CETD-I UNIT V

UNIT –V
Duct flow of compressible fluids:
1. Problems as the sizing of pipes and the shaping of nozzles require application of the momentum
principle of fluids mechanics and therefore do not lie within the province of thermodynamics.
2. However, thermodynamics does provide equations that inter relate the changes occurring in
pressure, velocity, cross-sectional area, enthalpy and specific volume of a flowing stream.
3. We consider the adiabatic, steady-state, one-dimensional flow of a compressible fluid in the
absence of shaft work and of changes in potential energy.
4. The pertinent thermodynamic equations are first derived; they are then applied to flow in pipes
and nozzles.
Thermodynamic aspects of compression:
1. Just as expansion processes result in pressure reductions in a flowing fluid, so compression
processes bring about pressure increases.
2. Compressors, pumps, fans, blowers and vacuum pumps are all devices designed for this purpose.
3. They are vital for the transport of fluids for fluidization of particulate solids, for bringing fluids to
the proper pressure for reaction or processing etc.,
4. We are here concerned not with the design of such devices, but with specification of energy
requirements for steady state compression of fluids from one pressure to a higher one.
5. A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume
and finally increases the temperature of gas.
6. The compression of gases may be accomplished in equipment with rotating blades or in cylinders
with reciprocating pistons.
7. Compressors can be classified depending upon the way they work. They are (i) Reciprocating
compressor (ii) Dynamic (or) Turbo (or) Rotary (or) Centrifugal compressors.
8. Compressors can be classified depending upon high compression ratio, (i) Single stage
compression (ii) Multistage compression.
9. Rotary equipment is used for high volume flow where the discharge pressure is not too high. For
high pressures, reciprocating compressors are required.
Adiabatic Compression:
1. When a gas is allowed to undergo an adiabatic compression, as represented by fig 5.1, its
temperature increases. Since the temperature change is accompanied by a change in the specific
volume, the work required to compress the gas also changes.
2. The changes in kinetic energy and potential energy are small. Hence, the
energy balance for steady state compression gives
U 2 
 + gZ + H  = Q − WS − − − − − −(5.1)
 2 
For adiabatic compression, Q = 0, and since the changes in Kinetic and
potential energy are small, the velocity and static heads may be neglected.
Substituting the above conditions in equation (5.1), we get
WS = −H − − − − − − − (5.2)

Page 1
 UNIT V
3. If there is no heat transfer to or from the gas being compressed, the minimum requirement of shaft
work for compression of gas is known as isentropic work and it is given by
Wiso = −H S − − − − − − − (5.3) 1
where ΔHS is change in enthalpy for isentropic compression.
4. Derivation from ideal behaviour of a gas must be accounted for by introducing an isentropic
compressor efficiency as
Wiso Isentropic work
 compressor = = − − − − − − − (5.4)
Wac Actual work
5. A compressor without internal cooling can be assumed to be adiabatic and reversible. In this case,
the shaft work requirement can be written as
P2

Wiso = −  VdP − − − − − − − (5.5)

P1

6. For isentropic compression of ideal gas, we know

1

= Cons tan t (or) V  =  P1  = Cons tan t − − − −(5.6)
   
PV = Cons tan t (or) PV = P1V1
V1 P
7. Putting the value of V into eqn (5.5), we get
1
P2
 P 
Wiso = −V1   1  − − − − − − − (5.7)
P1 
P
 −1
 
   P  
=   P1V1 1 −  2   − − − − − − − (5.8)
  −1  
  1 
P

 −1
 
   P  
=   RT1 1 −  2   − − − − − − − (5.9)
  −1  
  1 
P


For ideal gas, the work requirement for the compression can be estimated.
Suppose T1 and T2 are the initial and final temperatures of ideal gas respectively. Then the
work required is given by
WS = −H = −C P (T2 − T1 ) = C P (T1 − T2 ) − − − − − − − (5.10)
Isothermal Compression:
1. In an isothermal compression, the temperature of gas is maintained as constant during the entire
operation. All heat of compression is removed at the instant it is created, i.e., sufficient cooling is
provided to make the process isothermal.
2. Since it is an isothermal compression, it will be accompanied by no change in internal energy or
enthalpy for an ideal gas, i.e., ΔU = 0 and ΔH = 0.
Putting into the first law of thermodynamics, we have
dQ = dW
3. Considering the work of a mechanically reversible process, dW = PdV, and substituting, we get
dQ = dW = PdV --------- (5.11)
On replacing P by RT/V, Eqn. (5.11) can be written as

