beginning or the end of the clause, the theme refers to the
need show great passion to the teaching
Heorshe information stored in “presupposition poof* of the participants. This
should be intellectually and morally honest pool contains the information gained from general knowledge, from
Heorshe the situative context of the discourse, and from the completed part of
should have a genuine capacity to understand the discourse itself. Each participant has a presupposition pool and
students
this pool is added to as the discourse proceeds.
According to the distribution of given and new information in a
different Themat* development of an academic text is text, we have to distinguish different forms of thematic progression,
high incidencrof academic text needs to have a which characterize the argumentative structure of the text. There can
clause to the Th. links from the Rheme of one be no doubt that the “communicative dynamics*’ of a text with a
complex arguments i° ^ h clause, as the academic texts present linear thematic progression, where the rheme of one sentence
constitutes the theme of the next sentence, is totally different from
ofanideainthepreviou'Isente?^^^^ expansion that of a text which has one continuous theme with several rhemes.
academic text’ example of Thematic progression in an Theme-rheme structure has to be regarded as a semantic universa
which is realized in different ways by different languages.
teams ^^^threak of(hp unknown disease, two тес(Ш1 Reference
Reference is the specific nature of the information that is
diagnose the di^a ^ цffec^ed area in Sichuan to
signaled for retrieval. Based on the place of reference, me
ten doctors selected й-л ^ tL t^^dical formed by
interpretation of reference can be divided into endophora (textual)
The expertise of all the^H hospitals across the country’,
world-famous. ’ well-known in China, and some and exophoric (situational) reference. . . ^ j -..o
When the interpretation of a reference lies within t e oun an
of text, it is called endophoric relation. This relation forms cohesive
unknown disease’ is Vheme*^ outbreak of the ties within the text. There are two kinds of endophoric relations^
Rheme in the fi rst clause uiedical teams’ first appearing as
anaphora and cataphora. Anaphora is the
clement ‘doctors’ which Theme of the second clause. The
something that has gone before, whether in the prece ing ^
Theme of the third clause tiI^^ second clause becomes ^ that refers to some previous
or not . It is a form of presupposition i n the
re erential linking between Rh demonstrates high cross-
it em. In contrary, cataphora refers to the presupposi ’ .
This .Thematic pm " «b? TheL of the
opposite direction, with the presuppose ^ catanhoric
ere the information has com ^ reader orientation as to Halliday and Hasan Both, also say that anaphoric and cataphor^
nee creates cohesion in a written t"’"’ "'here it is going, and references use personal reference or pronominal reference,
demonstrative reference and comparative reference.
the ^«wS^aTp™ Й
^●ne-rheme structure. From this point 47
46
 1

I)Personal Reference
Personal reference ic The circumstantial (adverbial) demonstratives here, there
speech situation, throuoh means of function in the nmv and then refer to the location of a process in space or time, and
category includes the thre I ^ of person. The personal iney nonually do so directly, not via the location of some person or
determiners usually calleH ^ of personal pronouns, possessive ject that IS participating in the process. The nominal
pronouns. The items of th P^^^^ssive adjectives') and possessive emoii^strative this, these, that, those and the refer to the location of
me reference are as follows: somet ing, typically some entity - person or object - that is
pa icipating in the process. They therefore occur as elements within
Function Table 2.4 Personal Reference
ne nominal group (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 57-58). Look at the
Class example below:
Determinative Possessive

Singular ^e/ him His favorit *mns, and I like the polar bears. These are my
Feminine His 46
She/ her
Neuter Hers Her are my favorites too."(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 60).
Plural It
its Its ese and Those in the example above are the demonstrative
Jhey/ them re erences of the lions and the bears.
Theirs Their
The fbllowi 3)Comparative Reference
“Aren't '"g example is Alice
witu Г ' ‘ ^ometimp^ л,- , ^ ^conversation with the flowers: Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity
or similarity.
-rhlre'^^^^^^^^reofyour'^^^^ planted out here,
Table 2.6 Comparative Reference
и goodfor?'" ^ midd/e. said the Rose. "What else Function Deictic/ Ephitet Adjunct/
Class numerative submodifier
^.' ^'^"'^’o^couldUdo ifи 9 *»
Alice a.sked. General
Identity Same, Identically,
equal, (just) as etc.
a Daisy: "that '5 identical.
Four etc.
tree. occurre nces of//. Similarity Similar, Such So, likewise,
ood one orus.
●’ofer anaphorically to the additional. similarly etc.
etc.
of proximi^ ''^'■once- is
i referenr/a k. Difference Other, Otherwise,
onstrative ref ^ ^oans of location, on a different. else,
speaker identifip^r’^^ essentially a form of etc. differently
e referent by locating it on etc.
Particular More, Bigger Better etc.;
nstrative Reference fewer, less, etc.; so, so, as, more
Here (now) ^ further, etc; as, more ess etc. +
There so, as, etc; + ess etc. + adverb
(then) numeral adjective

49
 What is cataphoric reference?
General comparison is a comparison that is simplified in terms Cataphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to
of likeness and unlikeness, without respect to any particular something mentioned later in the discourse.
property: two things may be the same, similar or different Here are some examples of cataphoric reference:
(different includes both ‘not the same' and; not similar )● Although I phone her eveiy week, my mother still complains that
Meanwhile particular comparison means comparison in respect to I cion 7 keep in touch often enough.
quantity or quality. For example: Her refers to my mother.
a) There were twice as many people there as la.st time. The book uyw there on the table. I'd never read Moby Dick an
b) He s a better man than I am. didn 7 intend to do so now.
c) There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are The book refers to Moby Dick.
dreamt of in your philosophy. What is exophoric reference?
Example a) is comparison of quantity, with numeral 3S Exophoric reference occurs when a word or phrase re ers о
comparison and (the people who were there) last time as referent. something outside the discourse.
reW*^t^i N* quality, with an epithet as the comparison and/as Here are some examples of exophoric reference. it?"
can you believe
‘.u things that) are dreamt of in yoW They're late again.
pmtosophy: the com parison is again quantity. "I know! Well, they'd better get here soon or И V/ get cold.
They refers to some people outside the discourse own о
Anaphoric, cataphoricexophoric reference speakers. / u c
When It also refers to something that both speakers know about (perhaps
the dinner).
mentioned earlier haven’tT*^ '!Tin shared knowledge
The use of exophoric reference requires some
another context or at апол1ТтГ"“°"'‘^
between two speakers, or between writer and reader(s).
^at is anaphoric.reference?
Anaphoric reference
something mentioned occurs when a word or phrase refers to
Here’s an earlier in the discourse, Sre'sential characteristic of ellipsis is that
Michael xample of anaphoric reference: present in the selection of underlying u ellipsis
closed to the bank.Us_ was annoyed because II omitted in the structure. According to Halli ay ^ kinds,
««refers to Michael can be regarded as substitution by zem. It is ^
namely nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis, and c aus
^^fc^rstothebank. or
because one of
something has already been
“se of the definite article the,
definite article is to indicate that
.K.
^be common noun that may be omitte an
-j:: rs epithet or
He sat down at the ««re’s another example: t aken on by one of other elements .ug numerative is a
classifier). The deictic is normally a ’ adjective and the
future . Ibs^bisclfeli heavy о small box from hts
ands . Inside И the key Ю numeral or other quantifier, the epit e Ualliday, this is more
Both the object classifier is a noun. According to classifier. The most
sentence. and it refer back
to a small box in the frequently a deictic or a numeral than epi
50
-

