174 Int. J. Business and Emerging Markets, Vol. 9, No.

2, 2017

Exploring cultural context congruency in television:

a conceptual framework for assessing the impact of
media context on advertising effectiveness in an
emerging market

Claire Grant*
Mona School of Business and Management,
University of the West Indies,
Mona, Kingston 7, Jamaica
Email: claire.grant@mymona.uwi.edu
*Corresponding author

Arlene Bailey
Department of Sociology, Psychology and Social Work,
University of the West Indies,
Mona, Kingston 7, Jamaica
Email: arlene.bailey@uwimona.edu.jm

Alphonso Ogbuehi
College of Business,
Clayton State University,
2000 Clayton State Blvd,
Morrow, GA 30260, USA
Email: alphonsoogbuehi@clayton.edu

Abstract: This paper develops a conceptual framework on how specific

elements of media context impact advertising effectiveness in the television
environment. The origin (local or foreign) of television programming is a
specific element of media context that is incorporated in the framework. The
concept of cultural context congruence is introduced to develop a rationale for
further research into how the cultural origin of television programming,
whether it is local or foreign, has a bearing on advertising effectiveness based
on programme and advertisement context congruency as decoded by audiences.
Audience attitude theory and the schema-congruity framework are employed to
help define the impact of the cultural context congruence on advertising
effectiveness.

Keywords: media context; advertising effectiveness; cultural context

congruity; audience attitude theory; schema-congruity framework.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Grant, C., Bailey, A. and
Ogbuehi, A. (2017) ‘Exploring cultural context congruency in television:
a conceptual framework for assessing the impact of media context on
advertising effectiveness in an emerging market’, Int. J. Business and
Emerging Markets, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp.174–191.

Copyright © 2017 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

 Exploring cultural context congruency in television 175

Biographical notes: Claire Grant is a Doctoral Candidate at the Mona School

of Business and Management, University of the West Indies (UWI), Mona. Her
research interest includes advertising marketing and media from the perspective
of small emerging markets. She is currently the General Manager for
Television Services which include: Television Jamaica, Television Jamaica
Sports Network, Reggae Entertainment Television, Jamaica News Network and
1spotmedia which are all part of the RJR Communications Group, a publicly
listed company in Jamaica. She is a Senior Manager in this group which is one
of the largest media conglomerates in the Caribbean region.

Arlene Bailey is a Lecturer and Associate Dean for Research and Innovation in
the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of the West Indies (UWI), Mona.
Her research areas include information and communication technologies (ICTs)
for development, virtual communities and communities of practice. She
currently serves as a Senior Editor for the Electronic Journal of Information
Systems in Developing Countries, and Vice Chair for Research in the
Association for Information Systems Special Interest Group on ICTs and
Global Development. She has published in many journals and conferences in
the field of ICTs and development.

Alphonso Ogbuehi is a Professor of Marketing and International Business at

Clayton State University. He has held faculty positions at Bryant, Saint
Joseph’s, and Illinois State Universities. His teaching areas are global strategy,
marketing strategy, and international business. His research areas are market
orientation, decision-making, and leadership development in emerging markets.
His papers have been published in Thunderbird International Business Review,
International Journal of Business and Economic Research, Journal of
Management and Policy and Practice, Multinational Business Review, Journal
of International Marketing and Exporting, Journal of African Business, Journal
of Marketing Theory and Practice, Journal of Small Business Management, and
International Marketing Review.

This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper entitled ‘Exploring

cultural context congruency in television: a conceptual framework for assessing
the impact of media context on advertising effectiveness in an emerging
market?’ presented at Academy of Business and Emerging Markets (ABEM)
Conference, Windhoek, Namibia, 4–6 August 2015.