Page 2
 UNIT V
dV
dW = RT − − − − − (5.12)
V
On integration, Eqn (5.12) yields
V2 P
W = RT ln = RT ln 1 − − − − − (5.13)
V1 P2
4. This is the minimum work requirement for compressing an ideal gas from a given state to another
state. For a given compression ratio and suction condition, the work requirement in isothermal
compression is less than that for adiabatic compression. The only reason is that cooling is useful
in compressors.
5. Isothermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of isothermal work to actual work, i.e.,
Wiso
 iso = − − − − − (5.14)
Wactual

Fig.5.2 Reciprocating compressor

The effect of ‘clearance’ on the work and theoretical volumetric efficiency of a single – stage
reciprocating compressor:
The P – V diagram of a single – stage reciprocating compressor is shown in Fig. 5.4

1. Here 1 -2 is the compression stroke, 2 – 3 the discharge stroke, 3 – 4 the expansion stroke and 4 –
1 the suction (intake) stroke. At the end of the discharge stroke, a volume V3 of the high –
pressure gas remains entrapped within the cylinder. This volume is known as the clearance
volume.
2. During the expansion stroke, the pressure of this gas is reduced and the volume increased to V4.
During the suction stroke, the volume of gas sucked in is equal to V1 – V4, which is the intake
volume of the compressor.
3. The volume swept through by the piston after discharge of the compressed gas is the displacement
volume and is equal to V1 – V3. The ratio of clearance volume to displacement volume is called
the clearance and is denoted by ‘c’.
Page 3
 UNIT V
4. The theoretical volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the intake volume to the displacement volume.
Thus we have,
V3
clearance , c = − − − − − −(5.15)
V1 − V3
V1 − V4
Theoritica l volumeteric efficiency = − − − − − (5.16)
V1 − V3
5. The work required for compressing an ideal gas in a reversible adiabatic process from pressure P1
to pressure P2 is given by eqn. (5.8)
 −1
 
     P2  


WS = 
 −  P1V1 1 −  P
 

 
  1 
1


6. On the P –V diagram, it is given by the area 1-2-5-6. This is the work required by a compressor
with no clearance. The work of expansion is given by the area 4-3-5-6 as well as by the equation.
 −1
 
   P  
W S =   P1V4 1 −  2   − − − − − − − (5.17)
  −   
  1 
1 P


7. The net work required is given by the area 1-2-3-4, which is the difference between the areas 1-2-
5-6 and 4-3-5-6. The network required by the compressor is, therefore
 −1
 
   P  
WS =   P1 (V1 − V4 )1 −  2   − − − − − − − (5.18)
  −1  
  1 
P


8. It means that, if we use the actual intake volume of the gas in Eqn (5.8) , the work required for
compressors with clearance will be the same as that for compressors without clearance. To be
precise, the clearance has no effect on the work compression.
Theoretical volumetric efficiency
V1 − V4 (V1 − V3 ) + (V3 − V4 )
= =
V1 − V3 V1 − V3
V1 − V3 V3 V4
= + −
V1 − V3 V1 − V3 V1 − V3
9. As the expansion process is reversible adiabatic, the pressure and volume are related as
1
P 
V4 = V3  2  − − − − − − − (5.19)
 P1 
10. Substitute this relation in the expression for volumetric efficiency. The resulting expression
simplifies to
1
V − V4  P 
Theoritica l volumeteric efficiency = 1 = 1 + c − c 2  − − − − − (5.20)
V1 − V3  P1 

Problem 1:
Carbon dioxide at 1 bar and 300 K is to be compressed to a pressure of 10 bar in a single stage
compressor at a rate of 100 m3/h. Assuming that C02 behaves as an ideal gas, calculate the
temperature of the gas after compression and the work required. Take γ = 1.3.

Page 4
 UNIT V
Solution:
P1 = 1 bar = 1*105 N/m2
P2 = 10 bar = 10*105 N/m2
T1 = 300 K
Volume = 100 m3/h =100/3600 m3/ s
γ = 1.3

To find:
(i) Work (ii) Temperature T2 = ?