(3)Post-deictic
characteristic instances of ellipsis, therefore are those w ith deictic or The word functioning as post-deictic elements in t e
numerative as head,
nominal group are adjectives. There are thirt>’ or forty adjectives
used commonly in deictic function and a number of others used
a) Deictic as head include о/Лег, same,
occasionally in this way: the frequent ones
(1) Specific Deictic
different, identical, usual, regular, certain, odd, famous, well-kno^^n,
The specific deictic are demonstrative, possessive and the. The other determiner (the
typical, obvious. They combine with the, a or
demonstratives are this, that, these, those, and which. Possessives as one
combination of a + other'wniten and pronounced
include both noun (Smith’s, my father’s, etc.) дiX\(^ pronoun (my, numeral, unlike
word another)-, and they may be followed by a
your etc.). The latter have a special form when functioning as adjectives in their normal function as epithet which must follow any
head: mine,
ours, yours, his, hers, theirs, who.se, and (rarely) its. For numerative element. for example/ Ve used up these Ihjee
example: the other?The elliptical
Take these pills threp
fnore of those too.
times daily. And you 'd better have some nominal group is signed by combination post-deictic other and
is/Ve used up
specific deictic the. The full form of the sentence is _
these three yellow folder you gave me . Can I use the other three
and is replaced by yellow folder?
these Dilh^tu The full form of the sentence is Tak^
those pills to(o^ daily. And you’d better have some more of b) Numeral as Head . , . „miio
Of the element occuring after the deictic in t e retmlarlv
only the numeral and certain types of epithet function a a
P) Non-specific deictic
as the head in ellipsis. The numerative element in . .^р^гт
'S expressed by numerals or other 4uantifying words, ^

» XT ^ three subcategories; ordinals, cardinals, and indefinite q

(1) Ordinal Numeral
The ordinal numerals dwcfirst, next,
last, sec:ond, third,
with the or a
Hasan, 1976: ^е//с/ог/5. Let’s by some. (Halliday and fourth, etc. They are often used elliptically, gener _ No,
possessive as deictic, for example Ясп^ ««o Т^^бПбТ). The
In the chunks; that wasmv third ЩЫгу and possessive
word S'w////and of example (a). nominal elliptical group my third is speci ic sentence
the second sentce If by either. Hence m pronoun my and ordinal third. The fu ^iUanks; that was my
ommited and replaced hv P'^^se the.se apples is becomes Have another chocolate. —
those sentence are (aiSm./fc'* word some. Hence, the full forms of third chocolate.
^“her Smith or r2.’ . ', are on holiday. I wonder tf (2) Cardinal Numeral . gHipsis, and may be
TheL apples are Cardinal numerals are also frequ ^jgictic adjectives sue
preceded by any deictic and also by P example Have
^^the usual three, the same three. „ominal
onother chocolate. _ No. thanks: / ve

52
 The two verbal groups in the answers have (in^ e.v / have) in (a)
elliptical group wv three is specific deictic possessive лгу an and swimming in (b), are both the instances of verbal ellipsis. Both
cardinal numeral three. The full form of the sentence is i Have stand for 'have been swimming ', and there is no possibility of ‘filling
another chocolate. — No, thanks: I 've had my three rhocolate. out’ with any other items. The example (b) could be interpreted only
(3) Indeflnite Quantifiers as / have been swimming and it could, furthermore, be replaced by I
The indefinite quantifiers are items such as much, many, nip > have been swimming, since as in all types of ellipsis, the full form
few, several, a little, lots, a hit, hundreds, etc. In the utterance on and the elliptical one are both possible. There are two types of verbal
all cats climb trees? - they all can: and most do. the indefinite ellipsis namely lexical and operator ellipsis,
quantifier, most, presupposes cats. a)Lexical Ellipsis
Lexical ellipsis is the type of ellipsis in w hich the lexical verb is
c) Epithet as Head missing from the verbal group. All the modal operators {can. could,
th at
The function of epithet is typically fulfilled by an adjective M ///, would, shall, should, may. might, must, ought to, and is to) are
IS superlative and comparative form. ^ >ke in that one of them can function as a lexical verb. For
(1) Superlative Adjectives example: Is John going to come? - He might. He was to. -
is usua lly
precedes other epithet and is should, if he wants his name to he considered. Here might, was
to.
(а)/Грр/е are thTl P^^^^sive deietie. For example: *nay not should ewe all elliptical verbal groups consisting of
(b) Apple aVrlr^^^^ 19 76: ^rb^! them could be filled out by the lexical
164). m autumn. (Halliday and Hasan,
In exa Q^*^stion tag form is also example of lexical ellipsis. For
is Jo/7,7 couldn 7 been going to he consulted, could he?.
gftfnpevris an elliptical
«) Operator Ellipsis
bead and repfered by/feci* (b) is not elliptical. Fruit ellipted is ^●Tiission (^f ellipsis which involves only the
operator always remain intact. In
Adjective 3t the examrti^'^L ^ is always omitted from the clause. Look
c examples bel ow:
'bf ехатр1еГгоГ‘'Г“''" ‘"b^^^ntly presupposing by reference-
(2) pght or might not have objected.
E>«>mple (a) фУмагу is c/evc'e''- by
■●eference whereas since it is presupposing (3) ^hath ^'O'lng? - No. laughing.
®'^as(b),s not elliptical comparative. The
^ full doing? - Being cluised by a hull.
or
niight of th ese sentences arc (l)7/7ey might
J Verbal Ellipsis kp,S
^●dlQfbeen £iyi Д been crying? - No. she
® previous verbal^CT^^* Presupposes one or more words ff° ing? {3)What have you
^bose structure foeT' ^^‘^bnically, it is deHned as a verbal g^J^ b eing cha.sed by a hull.
Example: ' btHy express its systematic fenW'*
cl?®"**' ®“*Psis
various"sn, “I considered as the expression of the the
So on K^""b functi
^ you been doing?-Su’l
nmming . Dart"« statement, question, response and

^'ement. Fo™xample°"^'*''"^ element plus

54 55
 Substitution
was gpin^ to plant g row ofponlars in the nark.
Substitution is a relation between linguistic items, such as words
(Modal element)(Prepositional element)
or phrases or in the other word, it is a relation on the lexico-
grammatical level, the level of grammar and vocabulary, or
is 2е^егаиТя^|'ь f principle of clausal ellipsis linguistic form. It is also usually as relation in the wording rather
IS general to all types of questions,
a) Modal Ellipsis than in the meaning. The criterion is the grammar function of the
substitution item. In English, the substitution may function as a
in the verbal consist of the subject plus the finite element noun, as verb, or as a clause. Then, Halliday and Hasan divide Ле
a Duke ,o do^ - three types of substitution namely nominal, verbal, and clausal. The
(the subject and th^f '●! *" ®"swer, the modal element table below is summary of substitution forms.
таГеШп^з is omitted, hence there is
Table 7 7 Substitution Form
One(s) The same
Thing (count noun)
So Do the same
Nominal Process
the consist of the residu: the remainder of
(Nominalized) Be
present, for examnle Vt^ ^^"ipiements or adjuncts that may be Attribute Say
park? ~The_DulK^as о wu’ ofpoplars in the Fact
Do Do so
adjim^prrr omission of the complement Verbal Proccss(+...)
verbpW, so we’have leS",,!'’". group, of the lexical Clausal (): Positive
So So
sentence should be ЙТю ^ verbal group. Hence the report, Negative Not
park? - The Duke was a row of poplars in l^^ Not
condition,
modality