1 Introduction

Pinpointing the intricacies of ensuring advertising effectiveness is an integral focus of

marketing and advertising professionals who are seeking to find the perfect solution to
successfully sell their products. Hence, defining the various elements of advertising
effectiveness has been the subject of much research for decades (Celuch and Slama,
1993; Hussain et al., 2008; Lavidge and Steiner, 1961; Moore and Hutchinson, 1983;
Mulani et al., 2013; Schwartz, 1969; Silk and Vavra, 1973). The quest to truly appreciate
how advertising takes effect is relevant because explaining how audiences respond and
react to advertising messages is germane to the cost-effective outcome of advertising
investments (Estévez and Fabrizio, 2014). These advertising campaigns are also tied to
even more immense investments in product development often over many years. Even
176 C. Grant et al.

with a high quality product, without an effective advertising campaign, the possibility of
failure is highly probable (Micu and Plummer, 2010; Schwartz, 1969).
Advertising effectiveness, as researched over the years, is influenced by a myriad of
factors, one of which is media context (Aiken and Malkewitz, 2010; De-Pelsmacker
et al., 2002; Malthouse et al., 2007). The medium of interest for this paper is television,
which delineates one of the many facets of media context, but within this medium other
elements of context influence would include the audience, the advertisement, the
programming and the cultural similarity or congruence of these three.
Television is of interest because of its clear and projected sustained share of the
global advertising revenues in the media landscape. Currently, television commands the
largest global share of advertising spend at nearly 40% (Mulani et al., 2013; Orchard,
2014). Simultaneously, spending on online advertising is growing rapidly and is
projected to equal television by the close of the decade. The uptake for television
audiences from advertisers continues to be in demand and it too is projected to continue
to grow (Mulani et al., 2013; Orchard, 2014). In 2013, global television advertising spend
was US $164.4 billion, this increased to US $173.7 billion in 2014 and is projected to
reach US $214.7 billion by 2018 when online revenues are forecasted to draw level with
advertising revenues (Orchard, 2014; Statista, 2014).
The ongoing dynamism in the online space with the most recent entry of Over the
Top Technology (OTT – the distribution of video content to audiences using broadband
technology) is resulting in the seamless adaptation of live streams from terrestrial
television and their archival content into internet platforms (Frieden, 2014). This is
presenting a remarkable opportunity for television to morph its traditional format into the
modern online platform (Frieden, 2014; Ott, 2008). This represents a disruption of the
internet by what appears to be the next generation of television format. Such a
development has the potential to geographically shift placements of the traditional
terrestrial advertising spots which could further expand the projected growth of television
revenues in the online space.
Media context has been a growing area of research interest and it has been recognised
as a variable that has the power to alter or explain the relationship between audience and
the effectiveness of an advertisement (Coulter, 1998; De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002;
Malthouse et al., 2007).
As the reality of globalisation reconfigures and reconstructs national economies,
business models, and social interaction, media too is significantly affected by this current
evolution in so many varying areas of human interaction (Ciochetto, 2004; Friedman,
2005). It might be argued that media is influencing the pace of globalisation but certainly
globalisation has also impacted the behaviour and operation of media. In so doing, it
could also be impacting the effectiveness of advertising and even redefining expectations
previously determined from research done from the perspective of a non-global space
(Ciochetto, 2004).
More audiences, as a result of evolving technology that is fuelling the globalisation
phenomenon, are interacting with television programming and advertising content that
may be culturally incongruent, and psychological reprogramming is developing in
audiences themselves (Arnett, 2002; Zhou et al., 2014). This reprogramming might be
impacting how advertising effectiveness works, especially in emerging markets with
small and open economies, if audiences are migrating from localised country cultural
identities to global cultural identities.
 Exploring cultural context congruency in television 177

This paper seeks to provide a framework for researching the influence that the origin
of programming content, one element of media context, has on the effectiveness of
advertising. A crucial goal is to determine if there is a difference in advertising
effectiveness when there is congruency or non-congruency between the advertisement
and programming origin. The critical query is if the programme content is local or
foreign how could this impact the effectiveness of advertising that is embedded in this
media context. For the purposes of this paper, local programming is defined as any
television programme that is predominantly home grown, meaning the concept and
content is developed in the home or country of origin for airing by nationals of the
country employing home grown talent. The research question that emanates from this is:
Does media context influence advertising effectiveness? And we can further specify this
query as: Does local programming have a greater influence on advertising effectiveness
than foreign programming?
In this paper we explore concepts which guide the development of a conceptual
framework which focuses on the relationships between the effectiveness outcomes from
advertising placements on television in economies that have programming mixes that are
distinctly local and foreign, with populations that have a dominant and distinct culturally
poised audience. Therefore, the overall goal of this inquiry is two-fold:
• contribute to the academic discourse on media context and provide support in
developing theory and testable models in this area
• to identify indicators for policy makers in emerging markets with small and open
economies about the potential economic implications of different types of origin of
television programming.
The development of the conceptual framework seeks to contribute to filling existing
research gaps in the literature. The gaps include how to enhance the forecasting of
advertising effectiveness and provide for a better understanding of media context
variables (Malthouse et al., 2007; Moorman et al., 2007; Tsiotsou, 2013). The depth of
research on the area of media context is an area that both Malthouse et al. (2007) and
Tsiotsou (2013) have questioned. These queries come as the quest for appreciating the
variables that must be taken into account to achieve advertising effectiveness continues to
be explored as not enough is known about media context.
This paper continues with a review of the relevant literature that has addressed the
core concepts related to this topic. The areas reviewed include: advertising effectiveness,
media context, context congruency (with the schema congruity framework) and the
persuasion knowledge model (PKM). Following the review of related literature, we
discuss and present the conceptual framework. This is followed by a resulting research
model and propositions. The paper concludes with a summary of the framework and its
contribution to further insights.