For ideal gas, the work of compression is given by eqn. (5.8)

 −1
 
   P  
WS =   P1V1 1 −  2  
  − 1  
  1 
P


 1.3−1

 1.3  100   10  1.3  = −8.44kW
=  * 1 * 10 5
* * 1 −  
 1.3 − 1  3600   1  
 
Temperature and pressure in adiabatic compression are interrelated.
 −1 1.3−1
P    10 * 10 5  1.3
T2 = T1  2   T2 = 300 5
 = 510.4 K
 P1   1 * 10 
Multi – stage compression:
1. When it is not possible to achieve a higher compression ratio, multistage compression with inter –
stage cooling technique is employed. The huge amount of heat of compression is removed by inter
cooling in such a way that the compressed gas is cooled between each stage by passing it through
an intercooler.
2. The chief advantage is that temperature constancy can be maintained and thereby the requirement
of work for compression can be reduced.
3. This can be demonstrated in a proper way with the help of fig. 5.5 that if we compare the work
input requirement for isothermal, adiabatic and multistage compressions. Suppose that an ideal
gas is allowed to undergo a compression in a two stage compressor where the series of
compression processes are executed between the limiting pressure levels P1 and P2.
4. All the processes are carried out in an internally reversible way. Now, in the first stage, the gas is
compressed from an initial pressure P1 to an intermediate pressure P2 and cooled at constant
pressure to the initial temperature T1. In the second stage, the compression of gas takes place from
the intermediate pressure P2 to final pressure P3.
5. The area ABCDEA in the P – V diagram represents the amount of work required and the shaded
area indicates the amount of work saved using two – stage compression with inter-stage cooling.
6. For a multistage compression, the total work input is the sum of inputs for individual stages of
compression.

Page 5
 UNIT V

7. Accordingly, the total work requirement for a two – stage compressor operating between P1 and P3
with an intermediate pressure P2 is given by
WComp,Total = WComp, stageI + WComp, stageII
 −1  −1
   
   P      P  
=   RT1  2  − 1 +   RT1  3  − 1 − − − − − − − (5.21)
  −1   P1     −1   P2  
   

8. Now, it is necessary to find out the value of P2 because it minimizes the work of compression
during two – stage compression.
The pressure ratio
P2 P3
= − − − − − − − (5.22)
P1 P2
9. The above relation implies that the pressure ratio across individual stages of the compressor must
be the same for the minimization of compression for a two stage compressor. The compression
ratio in Eqn (5.22) that minimizes the total work is such that each stage has an identical ratio.
So, Eqn (5.22) can be generalized for n stages as
1
P2 P3 P  n
= = ......... =  n +1  − − − − − − − (5.23)
P1 P2  Pn 
Advantages of multistage compression over single stage compression:
The multi-stage compression is preferred, by the following advantages;
i. The work done in compressing the air is reduced, thus power can be saved.
ii. Prevents mechanical problems as the air temperature is controlled.
iii. The suction and delivery valves remain in cleaner condition as the temperature and
vaporization of lubricating oil is less.
iv. The machine is smaller and better balanced.
v. Compression ratio at each stage is lower when compared to a single-stage machine.
vi. Effects from moisture can be handled better, by draining at each stage.
vii. Compression approaches near isothermal.

Page 6
 UNIT V
Why the inter stage cooling is necessary in a multistage compressor?
Inter cooling in an air compressor increases the efficiency of compressor by trying to
achieve isothermal compression, since work required for isothermal compression is less than that
in adiabatic compression.
Throttling process:
1. When a compressed gas expands adiabatically and slowly through a flow – restricting device like
a porous plug or throttling valve, it undergoes a significant pressure drop without doing any work.
2. As a result, it experiences a change in temperature which varies in magnitude and sign.
3. This involves either heating up or cooling down, depending upon the nature of the gas.
4. The process accompanied by a change in temperature resulting from a reduction in pressure is
known as the throttling process.
5. The validity of this process principle was tested first by Joule and Thomson in 1862 by conducting
an experiment which involved forcing a gas through a porous plug.
6. They observed the change in temperature produced by free expansion of gas and obtained the
cooling effect called the Joule – Thomson effect. The experiment is popularly known as the Joule
– Thomson porous plug experiment.
7. The porous plug experiment is schematically represented by figure. Suppose the volume V1 of a
gas under constant pressure P1 is allowed to pass through a porous plug from the region on the left
to that on the right where the constant pressure is P2.
8. The volume of the gas becomes V2 at the final state. The final position of the two pistons is shown
by dotted lines in the figure.
9. The gas flows from a high – pressure region to a low pressure one. The process is carried out in an
experimental set up where two frictionless pistons move slowly. The entire system is thermally
well – insulated.