dealt with the instruction to я"* Polar questions are very simply
1) NominalSubstitutionOne/Ones /i/ie5 and .wwg.
you are right' and ‘уГа ° T"'"' "П^еу do not mean \
The elements of nominal substitution ● nominal
s« ive and the answer is negative^ *^can the answer is T'he substitution one/ ones
group, and can substitute only for an item
Question — Yes/NoOuestinnEllipsij nominal group. Look at the example /;>
ve Answer, o) My pen is too blunt. / must get a sharp -
a- Are y, The word one is the substitution foi platinum
Oi^coming? neiiative _
b. Aren V you coming? (I ant) h) I shoot the hippopotamus wit ti
Yes No (J am not)_
antj ^^^ause, if I use leaden ones, his hide is sw
No (I am notj
in sentence (1) one is the substiW lo ^ д
d)WH-Ellipsis
^^)'PhatdidIhit?~Ano, i^rm of the sentence is "’У jg the head of nominal
IS
'^harper pen. Whereas in example (2) nominal group
^< )fPhokiliedCockRoZ' n a 6*'oup leaden ones. The full form о
(3) Яои' j the patient? - comfoZ^'^' 'eaden bullets.
57
 2)Verbal Substitution b)Substitution of Conditional Clauses
A second context for clausal substitution os that of conditional
The verbal substitution in English is do. This operates as the
structure. Conditional clauses are frequently substituted
head of a verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the lexical
by ЛО and m;/, especially following//but also in other forms such
verb; and it is always in the final position in the group. Here are the
examples; as assuming so, suppose not:
(1) Everyone seems to think he \s uuiltv. If so. noo doubt he’ll
a)Does Jean ^ns? — No, but Maty does.
b) 7 don 7 ^ow the meanin9 of half those loitu words, and, offer to resign.
Q) We should recsnize the place when we come to it.
what s more, Idon 7 believe you do either!\
yes, hut supposing not: thenn what do we do?
In the example a) substitues .y/W; i' n b) do subtitues f^ow In sentence (1) ^ substitutes he is emiltv. whereas not in the
sentence (2) substitues we don 7 recognize the place when we come
to it.
presuDDose^fln^*^^*°” always anaphoric; it may
there is alreaH ^ within the same sentence as itself, so that
c) Substitution of Modalized Clauses
presupposing с1аи^™ЬиТч f Finally, so and not occur as substitution for clauses expressing
preceding sentenrp ’ a ^*‘^Яuently substitutes an element in a
modality. Look at the example below;
within a text. Onlv’ it is a primary source of cohesion
Oh, I beg your pardon!' cried Alice hastily, afraid that she had
sentence and does not '* which is within the
oes make contribution to cohesion. ^rt poor animal ’s feelings. 'I quite forgot you didn t like cats .
^ot like cats! ’ cried the mouse, in a shrill, passionate voice.
on Would you like cats if you were me? ’
^I^LIausal Substituti
Well, perhaps not, .said Alice in a shooting tone: ...
environtments^
Modality is the speaker’s assessment of the probabilities
condition and modalitv ' substitution take place: report,
^rent in the situation, as in the example above. These may be
either of two form^ ^ environments it may take
^pressed either by modal forms of the verb {will, woidd, can, could,
by so, the negative by^«of negative; the positive is expressed
must, should, is, to and ought to), or by modal adverbs such
a) Substitution
Look at the of Reported Clauses perhaps, possibly, probably, certainly, surely: the latter are
example below;
‘...ifyou ve ^cquently followed by a clausal substitute, with the proviso already
like*. Ле/и so often, of cour.seyouJuwwjyhatth^ylH^ those expressing certainly do not accept substitution in
Чbelieve so, ’Alice ^ Positive, though they do in the negative.
replied throughtfully.
Lexical Cohesion
are cohesion comes about through the selection of items that
declarative, whatever the mn ^*^bstituted by so or not is alway lexi*^^!^^^^ those that have gone before. Types of
no substitution for interogat^ Presupposed clauses. There is Furdf ^°*^®sion are repetition, synonymy and collocation.
commands), and thereforeV''^.^'^ ‘niperative indirect questions or Halliday and Hasandivide types of lexical cohesion
verbs such as ^“bstitution do not following reiteration (repetition, synonymy or near-synonym,
^operordi
mate and general word) and collocation.
58 59
 b. Collocation
Collocation is lexical cohesion which depends upon their
a. Reiteration i c the
Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which invo ve tendency to co-occur in texts. 1-or example:
repetition of lexical item, at one end of the scale. A littlefat man ofBombay
1) Repetition . ● IVas smokiiw one very hot clay.
The most direct form of lexical cohesion is repetition ^ . But a bird called a snipe
item; c.g.bearm sentence met a bear. The bear uy/.v if Flew oM>ay with his pine.
Here the second occurrence of bear harks back to the first. Which vexed thefat man ofBombay.
2) Synonym or Near - synonym , . There is a strong collocational bond bclwccn smoke and pipe,
Synonym is used to mean “sameness of meaning . which makes the occurrence oi'pipe in line 4 cohesive.
cohesion results from the choice of a lexical item that is m so Palmer assumes that collocation is ver\ largely determined by
for
sense synonymous with one;
preceding rneaning and it is sometimes fairly idiosyncratic and cannot easily be
example sound with noise, cavalary with horses in predicated in terms of the meaning of the associated words. To
starl^^
He was jusi wondering which road to take when he wcis easier restriction of collocation, he also divides three kinds ot
by a wise from behind him. It was the noise of trotting horses . ■ ^0 ocational restriction. First, some are based wholly on the
»^d,mounled and led his horse as quickly as he c ould aloP^
right-hand road. The yeaning or the item. Secondly. some are based on range. Thirdly,
sound of the cavalarly grew rapidly pecu some restrictions are collocational in the strictest sense.
3) Superordinate
Superordinate is term for words that refer to the upper class Conjunction
hvDonvm p '■efer to the lower class itself are cohesive not in themselves but
nyponym . For example- тсНгедГ"ь‘''® elements
in Prima ‘1 ' ● specific meanings: they are nor
Henry's
the car. bought himself a new Jaguar. He practically
text b ^ reaching out into the preceding (or following)
Presenc^^ cypress certain meaning which presuppose the
to and the cw* is a superordinat ^allida^ other components in the discourse. Hasan and
^^versat’^ ^ scheme of just four categories, namely additive.
Introducf^’ ^rid temporal. According to Halliday in An
4) General Word ^laboratif^^*^ Functional Grammar, cunjuction is classified into
u. extention. and enchancement.
items, are ve^iy correspond to major classes of
borderline between lev'^ cohesive force. They are on
^^j^*^boration
words are used cohe?’ substitutes. Not all g
^i^borating on*^-. clause that expands another by
the same rS t "h"';
accompanied by a re presupposing, and when ^^tail, comme t* ^ **^^tating in other words, specify ing in grater
claborative relaf'*^^ exemplifying. There are two categories of
There -s a boy climbing
'^PpositioT’ oamely apposition and clarification.