2 Related literature

The body of literature, exploring the interest of marketing scholars and practitioners
about the effectiveness of advertising, spans more than 60 years (Estévez and
Fabrizio, 2014; Lavidge and Steiner, 1961; Schwartz, 1969). Yet advertising
effectiveness continues to engender much research interest (Clancy and Kweskin, 1971;
178 C. Grant et al.

De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002; Koshki and Koshki, 2013; Madden et al., 1988; Norris and
Colman, 1993; Owolabi, 2009; Petty et al., 1983; Zhou et al., 2014). Previous attempts to
understand just how advertising works have sent researchers down a variety of paths
exploring the many components of advertising effectiveness.
The work on the effectiveness of the advertisement has unearthed more sophisticated
approaches to investigating the nuances of what mediates or moderates how audiences
interpret advertisements, and has led to an ever expanding discussion and exploration of
the environment or the media context in which an advertisement is placed
(De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002; Norris and Colman, 1993; Petty et al., 1983). This area of
context is multifaceted and has spawned ideas of understanding the impact of congruency
in context as it relates to advertising effectiveness. This review of the literature proceeds
as follows, looking at the areas of advertising effectiveness, media context, context
congruency (along with the schema congruity framework) and finally the PKM.

2.1 Advertising effectiveness

The debate about what makes an advertisement effective has been ongoing for many
decades (De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002; Deshpande and Stayman, 1994; Estévez and
Fabrizio, 2014; Lavidge and Steiner, 1961; Lutz et al., 1983; Mitchell and Olson, 1981;
Silk and Vavra, 1973). The discussion through research about how to best assess,
examine and explain advertising effectiveness has gone through various iterations with
variations on key variables, the approaches to measuring these variables, and even how
research itself is conducted. However, interest in the concept ‘audience Attitude toward
the advertisement’ (Aad), as a pivotal point of reference, has remained central since it
surfaced (Batra and Ray, 1986; Edell and Burke, 1984; Lutz et al., 1983; Mitchell and
Olson, 1981; Moore and Hutchinson, 1983; Petty et al., 1983; Shimp, 1981; Srull, 1983).
Fishbein’s attitude theory is where the Aad has its genesis and the initial idea was that
beliefs by the audience were not merely the central, but the only determinant of
effectiveness of an advertisement and those beliefs caused attitude (Fishbein, 1963,
1967). The thinking then revolved around beliefs of the audience as it related to the actual
advertisement and the product or brand attributes that were being promoted.
Attitude theory inspired research that later spawned the thought of the variable Aad as
a determinant of advertising effectiveness (Lutz et al., 1983; Mitchell and Olson, 1981).
Out of this period of research came a clear understanding that belief about the product,
while important, was not the only influencer of advertising effectiveness (Mitchell and
Olson, 1981).
The more contemporary research on advertising effectiveness continues to expand on
the understanding of the types of effectiveness that might ensue from advertising, for
example the impact of emotional or rational appeals (Mulani et al., 2013). Research on
the impact of advertising messages placed on floors in public spaces (a non-traditional
media environment) assessed customer perceptions and represents a further expansion in
the quest to appreciate advertising effectiveness (Shrivastava et al., 2014). Audience
mood and how it impacts advertising effectiveness has been investigated in the earlier
decades and continues in the 21st century, with greater clarity on the issue emerging
(De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002; Goldberg and Gorn, 1987; Owolabi, 2009). Furthermore,
there has been a general refocus on the mediating role of the medium on advertising
effectiveness which has also received research attention in the past (Dahlen, 2005;
De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002; Koshki and Koshki, 2013)
 Exploring cultural context congruency in television 179