So
The work done by the piston in the left chamber = W1 = P1V1
The work done by the piston in the right chamber = W2 = P2V2
Since the Joule – Thomson expansion is carried out adiabatically, i.e., dQ = 0, we have from the
first law of thermodynamics,
dU = dQ – dW
Or
U2 – U1 = – (W2 – W1)
Or

Page 7
 UNIT V
U2 – U1 = – (P2V2 – P1V1) = P1V1 - P2V2
Or
U2 + P2V2 = U1 + P1V1 (by definition, enthalpy H = U + PV)
Or
H2 – H1 = 0
Or
ΔH = 0
i.e., there is no change in heat content or enthalpy in the adiabatic expansion of a gas through a porous
plug. Thus, Joule – Thomson expansion is an isenthalpic expansion. Whether a gas will produce a heating
effect or a cooling effect during throttling expansion can be better explained by using the Joule –
Thomson coefficient. It is symbolized by μJT and is defined as the rate of change in temperature with
respect to pressure at constant enthalpy. Mathematically, it can be expressed as
 T 
 JT =  
 P  H
μJT = + ve implies a cooling effect, i.e., drop in temperature, as ΔP = ‒ve ; ΔT = ‒ve and
μJT = ‒ ve implies a heating effect, i.e., rise in temperature, as ΔP = +ve ; ΔT = +ve and
μJT = 0, implies no temperature change, i.e., neither heating nor cooling effect. The temperature at which
no temperature change occurs is known as the inversion temperature.
Joule – Thomson expansion is employed for the liquefaction of gases as well as for the production
of low temperature.
Thus, the characteristics of the Joule – Thomson coefficient can be summarized as follows:
= +ve = cooling effect, i.e., temperatu re decreases

 JT = −ve = heating effect, i.e., temperatu re increases
= 0 = no change in tempera ture.

Convergent divergent flow:
1. A nozzle is a device for converting thermal or mechanical energy into kinetic energy. This is
achieved by changing the cross – sectional area available for flow.
2. Nozzles find application in turbines, ejectors, diffusers, etc.
3. In the analysis of flow through nozzles presented below, it is assumed that the flow is isentropic.
4. Let us first see the relationship between cross sectional area and velocity of the fluid through a
pipe of varying cross – section. The continuity equation expressed in differential form is given
below:
d (uA) = 0
This equation may be put into the following form:
(A)du + ud (A) = 0
or
u
du = − d ( A) − − − − − − − (5.24)
A
5. The mechanical energy balance may be put in differential form as given below

Page 8
 UNIT V
udu + gdZ + vdP + dWS + dF = 0
6. For frictionless flow (dF = 0) with no work exchange (dWS = 0), and neclecting change in
potential energy (dZ = 0), the above equation gives
udu + vdP = 0
Noting that V = 1/ρ , the above equation may be written as
dP = − udu − − − − − (5.25)
Combining Eqns (5.24) and (5.25) we get the following results:
u2 u2
dP = d ( A) = ( dA + Ad )
A A
dP u 2  dA 
=   + u 2 − − − − − −(5.26)
d A  d 
7. Because of our assumption of isentropic flow, (dP/dρ) in the above equation may be replaced by
(P /  ) S , which was shown to be equal to c2, where ‘c’ is the sonic velocity. Also ‘dρ’ can be
replaced by dP/c2. The resulting equation can be rearranged as
dA dP  u 2 
= 1 −  − − − − − −(5.27)
A u 2  c 2 

8. The ratio of actual velocity to the speed of sound is known as the Mach number and is denoted by
M. Equation (5.27) may now be rearranged as
dA
=
dP u
A
2
(
1 − M 2 ) − − − − − −(5.28)