Here, the reiteration takes the form of a general word thing- ^’'РЫп^ой!^® KHdalaksana apposition is a word or phrase which
"^“ther preceding phrase
or clause . In this ty'pe of elaboration
60 61
 3)Enhancement
some element is re-presented, or restated, either by exposition or Enhancement m eans o ne
clause expands another b\
example. Look at the example below:
embellishing around it by qualifying it with some circumstantial
(1) Expository: in other word, that is (to stay), I mean (to say)
to put it another way. feature of time, place, cause or condition, fhc various t\ pcs of i
thus, to illustrate. c usT"’T‘- ‘^"h'-'^h.n are spalio-tentporal. manner.
'
(2)Exemplifying:for example,for instance.
i
b)Clarification causal-conditional , and matter.
Spatio-temporal
Here, the elaborated element is not simply restated but Spatial relations
’ ^^^‘^marized, made more precise or in some other way and the mo4t ППГЛ T icxl-crcaling cohesi\ c de\ ices
clanfied for the purposes of discourse: space, for examnlTw^^^^^'^^'f* c'ohcsion is m terms of metaphorical
rather, at lea.n, to he more precise conjunctions are / гсте you rc wrong. Whereas temporal
2 Distraet,ve: by the tray, ineidentalh
anyway, leaving that a side etc. on. nixt tone, ne.xt doy. meonn hile. at this moment .
(5)Resiim ‘^particular, more especially Manner
Int ,,, re.sume, to get hack to the Manner
reference to co njunctives create cohesion bx> compari● son and b\
(7)Veril^ttve- Zt°ll’ *) Causal
^ y> as a matter offact, in fact I■nn man ' -'«"“‘«onaii
Extension
prominent^ rse th e relation of
as a cohesi VC cause figures vcr\
general, ●others
^ agent. Some caus e I
bg-ond rby^adTin^ ^’‘Pands another by extendinS relate e'xp rcssions arc
Purpos^.
° ering an alternative giving an exception to it- ^hat ●To, then, therefi^e'^ specilicallx to result, reason or
^versaf/vg or variation involves either addd' Posilive^^f' ''^ЬПесопаик)паГ'^^"*'"‘^ ' ‘’" “J ihis. for
a)Addition " egative fi'r’ “«e. о thot[^T''''T' "Jed into
к
c. % t"”'
»^dingt'
moreover w
■'""*''"o«) and
3cts to structurally coordinate or
idem divided into positive {and,
negative {nor).
Jnss.r*
reference to the *
matter* that h as
ea c H
'‘■'Pe-et. elsewh,..:.are here, there. as to that, in that
Й/‘ State led
‘hat state cont«*
othe 'hoT'^'^^ *° expectation and signa
*) Variation however.
variation i
includes 7 an d
alternative ‘or ‘■eplacive ‘i ●except
’ types. instead’, subtractive
(0 ^^eplacive: on n
(2) Subtractive: opa”/fr"^’ ''^'ead
O'
except

62
63

The factors governing grammatical and lexical choice in writing
(e.g. audience, purpose of writing)
Questions for discussion:
The assignment’s purpose, audience, and tone dictate what the
paragraph covers and how it will support one main point. This
section covers how purpose, audience, and tone alTeet reading and
writing paragraphs.

1. Identify the four common academic purposes.
2. Identify audience, tone, and content.
● Apply purpose, audience, tone, and content to a specific
assignment.
Identifying Common Academic Purpose.s
The purpose for a piece of writing idcntincs the reason \ou
e a particular document. Basically, the purpose of a piece of

Imagine reading one long block of text, with each idea blurring plav‘> question **Wh\?'’ for example. wh\ write ac.
babvsittLoTг ^ instructions to the
interesttno"^**' reading a thrilling novel or an
“ wT! ''kely lose interest in what the '^'rite a lettpr ? schedule and rules. Wh\
\oiir
VeVptvA to positfon'^'^ quickly. During the writing process, it' community’s needs congressman? Го persuade him to address
can focus easily ^ reader. Ask yourself whether you
effective writers^,,,, ● Уоч rnake. One technique that PUToseTtoTum^"-"^®' "‘■'‘"’t? fr'""'" 1«иг main
‘hey introducr " ^ fresh paragraph for each new idea You will encounter 1° s> nthcsi/c. and to ev aluate,
but also as vr!^'"' “*"■ "nlv as vou read for your
paragraph focusef^i!^** logical, manageable chunks. One Writing work toueih^”'^ pleasure. Because readiim
sentences to supnort th ?" ^ nnd presents coheren
paragraph supnort th#. ^ Point. Because all the sentences in on
^'"gnmentsspecincaZd'" “T'’'' >nu to complete
create longer Point, a paragraph may stand on its oW ● you will see the ^ to meet one of the four purposes
Writers
g^ouptogeS"^""*^ discuss more than one
T'b ree element h P^'^agraphs.
Purpose. The reai!f of each paragraph:
2-Tone. The attitu^"t?^ composes the paragraph,
subject . attitude the writer co nveys about the paragraph ■gnments. individual paragraphs and to build longer

address.“'‘^"'=^-^^'individual or group whom the writer intends t

A^sum®? ●’“'■ag'-aphs

^‘S^>-e6.lPurp w"""" P^°bab|y‘'';^^^’^'’“"‘ «' ialbnuation into only the

_ ● -Audience, Tone, and Content Triangle
Audience Chances am a” so^
® 'Wo-he’ '"“'^otker, orclassmaTf conversation
des
, '>^”,1,'""'"
?
. г
^.''^niajorploin^n! "^‘"dred-page
'b. =..i„
book i n fo a brief

"g your own vocaLlary аЫ тГ" “

lary and manner of .speaking.
 According to the Hooitotlna the Future
Study, alacai tvo thrrdc of lo-.b-gta-ic s'uder.ts
Similarly, a summary paragraph condenses a long piece of
reported having tried aicohoi ot least writing into a smaller paragraph by extracting only the vita
once in their lifet-oe. дг.^ h;; r-p.'tted words. Like the
having been drunk information. A summary uses only the writers own
ot least one» (doh nst
on 0* nl. >006*;. Aff, I f- U*ii Rnd.' \ iir of an
these rates had ri
ri sen to over three-
summar\''s purpose in daily conversation, the purpose
academic summary paragraph is to maintain all the essential
quartern who reported >ie-,v.r.g ●r;ed aie- .1,., least
once and nearly three!Ifthe
‘-b reported having beer. drunk a t
cut rent alcohol
least cncr. In term ol
information from a longer document. Although shorter t an e
‘ 33.2 percent of the Motion's
50th g raders and t/. 'j p. г ct 12th
original piece of writing, a summary should still communicate a e
gtadero reported having used alcohol
and 30.2 percent,
0’ lesGt once In th e past ’0 days; I - t.er.vnt key points and key support. In other words, summary paragrap
roepoctivrjy.
f«po rtod having boor, drunk :i n the p.is-. ЛГ lay ?●; .0 should be succinct and to the point.
percent and 28.1 percent all the main points and
■ respective ly
● repo tted having hail ii ■jr or =зг.- dtit.k.'. in я A summary of the report should present r^nnrt
io the paat 2

cent.
voeka (aeaetieec called bi
"8C drinking): end 1.3 percent and 3.. per
supporting details in brief. Read the following summary of the repon
respectively
■ teported daily alcohol
(Johnaten et al. 2006a; .
written by a student:
Alcohol
't^ounption continuea
CO twenty f to eac aloto after high school. in fact, oignte or.■
«’^t-yoor-olds have the
^lehcat level ho,r К h'5 tntЖг
dependence of 0 of alcohol concuspt ion find nb-ohol

“«5Г age group. I„ ^

of alcohol yea ra after high sch ol. lifet ■oler.ee
“oe (ba aed
2C0S follov-
4 ‘.;5Г 5л.'# ;« ' ‘ J I
««B Bl.B op eutveya from the
Konltot ing the V\:ure Study)
Potcent. 30-day U6C
provelente
''«0 36.3
«’^‘■tont (JohnsT
’’t nl. 2006b).
« « 59 percent.