A chronological summary on the evolution of advertising effectiveness research is

outlined in Table 1.
Table 1 Advertising effectiveness literature

Author Year Theory Summary

Silk and Vavra 1973 Law of extremes; Experimental research. Effectiveness varies
superiority of the based on frequency of exposure to ad
pleasant
Mitchell and 1981 Fishbein’s attitude Experimental research. Attitude toward the
Olson theory ad had a mediating impact on the
effectiveness of ad on brand attitude
Shimp 1981 Attitude toward Empirical evidence supports idea that
the ad consumer choice of brand is mediated by
attitude toward the ad
Lutz et al. 1983 Dual mediation Audience attitude to the brand and attitude to
hypothesis the content and execution of the ad influence
effectiveness
Petty et al. 1983 Social judgement Not only the content of the ad and the attitude
theory, elaboration to the brand but also peripheral cues impact
likelihood method effectiveness. Peripheral cue e.g. how well a
product endorser is liked or believed.
Srull 1983 Cognitive The mood of the consumer impacts the
psychology effectiveness of an ad on memory and
judgement
Edell and 1984 Attitude toward the Conceptual: Attitude toward the ad and
Burke ad; balance theory; attitude toward the brand crucial to
congruity theory effectiveness outcome
Batra and Ray 1986 Empirical study: Affective responses precede
attitude toward the ad.
Goldberg and 1987 Mood congruency/ Mood of programming content impacts the
Gorn accessibility audience reaction to advertisements
hypothesis
Madden et al. 1988 Attitude toward the Processing environment effectiveness and
ad interpretation of the advertisement
De-Pelsmacker 2002 Mood congruency/ Differences between congruency impact in
et al. accessibility the medium of television and print
hypothesis
Dahlen 2005 Mood congruency/ Success of media choice is moderated by
accessibility congruence
hypothesis
Malthouse 2007 Elaboration Establishes the impact of the presence of
et al. likelihood model context on varying advertising effectiveness
Koshki and 2013 Varied effectiveness of advertising in
Koshki different mediums in a select community

2.2 Media context

Media context, defined generally as the emotional and psychological environment for a
viewer created by programming or editorial content, has been identified as having an
180 C. Grant et al.

impact and influence on audiences which in turn can affect the effectiveness of
advertising that is placed within particular contextual environments (Brown and Cavazos,
2005; De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002; Kuen-Hee and Song, 2005; Lynch and Stipp, 1999).
Context in its earliest manifestations as a mediator of advertising effectiveness addressed
mediums for presenting the advertisement, which included billboards, radio, television or
print.
The medium of television will be the focus of this paper, a medium which is believed
to be one of the most potent platforms for delivering advertising messages that are
effective (Celuch and Slama, 1993). Television advertisements are consumed by
audiences within a particular media context, and a given context has the ability to frame,
influence and impact audience attitude toward the advertisement.
Table 2 Media context literature

Author Year Theory Summary

Goldberg and 1987 Mood congruency/ There is a relationship between the audience
Gorn accessibility mood caused by programming and the
hypothesis response to advertising
Norris and 1992 Negative correlation between recall and
Colman audience involvement in magazine articles
and advertisement recall
Norris and 1993 Positive correlation between programme
Colman involvement of audience in TV and
advertising effectiveness
Coulter 1998 Examines the relationship between the
programme induced affect and programme
liking on advertising effectiveness
Furnham et al. 1998 Genre of content (news vs. comedy)
impacts advertising effectiveness
Lynch and 1999 Clear space for more work on impact of
Stipp programme content and advert appreciation
De-Pelsmacker 2002 Mood congruency/ Context congruency of context and advert
et al. accessibility impacts the effectiveness of advertising
hypothesis
Danaher and 2003 Context influence in the internet space
Mullarkey impacts advertising effectiveness
Malthouse et al. 2007 Involvement with magazine adverts can
impact how they respond to advertising
Moorman et al. 2012 A true experiment in a TV environment
showing a positive relationship between the
context impact on audience and the
effectiveness of the advertisement
Tsiotsou 2013 Programme involvement is directly
connected to the effectiveness of advertising