Using Eqn (5.25), ‘dP’ may be eliminated from the above equation.
dA A
=
du u
( )
M 2 − 1 − − − − − −(5.29)

9. For subsonic velocity of the gas M < 1 and (dA / du) < 0. For supersonic velocity, M > 1 and
(dA / du) > 0. For sonic velocity, M = 1 and (dA / du) = 0. Equation (5.29), therefore, means that
if the gas is to be accelerated continuously from subsonic to supersonic velocity, the area of cross
– section for flow should first decrease (dA < 0), then remain constant (dA = 0), and finally
increase (dA > 0). This principle is used for increasing the velocity of gases beyond Mach
number unity in the converging – diverging nozzles.

Page 9
 UNIT V
10. It is clear that the maximum velocity attained by the gas in the converging section of the
converging – diverging nozzle is the sonic velocity. The velocity at the throat is given by
 P 
2
u throat =   − − − − − − − (5.30)
   S
11. The relationship between pressure and velocity in a nozzle is given by Eqn. (5.25), which may be
put in the following form.
u2 dP
d =− = −VdP − − − − − − − (5.31)
2 
12. At the inlet to the nozzle, let u = 0 and P = P0, and at any plane normal to the flow within the
nozzle, let the velocity and pressure be ‘u’ and ‘P’ respectively. Assuming isentropic flow of
ideal gases, the pressure and volume are related as PV  = cons tan t . Substituting this in Eqn. (5.31)
and integrating, we get
 −1 
2P0V0   P  
u =−2
1 −    − − − − − − − (5.32)
 − 1   P0  

13. The subscript ‘0’ in the above equation denotes the condition at the inlet to the nozzle. Since
PV  = P   = cons tan t for isentropic expansion of ideal gases,
 P  P
  =  = PV − − − − − − − −(5.33)
   S 
Comparing this with Eqn (5.30), we obtain
2
u throat = PV − − − − − − − −(5.34)
14. Suppose that the nozzle is connected between a reservoir at pressure P0 and a receiver at pressure
Pr. Flow through the nozzle occurs when Pr is less than P0 and the velocity of the fluid at the
throat is maximum.
15. On further reduction of the receiver pressure, the flow rate and the velocity through the nozzle
increases. A limiting value is attained when the velocity at the throat becomes sonic. The pressure
at the throat at this condition is PC, the critical pressure. The critical pressure ratio PC/P0, is the
pressure ratio P/P0 at which the velocity of the fluid at the throat becomes the sonic velocity.
Substituting u = uthroat in Eqn (5.32) and using Eqn (5.34), we get
 ( −1)
PC  2 
=  − − − − − − − (5.35)
P0   + 1 
Where the ratio PC / P0 is the critical pressure ratio.
16. This depends only on ɣ, the ratio of specific heats. Reduction of the receiver pressure below that
corresponding to the critical condition, the throat will not affect the flow through the nozzle.
Problem 2:
Air at 600 K and 2000 KPa enters a convergent -divergent nozzle whose throat area is one half
that of the discharge of the divergent section. Assuming ɣ = 1.4 for air, determine the following.
(i) The pressure, temperature, velocity and density at the throat when the Mach number is 0.8 at the
throat. (ii) The critical pressure corresponding to the reservoir condition.
Solution:

Page 10
 UNIT V
(a) Mach number M is given as M2 = u2 / c2, Thus u2 = M2 c2 and using eqn. (5.33)
u2 = M2 ɣPV
Substituting this in Eqn. (5.32) and rearranging, we get
 −1 
2  P0  
M = 2
  − 1
 − 1  P  
The pressure ratio is obtained by writing the above equation in the following form
P 1
=  ( −1)
P0   −1 2 
1 + M 
 2 

For M = 0.8 and P0 = 2000 kPa, the pressure at the throat is

2000
P= 1.4 (1.4 −1)
= 1312kPa
 1 .4 − 1 
1 + * 0.8 2 
 2 

The velocity at the throat may be evaluated using Eqn (5.32)

 −1 
2P0V0   P  
u 2
= 1 −   
throat
 − 1   P0  

Where,
P/P0 = 1312 / 2000 = 0.656
P0V0 = RT0/M = 8314*600/29 =172014 m2 /s2
2
u throat =
2 *1.4 *172014
1.4 − 1