Of note,
and binge-drinking provaience r
®ote than their colle ge ntitdofita
on nverag.’ drink
noncollego peers. nvea
thoaa who did not g o on
tbough they drank
Irso during high school than - J
‘=“^3oee (Johnet on et al.
br exanple.
/ 200 1. the 20'J6a.b: Schulenberg and Haggs 2CD2) . Cr A .Й* ZU/ t;rfi I'u’c’d'S
Of binge dtlnkin
beyond high Bchool) vaa 60.t
8 foi college atudeni
E (1 tt> A yea!c
portent.
vhereaa th e
35.5 percent. tnto for thoj
r nor.college .ige cates
● Zli u. A tcl oelvcj^ '
Alcohol utc and
Ptoblea drinkl
in late
characterieUca. for adoleacence
onncple. the vary by ooci.jdeapgraphic
Ptcvaler^e of
girla. hlgke, f alcohol
ct Vhlt e and l8 higher for
Hiapani bays than zi ftXu< it
c adolescent
and higher for those li » than (or
''^4 in the African-American adoles cents.
I "«fth and north
ing in the South
a-nd West.
of thocc
»«'« S,„„ ,b„ for there
however. ,Vor tolotionahip
exaaple . В change with
olthough alcohol early ndulr hond.
.f bi': 5.'^^-
with lower population
““o i n hig,, school toads 'criw^, .rt^i
denaity (i.e, to bo higher Ir: atens
● rural
this relatir-iishi “^«aa! than● ii n mote
P reverses durln
adulthood
donsely populated area s.
the key points niacin by th^
.. lower educQti
(Johnaton
et al., 2006 a.b;. Lower
Notice how the summary retains statistical da .
t anoi lovol of
a. parents) is
■luring t.hc early high Bchoo! anoociatod with more ^●●iters of the original report but omds m ^^g^^es m he
'.he irari: ; jh
’.J adui'.h'Jod. this
by the
«^ad of high
cr.hool, and .luring
S^nimaries need not contain all the jew of the essential
ta latlonahip
f ic hai kgr >undt^ c-'.l;Su.-.e
changea.
““'3 youth f
ГОЯ higher £0; icec ;»
P*‘iginal document; they provide only a
g:eet.jr aaounta Of
g^oohol. '●1 formation.
67
 Analysis Paragraphs discrepancy between the points that are backed up by statistics an
'"aterials in their different parts those that require additional information. Analyzing a docurnen
involves a close examination of each of the individual parts an ow
they work together.
pa^he elf ’f' a deconstruction of its
would studv chloride (Cl). Then, scientists I Synthesis Paragraphs ^
NaCI or sodium ki^ a ° interact to create the compound
A synthesis combines two or more items to crea e j
Analyfis fnu table salt
new item. Consider the electronic musical instrument ^РоУ
paragraph in academ™'*^^-*° sciences, of course. An analysis
the synthesizer. It looks like a simple
deconstructina comn'*^ '^ting fulfills the same purpose. Instead of dashboard of switches, buttons, and levers. Wit t e ip ^
deconstruct documenteAnf'^f^^''^ analysis paragraphs typically switches, a musician may combine the distinct soun s о jg
essay, a book, an article ete f ® primary source (an flute, or a guitar-or any other combination of In^truments-to c ea
main points of the doc/ point. It communicates the
a new sound. The purpose of the synthesizer .s to blend together
identifying how the examining individual points and
Take a 1ооГаг?.ь ? ""°ther. notes from individual instruments to form new. . jn^jividual
at a student’s analysis of the journal report. Th e purpose of an academic synthesis is ° ^ paragraph
ocuments into a new document. An s ^^iting and
'*■ JPfcVH .’dii-i/ii {/<# cf
considers the main points from one or more pine w point, one not
inks the main points together to create a
‘‘eplicated in either document. about
is of seve ral sources
ScC’Ot'ycjn^ rjC' Take a look at a student’s synthesis
underage drinking.

Jj'- thr>t 3Q0i tepoff, ^■ feCietSiM

Se^.pJeJ^offliC
/py; 6.^fy>rJ iv*/ wettS
fipy: rjSif 5« ' liffrct ijat^rr, thi
Vr^cfd*CT*(<i>'^ ^iohc»A
г’/)йя rcnS'Jfnf^
^ It ^r:r<
siaJifS, f(5 »i«r// tiS <v>y
tiikSml tiittS /*лу i* ttdlictd
)'Could c 5e'iY» ла^ SchooS Qnf siuJ^'t bpdfhy

^^tecesdirt^ »Wi f^S. ai' fet

Гг«лйг
Cyia»^,cr., *>/jo/5. T/lry t’cn'IifJtf t’
iftlcUi
ra»J irn io Uifi-r /w> бЬ^огрго»ь5'<
pfl^UStuie>iSCit(^
Notice how the analysis н.
CttJf fa CeJlry-Oy^
from the original report, but consiri"°‘ !‘‘"Р'У information
report relate to o ne another. Bv rff ‘he points within the th H^teSt tisk /«?/
'Ug this, the student uncovers з 69
68

i\
 StuderiS^ icjn /»v/i uni
evaluation paragraphs often follow summary, analysis, and synthesis
feat paragraphs. Read a student's evaluation paragraph.
I tr,ed Ы /(.●."'л'Л rn'ctU'

itwm io dr;rl(. 4n foat тел ren . 'Pyre Ы boijr tt ;■* Г‘Л'^ J J

hid irmd cJcohd tt\e <4^ of thtt
the М)тел
-W dSQ Ш fJeoheJ iy Шелл <4d tile fomth kd fr.eJ .krJyJ .V
f^ftteл. flu ''iiJtk.: 'fr.
students Ш ikt peer pressure, icredem, ,irJ the th.H Ы t ; v»/g !
Somet/iin^ illejj ●srete
«ofttaV/g freiers. T/ieSe reSuttS Support the tese:a.'h Ы ,. tft nxt Sot)’ и
^^f<Jil^er,tho,>clScrr,Se йЛ ff Д
''^ereShn^po.nt ZfJotedom .<
foctae fa
mufU (Mtie^ crfta school
pto^iees O' cihff Commit' tn r£:uifC. a Hex- i/5f '<« ^cu. .Гк^£5ГсО*»ЛС^2 ;£Ч^;/!5аГ/а&яс-
'^y^res Could \
on -O iSSuade teenre^js from Urdet(4^ dntt(-/^. B-iteJ
*V Sources, furtkr
<airyS .VJ^ д5 t' xd'<etSSid!
^h >S oerdrd ^o Sflou. true pm'eiitd'tCe mexlSurrS iot
'^‘*'^dcoholcooSumpt;oo.

w'JJJ .Л :r-€ ' :ycd:tis

use information Paragraphs consider each source an^
does not repeat infom^atbn^r^^*^.^ ^ Sood synthesisto iiU ;«сл: ':ciJrt\ HCe i V» div 4. tc
create a new idea. 'vriter uses a variety of sources
Sen'kiSi) I :^r<tht ('Л/х
Evaluation Paragraphs
i^^skdidcciiif
An evaluation judges Л» i its J>:r tc .^}$i iuKV ’ с^иИЩJ -/
Cd
worth. Evaluations in evo °^®°"'ething and determines
ictated by set standards ^’‘Periences are often not оп’У 5ГЙИ/С5
knowled ge. For example « “ '"«nonced by opinion and prior the student’s personal
emp oyee evaluation by ®. ^npervisor may complete an . Notice how the paragraph 5пс?Ф°|^ "" ^ document requires
ase on the company’s goal.! subordinate's performanee jud gment within the evaluation. Eva
eommun,cation, the supLIso'^^^f company focuses on improving prior knowledge that is often based on
^ervice according ,0 a s^ rate the employee’s custome
look for the
етоТ*^^ ^“Pervisor’s oo’^^*'^’ ^lowever. the evaluation sti'' Tip ’ , often
employee. The purpose of Ь°Г? Prior experience with th^ When reviewing directions n instruc о . These
vvell
the employee performs at his^r b “®''“" ‘° determine how '^^rbs summarize, analyze, synthesize, -„„nient’s
. An academic evaluarto Use these words to clearly indicate assignment ec
justifications, about a documen'tT’"''"''^'''®^ your opinion, and d® 'vords will cue you on how to comp
are influenced by ypur read °'®‘°'’'‘'°*’r'isoussion. Evaluation^ 'vill know its exact purpose.
knowledge, and your prior e:^^® document, your pr>o' in the workplace
Because an ev aluation incorporaf"®"*^® ‘ire topic or issue- Writing at Work should
for your point of view, it Уоиг point of view and reasoi’ Thinking about the purpose °^'X*cumcnt'”A' summao-
the
and a combination of summa^ я? critical thinking ^un help focus and structure
71
"^""«ysis, and synthesis skills. Thu^