While media context as a concept has been in the research space for many years, the
various facets of what makes up media context continue to be explored. Components of
the media context that impact advertising effectiveness include the medium used
for advertising (print/television/radio/billboards/internet), the programming/audience
involvement, and the mood of the programme. Other components include the mood of the
 Exploring cultural context congruency in television 181

advertisement, the emotions in the programme, the emotions in the advertisement, the
memory stimulators in the programming, and the memory stimulators in the
advertisement (Danaher and Mullarkey, 2003; Furnham et al., 1998; Goldberg and Gorn,
1987; Horn and McEwen, 1977; Murry and Dacin, 1996; Murry et al., 1992; Norris and
Colman, 1992, 1993; Petty et al., 1983; Srull, 1983).
Understanding about what determines advertising effectiveness has evolved over the
years. Whilst much theory has revolved around what these determinants are, how
advertising effectiveness actually behaves as a result of different components of media
context is an area that still requires more research (Malthouse et al., 2007; Moorman
et al., 2012).
A summary on the development of media context arguments is outlined in Table 2.

2.3 Context congruency

The congruent (congruency) theory, which emerged from the discipline of psychology,
has been drawn on by marketing and advertising academics to provide important
perspectives for understanding various elements of how advertisements work based on
audience behaviour (Jagre et al., 2001). The congruency theory helps in assessing
audience attitudes toward advertisements.
De-Pelsmacker et al. (2002) explored the idea of context and ad similarity, testing the
impact of congruency between the advertisement and context appreciation on advertising
effectiveness. The context being looked at however was primarily about the medium of
television versus print. The queries done were to establish if the above congruency could
affect how audiences processed advertising and the results suggested that indeed
congruency facilitated processing. Specifically, advertisement and context similarity was
identified as a code for improving peripheral processing (De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002).
This research added confirmation to studies done previously on mood congruency
(Goldberg and Gorn, 1987).
More recently, Zhou et al. (2014) examine how global and local cultural perspectives
interact on the television medium and are interpreted by audiences when they present
incongruent associations in the content of advertisements themselves. The test of
congruency established in this Chinese study is a pillar for the idea to develop a
framework to examine media context cultural congruency and its impact on advertising
effectiveness (Zhou et al., 2014).
Research on congruency in the field of advertising has used the schema-congruity
framework or theory to draw on an understanding of how the congruency of certain
variables might impact effectiveness of advertisement (Lee and Thorson, 2008; Lee and
Mason, 1999; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1989; Wansink and Ray, 1996). The congruency
addressed in these pieces of research, examine comparisons of things within the
advertisement such as a celebrity endorser and the product itself. This framework that has
been drawn on is used to define many of these types of relationships between product and
advertisement and in general the psychology of relationships (Mandler, 2014). It is
established that an appreciation of schema-congruity can help assess how information is
processed based on the variables on which congruity is being examined.
The case to isolate cultural origin of content as a researchable part of media context is
also strengthened, though not directly related, by associated work that explored the idea
of cultural intelligence in the decision making of advertising managers and how it
182 C. Grant et al.