1 − (0.656 )
1.4 −1 1.4

uthroat = 369.7 m / s
The temperature and the pressure in an adiabatic process.
 −1 
T  P
= 
T0  P0 
T0 = 600 K, Temperature at the throat:
 −1 
P 
= 600 * (0.656)
1.4 −1 1.4
T = T0   = 532 K
 P0 
Since PV  = P   = cons tan t , we get write

P   
= 
P0   0 
Where ρ is the density at a point where the pressure is P and ρ0 is the density at the inlet to the
nozzle. Therefore,
1/ 
P 
 =  0  
 P0 

Page 11
 UNIT V
Where,
1 PM 2000 * 29
0 = = 0 = = 11.627 kg / m 3
V0 RT0 8.314 * 600
Using the preceding equation for ρ, the density at the throat is
 = 11.627 * (0.656)1 / 1.4 = 8.604kg / m 3
(b) Using Eqn. (5.35), the critical pressure is evaluated as
 ( −1)
PC  2 
= 
P0   + 1 
 ( −1) 1.4 (1.4−1)
 2   2 
PC = P0   = 2000 *   = 1056.6kPa
  + 1   1.4 + 1 
What is sonic velocity? Where it develops in a complete nozzle?
The maximum velocity attained by the gas in the converging section of the nozzle is said to
sonic velocity. In a complete nozzle, it develops at the throat of the nozzle.
Refrigeration:
1. Refrigeration is the process of producing and maintaining a temperature below that of the
surrounding atmosphere. This process finds wide application in chemical process industries.
2. The process is used in manufacturing synthetic rubber, textiles, chlorine, plastics, hydrogen,
fluoride etc. It is used to remove heat of chemical reactions and to liquefy process gases for
separation by distillation and condensation.
Capacity of refrigerator:
1. In order to express the cooling capacity of a refrigerating machine, i.e., the rate of heat removal
from the refrigerated space, the common and standard unit generally used is ton of refrigeration.
2. In FPS units, one ton of refrigeration is defined as a capacity to freeze one ton of water from 0°C
(32F) in 24 hours. It is the withdrawal of heat at a rate of 12000 BTU per hour
3. In MKS units, it is defined to be equal to cooling at the rate of 72000 Kcal per 24 hours. One ton
of refrigeration is equivalent to a refrigeration rate of 12660 KJ/h in SI units.
The characteristics of a Carnot refrigeration cycle:
1. No refrigeration cycle can have a higher COP than a reversible cycle operating between the same
temperatures.
2. The COP of a Carnot refrigeration cycle is a function only of the upper and lower temperatures of
the cycle, and it is true that the reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle
operating between these two specified temperature levels.
Q QL TL
3. Equation COPCarnot refrigerator = L = = indicates that the coefficient of
Wnet QH − QL TH − TL
performance of a reversed Carnot cycle increases as the difference between the upper and lower
temperatures’ decreases.
4. The value of TL is more effective than that of TH on the COP of a cycle.
5. The efficiency of a Carnot refrigeration cycle does not depend on the working fluid.
6. It is not possible to construct a refrigerating machine which could convey heat from a low –
temperature to a high – temperature region with a lower expenditure of work than that given by