/J
 about what you write. In fact, thinking about driven
provide colleagues with a factual overview of your findings without so common that you may not even detect the aud.ence-dnven
going into too much specific detail. In contrast, an evaluation should
decisions. . , *„,nrHnffsite
incu e your personal opinion, along with supporting evidence, For example, you update your status on a socia ne
research, or examples to back it up. Listen for words such with the awareness of who will digitally follow t e p family
analyze, synthesize, or evaluate when your boss asks to brag about a good grade, you may write t e pos
0 comp ete a report to help determine a purpose for writing.
●iiembers. If you want to describe a J ^ork, you send
Identtfying the Audience with your friends' senses of humor in ^ " .:„ег who could
6"rnails with an awareness of an uninten e
an Tf ® presentation to a group of executives in intercept the message. . ,, .gaders is a skill you
reheaSgThe nm T '-e creating an i n other words, being aware of ‘Mnvisi Consider
decisions no! XT“°"- "^^ke important, careft.1 J^ost likely already possess and one you У ^ author send to her
Will the presentatf content but also about your delivery- Following paragraphs. Which one wou -. J9
charts? Should the n” ‘"^4uire technology to project figures an parents? Which one would she send to her best
executives alreadv define important words, or will *
dress shirt? The answ°''^/^^ terms? Should you wear your suit an Example A , . hospital. The visit w«
appropriate relation.hTn questions will help you develop Last Saturday. I volunteered at a oc cardiopulfe”
fun
receptive to your message"^'*^ your audience, making them nio and rewarding. I even learned caught a cold ftf^,
resuscitation, or CPR. Unfortunately. I thin p,g„ty of
your presentation^ to ^’rplain the same business concepts at the patients. This week, I will rest in be ^ again.
anportant questions you school students. Tho ' 1 hope 1 am well by next Saturday to voiu
ifferent answers. The ®''‘ously answered may now reqo
17 Л me to
and the terms will eVr^Jf'' charts may be too sophisticaH-
even
reconsider your outfit and ^ '^®4uire definitions. You may the OMgK won’t believe this! kid
audience has shifted, your “casual look. Because Immunity service hours at this hosp‘ pgeps. all
well to cre ate a new relMionsh-"'""‘^'‘°" and delivery will shift E b ut we did it on dummies, not ® (,ored and j
>n these two situafio ^P *е new audience. on me and got me sick! I wa=sn^^^ , jef do
watch and listen to the individuals who ent ®ckend; I hope 1 don’t have to go ® intended
o^ resentation. As yoS ртГ‘?и~Р'"Уа a role in the develop^the ^®nt to miss the basketball tournament. g^aph veals the
im 1° anticipate theirTx Presentation, you visualize Most likely, you matched ^ach paraS^^P^ identify *e
■m gine affects the info^'^^ctations and reactions. What У« “Jrence with httle hesitation. Beca^ae you ca^^a.^^
w.n present It. Then, during h, Г P^^^^nt and hoW У° ®«hor’s relationship with her intended P^[frelationship
patron and dis cover immecfi^i f У°“ the audien^ ®“dience fairly quickly. When '^'‘ ";ыТп apP^aP^fh stage of the
Although the audience for У°“ perform. . engage with your audience to , during writing*
may not appear in person, thev nV”® ^^^'^afants—your readef ®>''en your subject Imagining ^Bions about your
very ay writing activities equally vital role. "'‘■fting process will help you tmaks
aractenstics, interests, and expecta". 5'°“'' ’'^^оП* 73
Paetations
72
before making decis'®
H
 health-related topics than a
would presumably know more about
Ultimately, the people you visualize will affect what and how you
write. business major would. . л,г while
● Expectations. These indicate what rea -^jg^cies in the
Tip reading your assignment. Readers may expec traditional
assignment’s appearance, such as correct Readers may
While giving a speech, you may articulate an inspiring or critical
rnessage, but if you left your hair a mess and laced up mismatched formatting like double-spaced lines and . gent’s purpose
also have content-based expectations Economics of
shoes, your audience would not take you seriouslv. They may be too and organization. In an essay title for example,
distracted by your appearance to listen to your words, Enlightenment: The Effects of Rising economic
the
imi ar у grammar and sentence structure serve as
audience members may expect to read
Polishing your work using correct repercussions of college tuition costs. writing process,
^
“ve Го Keep in mind that as your topic s i s ^ ^tion about the
your audience may also shift. For . ^j^out style depen
process and audience will enhance your writing, 'Vriting process. Also, remember that j^g your audience s
on
audience, purpose, and content, e gxpectations wi
the reairs’ de^ Use your imagination to anticiP»* ''emographics. education, prior ^ equalj
expects. education, prior knowledge, and effect how you write, but purpose hoW to select an
of ‘ ^^Portant role. The next subsection
and purpose.
people, such measure important data about a group appropri ate lone to match the audience
- their gender Sn ‘’teS or another
kinds of considerations ah^T assignments will require th^^ Selecting an Appropriate Tone easily in
assignments, these meac audience. For other topics in Tone identifies a speaker s att ^ ^^jee f
th e end. Regardless it may not influence your "'I'i*''’? - You may pick up a person her weekend
you begin to think about ""P°ttant to consider demographics conversation. A friend who tells you who me ^
● Education. Education**"^ Purpose for writing, of ^oitedly about a fun skiing trip- " ^gjize her seriou щау
schooling. If audience mel'T'*"^ audience’s level ■РЗУ speak in a low. slow voice to emph ^ |on„
example, you may need to a doctorate degree- , 'ovvorker who needs to let off some stea . writers can
orackaa sarcastic Joke.
language. Or, if audfenermr''f ^‘’^id , througn excited and
tvrite in a more relaxed stvi"'^^'^ ^^'l college, you e o f -Ittst as speakers transmit em ^ttitud^^* connections
emphasi s may also dictate vm ®' audience member’s major ^^smit through writing a/^flese emotions у building
^ -Prior knowledge 2 nmorous to somber and critical. subject, u these
alrea'IJ' mong the audience, the author, a ^ext. useful
bows about your topic Ifvoi audience
top'*:*’
Jey may already know some certain ^ mlationship between the nud'cu .j^jes and e °^,uation, and
You may decide whether to def^^ concepts related to the toP ^ connections, writers intimate ‘l’0'[ “^ord oho'^’/^uer’s attitude
on your audience’s prior knnu f explain concepts f ovices, such as sentence struc ; that purpose,
■"Sid e the brains of your raX ^1‘hough you cannot P« omtal or informal language. he audience and the p
can make reasonable assumptions p majot ould always appropriately ma e ^
● '’Or instance, a nursing ^
74
 Read the following paragraph and consider the writer’s tone. ● The content of each paragraph and document is shaped у
How would you describe the writer's attitude toward wildlife purpose, audience, and tone.
to summarize, to
conservation? ●The four common academic purposes are
Many species of plants and animals are disappearing right analyze, to synthesize, and to evaluate. pHncation. prior
before our ●Identifying the audience's demographics, jjg
thpm u ‘I be too late to save
anrt activities, including pollution, deforestation, hunting» biowledge, and expectations will affect how an w ^„^,^uation,
●Devices such as sentence structure, wor c ’ . ^.^gate a
WithnTl*^Tf devastating the natural environment,
and formal or informal language
children species will not survive long enough for our
the tiger, for Example. Today, relationship between the writer and his or anecdotes,
●Content may consist of examples, ' ’ appropriate and
populations are^ I of their historical range, and many lo^a l^stimonies, and observations. All content mu
other body nart^*^tb ^ f^tinct. Hunted for their beautiful pelt an
one ●‘ileresting for the audience, purpose and tone.
hundred thousand has plummeted from
wildlife conservation ® thousand. Contact your loca
terrible destruction today to find out how you can stop t