impacted advertising effectiveness (Naderian et al., 2013). The research proposed here
opens the mind to querying whether audiences have built-in cultural intelligence that
should be appreciated as part of media context assessment for examining advertising
effectiveness.
Audiences consuming television programming in countries like Jamaica, for more
than 50 years, have been exposed to interactions with foreign cultural norms through
foreign programming (Nacos, 2000; Ugochukwu, 2008; Walfall, 2011). Much of the
discussion has been about how people in these countries are influenced and affected in
their outlook and behaviour by images and ideas presented in programmes that are
distinctly different from their reality (Walfall, 2011). These previous works have laid the
foundation for establishing that in countries like Jamaica, foreign programming frames a
potentially incongruent media context for advertising.
Developing countries present a different type of environmental dynamic for cultural
context of advertising effectiveness research because much of the research in this area is
from developed countries or from countries with much larger audiences and markets. In
developed countries where most media context and advertising effectiveness research has
been done, the focus has been on the genre of programming, the mood set for the
audience by the genre and how advertising effectiveness has been impacted either
through congruency or non-congruency of the advertisement with the media context
(Brown and Cavazos, 2005; De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002; Furnham et al., 1998; Goldberg
and Gorn, 1987; Malthouse et al., 2007; Moorman et al., 2007, 2012).
So, for example, in USA, advertisers guided by research steer away from heavy
advertising in news type products where programming context is defined as potentially
negative and hence unattractive for advertising effectiveness (Brown and Cavazos, 2005).
Yet in countries like Jamaica, advertising choices are driven primarily by audience size,
and there is limited research and measures to aid choice. Often, prime time news
packages represent the top choice for advertisers through its ability to command the most
efficient CPT (cost per thousand) of all segments during the day, because it has the
highest audience figures (MRSL, 2009; TVJ, 2010).
In countries like Jamaica there is a clear distinction for audiences about the cultural
origin of programming, that is, foreign versus local programming, hence there is
potentially a different dimension to media context (Walfall, 2011). It begs the question
about the effectiveness of advertising on television depending on whether placement is
within a media context that is defined not merely by genre or emotional mood but also by
its cultural origin, either foreign or local programming. Important to note too is that
research done in large open economies are also of a different cultural mix where a
Jamaican population would be defined as an ethnic minority because of their numbers.
For example the concept of ethnic cues or what has also been explained in distinctiveness
theory have been posited as cultural impacts on advertising effectiveness as there is a
search for where ethnic minorities are best targeted, via ethnic media or by looking at
ethnic symbols (Deshpande and Stayman, 1994; Khan et al., 2013). The crucial
difference in the small open economy like Jamaica is that the population while culturally
unique from a global lens cannot be classified as minority group.
An important theoretical underpinning from the literature is that of the schema-
congruity framework for which years of research is responsible for much of the earlier
thoughts in this area (Mandler, 1982). Ideas from this formative period explored three
crucial points for defining value within a cognitive space, i.e., the internal structure of the
target, cultural intent, and tendencies to accept or avoid information (Mandler, 1982).
 Exploring cultural context congruency in television 183

The expansion of the appreciation of the premise of the framework is hinged on the
understanding that a person’s knowledge is organised with a structure that is framed or
built on what they are exposed to (Mandler, 1982). The schema framework points to three
knowledge points of origin for an individual that stems from stories, scripts and scenes
that help to determine a cognitive structure which impacts understanding and memory
(Mandler, 2014).
This framework has formed the basis for previous work around consumer behaviour
in the areas of advertising effectiveness, audience reaction to content, audience reaction
to product, audience reaction to endorsers of products and the congruity query about
content, product, context and the advertisement (Jagre et al., 2001; Lee and Thorson,
2008; Lynch and Schuler, 1994; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1989; Park and McClung,
1986; Zhou et al., 2014).

2.4 Persuasion knowledge model

Friestad and Wright (1994) posited the PKM with the core concepts that marketers,
through product and advertising have a single goal of persuading consumers to act in a
particular manner toward their product, and in so doing employ various techniques
(Friestad and Wright, 1994, 1995). However, these techniques do not function in
isolation, but are in fact affected by knowledge of the consumer themselves, knowledge
that is formed from thoughts, experiences, media and culture (Friestad and Wright, 1994).
The concise descriptions of the knowledge pulse points that make up PKM for the
consumer are that of: topic knowledge, agent knowledge and persuasion knowledge
(Friestad and Wright, 1994). A critical discussion point on PKM has been the
significance of appreciating the role of cultural perspective on the knowledge base of a
consumer and advertiser and appreciating just how these stands to affect the persuasive
process (Friestad and Wright, 1995).
In summary, the literature reviewed brings into sharp focus the three pivotal areas that
form the basis for this proposed research; these are: advertising effectiveness, media
context and most significantly, context congruency. The transitioning of ideas around
advertising effectiveness and media context are presented as they have evolved and
approaches to the notion of context congruency have been raised.
Additionally, the summary points to relevant models, theories and frameworks that
have been employed in earlier research to illuminate more issues of audience behaviour
to advertising. These frameworks include the schema-congruity framework and the PKM.
In the next section we present a conceptual framework developed from the core
concepts discussed in the literature.