Page 12
 UNIT V
TH − TL
Wnet = QL − − − − − −(5.36)
TL
7. In practice, the COP of an actual refrigeration cycle is always less than that of an ideal one. Hence
it can be concluded that the Carnot cycle cannot be executed in actual devices. This is not a
realistic model for the refrigeration cycle. This can be treated as a standard against which the
actual refrigeration cycles are compared.
Vapour – Compression Refrigeration Cycle:
1. The difficulties associated with the Carnot refrigeration cycle can be successfully eliminated by
introducing the vapour-compression refrigeration cycle through the incorporation of two
modifications the complete evaporation of the working fluid before entering into the compressor
and replacement of the turbine by a throttling device such as expansion valve or capillary tube.
2. The vapour-compression cycle is used in most of the domestic refrigerators for cooling bodies to a
temperature of -20°C (253 K). These widespread refrigeration systems use low boiling liquid, for
instance, ammonia, freon, and sulphurous anhydride, as refrigerant at low pressures (preferably
close to the atmospheric pressure).
3. The refrigerant is sealed in an air tight and leak-proof mechanism and circulated through the
system. The compression cycle is provided this name because it involves the compression of the
refrigerant by the compressor, which permits the transfer of heat energy.
4. The refrigerant absorbs heat from one place and releases it to another place. The cycle is based on
the fact that the vapour pressure of a fluid varies with temperature, and therefore a boiling liquid
can be made to absorb heat at one temperature and reject heat at a higher temperature by
compressing and condensing the vapour thus generated.
5. Most of the common domestic and industrial refrigerators work on this cycle. The requirements of
fundamental operation of a vapour compression cycle can be divided into four simple parts:
(i) Compression
(ii) Condensation
(iii) Expansion
(iv) Vaporization.
6. These can be explained by the arrangement of the apparatus, which appears in Fig. 5.7. The
schematic diagram of a simple vapour compression cycle is shown in Fig. 5.7 and the
corresponding T-S diagram in Fig. 5.8.
Compression:
7. This operational step employs a compressor. The function of the compressor is twofold. One
function is that of withdrawing the fluid from the evaporator at a rate that is sufficient to maintain
the necessary reduced pressure and temperature in the evaporator. The other is that of compressing
and delivering the fluid, at a temperature which is adequately above that of the atmosphere or of
the region or substance to which the fluid must next discard its load of energy.
8. Compression of vapour requires the least work when performed isentropically. The state change is
represented by line 1-2 in Fig. 5.7 and in the T-S diagram in Fig. 5.8, which show isentropic (or
adiabatic) compression from saturated vapour to condenser pressure.
Condensation:
9. The high-pressure refrigerant vapour enters the condenser, and heat is removed from it to change
the superheated vapour to saturated or sub-cooled liquid. The state change is represented by line

Page 13
 UNIT V
2-3 in Fig. 5.7 and in the T-S diagram of Fig. 5.8, which show reversible rejection of heat at
constant pressure (de-superheating and condensation).

Expansion:
10. This operation involves the proper functioning of an expansion valve or throttle valve. After
condensation, the liquid refrigerant is stored in the liquid storage until needed. From the liquid
storage, liquid refrigerant enters the expansion valve where the pressure is needed sufficiently. To
allow the vaporization of liquid at a low temperature of about -10°C (263 K).
11. The expansion valve serves the purpose of controlling the refrigerant flow and of dropping the
refrigerant, both in temperature and pressure, from condenser to evaporator conditions. The state
change is represented by line 3--4 in Fig. 5.7 and in the T-S diagram in Fig. 5.8, which show
irreversible expansion from saturated (or sub-cooled liquid) to the evaporator.

Page 14
 UNIT V
Vaporization:
12. The low-pressure and low-temperature refrigerant, in its liquid state and leaving from the
expansion valve changes into vapour as it absorbs a considerable amount of heat from the region
or substance which is desired to refrigerate in the evaporator.
13. The vapour leaving the evaporator may be wet, dry-saturated, or superheated; depending on this
the process is called dry or wet compression. The state change is represented by line 4-1 in Fig.
5.7 and in the T-S diagram in Fig. 5.8, which show reversible addition of heat at constant pressure
from evaporating to saturated vapour.
14. The pressure-enthalpy diagram is very frequently used and is more helpful than the temperature-
entropy diagram in the analysis of a vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, because the P-H
diagram directly shows the enthalpy required for different processes. The P-H diagram is shown
in Fig. 5.7.
15. In the P-H diagram the three processes - evaporation, condensation and expansion-are represented
by straight lines. The heat delivered to the evaporator and the heat discarded from the condenser is
proportional to the length of the corresponding process curves.
Performance of Vapour-Compression Cycle:
16. With the help of the P-H diagram, the performance of the several phases of the cycle, both for the
actual operation and for the ideal cycle, per unit mass of the refrigerant vapour circulated in the
system has been calculated in the following way:
At constant pressure
dQ = dH
For the compressor
W = ( H 2 − H1 ) kcal / kg
For the condenser
QH = ( H 2 − H 3 ) kcal / kg
For the expansion valve
H3 = H4
For the evaporator
QL = ( H1 − H 4 ) kcal / kg
Refrigerat ing effect = ( H1 − H 4 ) kcal / kg
Refrigerat ing effect Q
COPVapour compression cycle = = L − − − − − (5.37)
Work input Wnet
H1 − H 4
= - - - - - -(5.38)
H 2 − H1
17. Now, if the total refrigerating capacity, i.e., the rate of heat removal from the low temperature
source is Qt then the mass flow rate of the refrigerant (mo) required for circulation can be easily
obtained from the following relation:
QL0 Refrigerat ing capacity
m0 = = − − − − − (5.39)
H1 − H 4 Refrigerat ing effect
For a one-ton refrigerator, the rate of circulation in kg/h may be evaluated by