, Content
selecting an audience j Written substance in a document. A
'"formation will make ч"'! ® Pt"Pose, you must choose who f
examples, statistics fact,' ° Content may consist
n o matter the’tyn. ’ testimonies, and observation j
interesting for foe audience^ ‘"formation must be appropriate " .
have to that summarizes theT'^ ’'“'?°^^-
graders written fo r th ^
co ntain succinct and process, for example- wo
Content is also shaned th6
con ent, the audience will be ^ ^hen the tone matches buil^^
stronger relationship with v and you will of
tt;;rd graders. You Consider Ihat audien;^ ,
an ! »r ^ “"‘^erstand, and you ‘^at the audieu gh
an enthusiastic tone. The same ^at content thro ces
and puiposes. '^“"siderations apply to all audie"
^^сшешЬег:
● Paragraphs
separate ideas i
information.
logical, manageable chuul^
77

76
 Practical Part ’Tdsk 3
Task 1.
Find ellipses from these following examples. Which wor
as theme and ^nd what type of ellipses is omitted?
rheme *''*** *“"*’^'"8 example. Divide them
1. - Have you been working?
1. The boy loved him for about two hours. - Yes, I have. ^
3' wf* u“ “'■‘he town-hall, 2. If you could , I’d like you to be back here a
j- We want change. 3. Catch me. if you can. , more
5. Seta' Tu him. 4. Do you want to hear another song? I know
6 Chanoe i ^ there is a nice cafe. 5. Sue brought roses and Jackie lilies. --««d
0. ^hangeiswhatweneed. I ran 5 miles on the first day and 8 on t e s
1 m sitting here .
2. There are four flights to New York to ay-
9 In If" is a big lawn . . . earliest. had better have
*● Take these pills three times a day. And you
'0.™sU‘J:f‘ff5^j.aflowerbed. in
^me more of those too plant a row of poplars
Task 2. What was the Duke going to do.
park.
Analyse these
cataphoric, following examples. Find anaphoric» lO.Mary is the cleverer than her friend.
1. The exophoricreferences
ittf government
2. I walked ^sisk 4. and analyze
around^lfr!!!^'^^ “"employment, sentences
the ^^ind substitution from these followi g
biggest dog I had ever seen stopped dead. It was ^Ьещ.
3. I bought a new
them very
У
4. Did you see th e book^^ ^ bargain. * ● This car is mine, but that one is you
5. The *f you have seen them so often, У
President Will for you?
«●Theschoolmlef ^ 1 believe so. . :„ht have done do.
seemed sorry. The miller village, and everybody 3 . Did Mary take that letter? She m g ^ost
with one.
Can all cats climb trees? - They ^
tdted cart and horse to еаг^ ыГ'"°"’Ье lent him the small wh>t«
about twenty miles off, s^k^' ‘he city of his destinati<’”j Ifyou want a typewriter, they
Л: We all hate hypocrisy.
s.ze for,he departing teaeSV^hi'^'e proving of quite suffice"'
Уе.у, everybody does.
7Th.smh-oductionisfi„f^.«t,
^ ^*^’P Would hardly Ья precise. .uq ' Л: Have they moved thefitrrtt
"an who made it. In mid.jl f''® been noteworthy, except for They have done. tontorro"’'^
Mextco City for a series of A-"erican fi nancier fle'V "’
nt ^ Do you think he ’ll come
officials, including President '^‘‘h high-level governme ^ ' Yes, I think .so.
/ think not.
minister, Gustavo Petricioli (Nevf" Madrid and his fi"^
●^N«'vsweek,2l September 1987:44)