3 Conceptual framework

“Ads shown in a highly appreciated television or print context resulted in a more positive
attitude toward the ad”, is part of the conclusion that was drawn in research on media
context and advertising effectiveness in the Belgian study [De-Pelsmacker et al., (2002),
p.49]. The proposed research will further examine, for television, if cultural congruency
between programming and advertising serves to further enhance the audience
appreciation of the advertisement.
184 C. Grant et al.

The overall conceptual framework that synthesises the concepts and provides the
basis for investigation of the core concepts is shown in Figure 1. The body of work so far
that has examined advertising effectiveness is vast, while that of media context is
significant but more research is needed to further define the nature of effective
advertising. The suggested framework is based on the media context gap identified in
prior research which indicates that there maybe other variables in the environment in
which the advertisement is placed that are impacting its effectiveness (Malthouse et al.,
2007; Moorman et al., 2007; Tsiotsou, 2013).

Figure 1 Conceptual framework (see online version for colours)

In Figure 1, we posit a conceptual framework which synthesises the literature and

suggests linkages between and among the core concepts of media context, audience
attitude to the advertisement, advertising effectiveness and industry effects. As discussed
earlier, research indicates that media context is likely to have an impact on audiences’
attitude towards the advertisement and resulting advertising effectiveness (Brown and
Cavazos, 2005; De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002; Kuen-Hee and Song, 2005). The core
variables within the area of media context are the type of the advertisements in terms of
product and content, and the origin of programming in terms of local or foreign and
genre. There has been ongoing debate on the implications, inter-relationships and
influence of local and foreign content on television, and the context in which viewers
interact with the content (Banerjee, 2002; Cohen, 2008; Elasmar, 2014). Researchers
have examined perspectives on this related to viewer interest (Lee et al., 2015), messages
and influences (Eyal et al., 2014), culture and national identity (Cohen, 2008). The
context of the programming and related components such as advertising is important in
relation to discussions of globalisation and localisation in the television industry in
several markets (Banerjee, 2002; Elasmar, 2014). Further, audience reaction to the
advertisement is related to advertising effectiveness (Lutz et al., 1983; Mitchell and
Olson, 1981). It has been noted that the television industry plays an integral role in global
and national economies through direct and indirect employment opportunities and related
job creation (Canadian Media Producers Association, 2015; Deloitte, 2016; Motion
Picture Association of America, 2016; PriceWaterhouseCooper, 2010). A major
 Exploring cultural context congruency in television 185

component of revenue earned by the television industry comprises advertising revenues

(Canadian Media Producers Association, 2015). Industry trends reflect increased
competition for viewership and associated advertising revenue (PriceWaterhouseCooper,
2010). Further, Deloitte (2014) highlights the impact of content preferences and recent
changes in television viewership. The demand for local, national and regional content in
local languages is increasing and is expected to have an impact on the growth of the
industry (Deloitte, 2014). In developing and emerging markets, such as the Caribbean,
television is a key component of the creative industries and services sector
(Barrowclough and Kozul-Wright, 2008; James, 2012) and is an important contributor in
the cultural and economic spheres (McElroy and Noonan, 2016). These outcomes and
impacts on the industry are depicted in Figure 1. Industry effects would include decisions
by television stations to purchase foreign content or create local programming; the levels
of employment that will be influenced by the content acquisition decisions; the exposure
of local culture again driven by the content acquisition decisions and finally the bottom-
line for the product advertised and television stations that make decisions about
programming based on the potential profitability of the decision.
From the conceptual framework we have developed and depicted in Figure 1, we
further derive a research model and propositions for the key focal area of the
relationships between cultural congruency of the advertisement and programme, and the
resulting influence on audience attitudes to the advertisement, and effectiveness of the
advertising medium. This model is depicted in Figure 2, and is followed by supporting
discussion and propositions.

Figure 2 Research model (see online version for colours)

The construct of media context and how this affects the processing of advertising has
been examined through mood congruency-accessibility hypothesis, cognitive capacity
theory and hedonic contingency theory (De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002). These theories all
examine how viewers are primed for the arrival of an advertisement in breaks by the
creation of receptive moods from the programmes that are viewed prior to the viewing of
the advertisement (De-Pelsmacker et al., 2002).
The propositions below are informed by the above theories as well as core advertising
effectiveness ideas as discussed earlier in audience attitude theory, framing theory and
Friestad and Wright’s (1994, 1995) PKM as used in Zhou et al. (2014) further developing
on work done by Murry et al. (1992, 1996) and Moorman et al. (2007, 2012).
The proposition regarding the interaction between media context cultural congruency
and its impact on advertising effectiveness is supported by Zhou et al.’s (2014) study.
This study explores audience interpretation and perspectives based on interactions
between local and foreign artefacts on television. In a developing country or emerging
market context, audience exposure to a variety of programming and advertising content
186 C. Grant et al.

from local and foreign sources provides a platform for investigations of the influence of
cultural congruence and the relationship with the audience attitude toward the ad (Nacos,
2000; Ugochukwu, 2008; Walfall, 2011).
Based on the supporting theoretical perspectives and prior empirical work, we posit
that:
P1 Cultural congruency of advertisement and programme within media context will
impact audience attitude toward the advertisement.
Specifically, we posit that cultural congruency of local advertisements with local
programming content positively impacts audience attitude toward the advertisement, and
that cultural congruency of foreign advertisements with foreign programming content
positively impacts audience attitude toward the advertisement.
The PKM will be an important foundation model for these propositions because of
the three legs of persuasion, topic knowledge and agent knowledge that the PKM rests on
(Zhou et al., 2014).
In looking at the idea of determining if one of the media context elements of import in
effectiveness is that of cultural context congruence, the PKM will be relevant but also the
theoretical underpinnings of schema-congruity framework (theory) built out from seminal
work from Mandler (2014). The schema-congruity framework has been used extensively
in advertising to establish congruency relationship paradigms between products being
advertised and the advertisement itself. Zhou et al. (2014) have expanded this framework
to engage cultural references. This conceptual framework suggests that we use the
schema-congruity framework to look at the cultural relationship between programming as
a part of media context and the advertisement. This provides support for the following
propositions.
P2 As audience attitude toward the advertisement becomes more favourable
advertising effectiveness increases.
It is noted that while culturally incongruent advertising scenarios have been increasing,
there is limited research on the effects of cultural incongruency in advertising on attitudes
of the consumer (Cui et al., 2012). Perspectives which have been explored with varied
results include the congruency of the type of programme and type of advertisement
(Furnham and Goh, 2014), the country of origin of the influencing programming context
(Gao and Li, 2013), and the congruency of the language (Hornikx et al., 2013). Further,
advertising which reflects messages of the host culture is more likely to have effective
outcomes (Cui et al., 2012). This proposition is supported by (Lalwani et al., 2009) who
explore culturally congruent and incongruent advertising and its impact on viewers and
perceived effectiveness of the advertisements. Correspondingly, Gevorgyan and
Manucharova (2015) further explore the interaction effects and the influence of culturally
congruent advertising on viewer attitudes and overall effectiveness of the advertisements.
P3 Cultural congruency between advertisements and programming content within
media context will impact advertising effectiveness.
Specifically, we propose that cultural congruency between advertisements and
programming content positively impacts advertising effectiveness, while cultural
incongruency between advertisements and programming content negatively impacts
advertising effectiveness.
 Exploring cultural context congruency in television 187

The conceptual framework in Figure 1 and the research model and propositions
described above, contribute to the understanding of the relationships among the concepts
of media context, cultural congruency, audience attitude to advertisements and
advertising effectiveness in the television industry.

4 Conclusions

In summary, this paper explores perspectives on the assessment of the cultural origin of
television programming and its influence or impact on audience impression of the
message of advertising that is embedded within it. It further expands on earlier work on
media context and its role in defining advertising effectiveness. Additionally, it
contributes to the use of schema-congruity as a framework to explain the impact and
meaning of like relationships as it relates to advertising effectiveness.
The idea of cultural context congruency framed around media context offers a
different perspective in the assessment of advertising effectiveness. New also is the quest
to define the frame of reference of advertising effectiveness from an emerging market
with a small and open economy. Fairly novel as well is the idea of defining programming
in media context as having either local or foreign origin. These three enhancements to the
evolving lens of viewing advertising effectiveness offers potential outcomes of interest.
Additionally, as globalisation continues to impact what audiences are consuming and
potentially the cultural perspective of audiences, this perspective provides important
insights into how to communicate most effectively with different types of consumers that
might not be as culturally distinct as persons in small open economies once were.

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