78 79
 Tasks. Task 6.
examples and
Find conjunctions from these following
A^lyze lexical cohesion from these following sentences, analyze them.
in front oTui^*h violets, snowdrops and basils growing i-You must either obey my instructions ● .. .
2. You must pay the fine otherwise you wi e P
ПГПГРМ ^^3s a lot of constructions such as monitor, printer, З.Не is rich, still he is unhappy.
processor, keyboard, scanner, and etc. everthele s s they decided
4. There was little chance of success, n
to go ahead.
destructiv e pe rsonality,
5.My cat has beautiful blue eyes, but a the cheesecake or
tookm^rioig^t^i^e 6.1 didn't know weather you d want
ozen hot chocolate, so I got you both. but also the frozen
6.1 want h^r girl lost her mum. , 1’11 eat them both not only the cheese
7.1гПа' ° breathe "ot chocolate. . . .,
family. У govern a kingdom but difficult to rule one s
8 .Rocky was rude, therefore. I the bus
* The doctor ordered th»„ .● S ammy did not walk fast, so she щ
more9 The old movies iust a re tO - Reena could not go to school ec j
appealing. ^ on t do it anymore. The new ones 1 Although Ravi was ilK he wen
and then
4-Music has stirr«n?*"i°i''^ b'oi np was a loud crush, Task 7. about four film s
■mes. But music was not '«● *bnt- Music has troubled him . Read the following paragraphs
'2-Mr. Grey had ""lily the purpose of each paragrap -
Ш1 13.1 hope we’ll have^u!!'’®"' "'gbt but he's OK now. , , b^cn cut down to les
"‘■Ask the teaeheHf V ''"^dy. 1 - This film could easily b^''® b „,ost of
ho urs.
15.We were in town tnd Problems with the exercise, . By the final scene, I n were jjrector
love у table. ^day shopping for forniture. We saW « ^"''■egoers were snoozing 1".‘bcr Althou^‘be^
16 .Yesterday a nio to stint'*''’" 1° i^bat was happening ° |,ard fo j story. If
'^“''1*7^®birdcoverfdfoedfo''^'* "’«^sage from Tashkent ks diligently to the book, he , j^ch a detad- .55.
7-When we look closelv day v ton, which is Just too ambitious ^ ftg mo Laura
" Want my advice, read the boo that t e desperately
expressive d etails the lines nf.t ® b“"tan face we are aware of
I 2. During the opening scene. j three У usual
?oT°'^^‘be lips, the jut of ft '^ehead, the wideness of the еУ
adopted and that she has ^P"" ,f Having trees, and so
in
■Т'ПЕ to track down her real P^if" searches- fa^ J tianger on a
general, however, the car was ft b^kes had to be repaired-
good condition. ^Pbons-adoption agencies. ^hen she "tf^^ain „f events
P"^he is on the verge of giving «Р complicated P ,s ,t
TTie chance encounter leads to a „fdong w ^„,a
ultimately result in Laura gett-"g ^st of itthe
be longs.
*"""y what she wants? Throughout where
scovers that sometimes the past
81
80
 3. То create the
Lee, uses a feeling of being gripped i n a vice, the director,
tension. The 2. Expectations
=>eepy, increase the 2. Your instructor
earlier
scenes beco mes ev ^ that subtly enhances the ● Demographics
crescendo toward the insistent, rising to a disturbing
● Education
actors, combined with th ° ^ movie. The desperation of the
● Prior knowledge
camera angles create a real! г atmosphere and tight ● Expectations
●'cpc of escape w!lkb from which there is little
^‘aggeringourof The head of your academic department
4. The .^^omandung!^,**’^ theater at the end feels like ● Demographics _
the guards ● Education
as m shutting fellow prisoners assist
Detrll-f^ ®^sed on the 'oimediately strikes the viewer * Prior knowledge
* Expectations
incitinp intentin unlikely that a posse of 4. Mow think about your next writing ass ignment. Iden tify the
listed in Note 6.12
urpose (you may jhe same purpose list of
teports^nd^*^^ ‘‘avenge from ofh ^ captors at the risk of
and then identify the audience. Create a
^'^^'vely studies i^^^ Instead, both news ^racteristics under each category,
‘C onflict aitn ^ riot win prisoners who do not
back to their cells and avoid assignment; _
% purpose:
CollaboraK^*”’’ itain, of attention to detail occur audience:
Sharf:;^. " " “"bearable to watch.
^ ^*assm ate and ● Demograph ics_
Task 8. compare your answers. ● Education
* Prior knowledge
Consider thee
● Expectations
Collaboration answers.
lease share with a classmate and compare у
^y purpose: —-____^^J|^^ssignment.
^3sk 10. s elected. Now,
Task 9.
id» ^^'ok about the assignment and
the (one you would use in the assignment.
3 hst of characteristics % assignment:
This list will help you later ^ y purpose:
'● classmates ^'^°"‘cnt. ^y audience:
● Demographics Щ tone:
● Education
Task II. audience and
Eriorknowl^ Match the content in the box to
Pose. On your own sheet of paper
,Sr=.
82 0 dumber.
83
 References:
1.Whereas economist Holmes contends that the financial crisis 1 .Бенвенист Э. Общая лингвистика. — M., 1974.
is far from over, the presidential advisor Jones points out that it is 2. Ван Дейк Т. Д. Язык. Познание. Коммуникация.
vital to catch the first wave of opportunity to increase market share, М., 1989. текста. —
e can use elements of both experts’ visions. Let me explain how. З.Демьянков В. 3. Когниция и понимание
●In 2000, foreign money flowed into the United States, 2005. №3. с. 5-10.
Вопросы когнитивной лингвистики. Объяснительный
conditions. People bought larger houses 4.Греймас А. Ж.. Курте Ж. Семиотика
interestratemsl^'’^”'*’ defaulting on their loans as словарь теории языка. — М., 1983. школа анализа
5. Квадратура смысла. Фра нцузская
Economic Stabilization Act. known by [uost М.. 1999.
дискурса.
Although ^ Sovemment bailout, caused mixed ди скурсивной деятельности.-
б.Кубрякова Е. С. О типах
S amo^ "’""У ‘waders, the statute provoked 478. С. 5-10.
Вестник МГЛУ. — 2003. Выпуск
А П.. МУЩИЦ 1-1 и Павлов^
7.Неретина С. Г - ОгУВШ!- — Коллективная монография. —
appalling behavior. Ринус К А. Апори»^ пискурса^
lAudience:Anii nstructor М., 2017.
— Киев. 1996.
Purpose: To ^ Фугп М Лрг>-^пг.гия знания. ДпхещюгиЛ— г|у^ртггарНЬ_1Х
Content: analyze the reasons behind the 2007 fi nanci al crisis
9.ФУКО М Слова_ЛШШЬ-
^шук. —M., 1977. ^ ,095.
billion 10. Язык и наука XX spoken English. Cambridge. C\i ■
Sovemment bailout the effects of the $700 11. -Carter R., McCarthy M. University Press дnalysis. —
C ontent:
12 . Cook G. (1995) D/scourse.O>rt^ra
G.. q QisCOUrse ^ ^
3.Audien_^ I3 . Brown
ce: An
Purpose: To e mployer у entomo.
synthesize two for Cambridge. 1983. oeterminacion
economic
recovery articles on preparing businesses
Content:
Collaborati^
PJease share wi rf. by J. =“S,lT»yT. ’ '■
'vith a classm 16 . Handbook of Discourse Analys.
ate and compare your answers. — 1952, V.28,
Task 12. 4.^ L, 1985.
analysis, «Language»-
17. Harris Z.. Discourse in de r
>fe I
and ^
|o „ p Textlinguistisc'’^®.{l^gPlague. 1975.
and oh °*^®’'umples ideas. Remember t . j^
and observations. P'®'’ statistics, facts, anecdotes. testmioP' Va'cLSn^slft. - Folia ling^tj, pdiscjnu.. -
% assignment: ^ 19. Fillmore Ch. Pragmat-« ^ l.^Berkey, 197A
purpose: __ Berkeley studies in syntax and s Anafy^'^ f"
My audience: 20. McCarthy M. (1991)
My tone: ^^achevs. Cambridge Language
My contemldea^ 21. Teaching Library- CUP- 85

84
 "Г

Contents
22. Thombury S. Beyond the Sentence. MacMillan 3
Preface
23. Stubbs M. Discourse Analysis. 4
Chicago. 198 3. Theoretical Part Introduction
24. Schiffrin D. Approaches to Discourse. — Oxford: 4
Blackwell, 1997. What is discourse analyses
13
V. 12, Discourse an d Syntax. Written discourse
^25^^Syntax and Semantics, 13
Genre and written discourse 31
Anomaoh'^ and Context: A Sociocognitive Cohesion 33
Coherence 34
27. Wemrich H„ Sprache in Texten. — Stuttgart, 1976.
Language Register and appropriacy
Grammar and discourse: theme, rheme, reference
Internet resources: (anaphoric, cataphoric, exophoric), ellipsis, repe i i , ..42
bttp://ww\j^>
jcschartpHf aШЗZ^naws.comAr^rh.^.^lfi|p.;/7:l(S/(.FnrecharacteЦS^ substitution

biiBl/Aywwxy^ The factors governing g rammatical and lexical choice in 64

of writing) 78
hflEsi/Ayw^eall' I^iPmar co.uk/HiQcourses cnherence.^hp Writing (e .g. audience, purpose
ite://stiiHf|| pg^3henglish.cnm/bnpnn»t--reL>ister.htnii Practical Part 85
References
http^^g^^j^^|j^TГ^P^^^^^Ш/20l2/n9/|тrammяtical-cohesjoj2Jl^
~~^~^^^^^^l/2012/fi2/ellip<;i«;-in-discourse::

^^^^12/02/suhstitiitinn-pramrnatic^b
hSMgosi^I^o Ot.
^^IQ^^Ql2/03/lexical-rnhesion-ij2r

Ol-I
ШШ//ео5гз!Шо

https
^^^^-^^fflШ2Ш/coniunction-^Iramшa^

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MAL ● Гг- Rsiteti .
87

86*
 z

A.Tolewbaeva, D.Badirova, G.Sratdinova

WMTTEN
DISCOURSE
for 2*”* year students

Redaktori:
A.Abdujalilov
Ko’rkem redaktori: S. Abduvaliyev
Tex. Redaktori: U. Vohidov
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OriginlSettS'^ '2-02-2021 y.
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