Page 15
 UNIT V
12660
m0 = − − − − − (5.40)
H1 − H 4
18. A variety of fluids have been used as refrigerants in vapour-compression systems. For larger
commercial installations, ammonia is used almost universally at the present time. It offers the
advantage of moderate condenser pressure and specific volume at the evaporator pressure.
19. In marine installations, carbon dioxide is preferred. Ammonia is not considered desirable on
account of its toxicity in marine installations on combatant ships. Carbon dioxide has the
disadvantage of requiring very high pressures in both the condenser and the evaporator.
20. For the small self contained household installation, SO2 vapour is very popular. It offers the
advantage of moderate pressure, but requires considerably more compressor displacement on
account of fairly high specific volume at the evaporator pressure. Freon (fluoro-and-chlorine
derivatives of hydrocarbon), ethyl chloride and propane are also used.
Problem 3:
A vapour compression cycle using ammonia as refrigerant in employed in an ice manufacturing
plant. Cooling water at 288 K enters the condenser at a rate of 0.25 kg/s and leaves at 300 K. Ammonia at
294 K condenses at a rate of 0.50 kg/minute. Enthalpy of liquid ammonia at 294 K is 281.5 KJ/kg. The
compressor efficiency is 90%. Saturated ammonia vapour at 258 K and enthalpy of 1426 KJ/kg enters the
compressor. What is the power requirement of the compressor and refrigeration capacity in tons?
Given:
Cooling water rate, mc = 0.25 kg/s
T1 = 288 K
T2 = 300 K
Ammonia rate mA = 0.5 kg/minute = 0.5/60 kg/s = 8.33*10-3 kg/s
T1 = 294 K
HA at 294 K = 281.5 kJ/kg
HA, Sat vap at saturated 258 K = 1426 kJ/kg
η = 90 %
To find:
Power, capacity = ?
Solution:
Since heat is rejected at constant pressure in the condenser, we have
Q1 = m c C P T
Q1 = 0.25 * 4.2 * (300 − 288) = 12.6kJ / s
Heat absorbed and work required are evaluated as
 ( H A,sat.vap − H A ) = 8.33 *10 −3 * (1426 − 281.5) = 9.5375kJ / s
Q2 = m
W = Q1 − Q2 = 12.6 − 9.5375 = 3.0625kJ / s
Power requirement of the compressor:
work 3.0625
Power = = = 3.4028kW = 4.56hp
efficiency 0.9

Page 16
 UNIT V
9.5375 * 3600
Re frigerator Capacity = = 2.71ton
12660

Steam-power plant:
1. Steam-power plants operate on a closed cycle. The working fluid undergoes a series of operations
and returns to the initial state. The thermodynamic analysis of steam power plants is done by
comparing the performance of the actual cycles with certain idealized cycles.
2. In the following sections, we discuss these ideal steam-power cycles with a view to suggest
methods for the evaluation of their thermal efficiencies and point out how the actual cycles deviate
from these ideal cycles. Though the working fluid considered is water, the discussion is applicable
for vapour-power cycles in general.
Rankine Cycle:
3. The components of a Rankine cycle, also known as the standard vapour-power cycle are shown in
Fig. 5.9. Water at low temperature and pressure is compressed isentropically to the boiler pressure
by the feed pump (1-2).
4. In the boiler, heat is supplied to the water at constant pressure, whereby, its temperature rises to
the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure in the boiler. Further supply of heat
results in the evaporation of water and in superheating the vapour, thus produced (2-3).
5. The superheated vapour at the elevated pressure is then allowed to expand isentropically in a
turbine to the condenser pressure (3-4). In the condenser, the low-pressure exhaust steam from the
turbine gives out its heat to the cooling water at constant pressure (4-1). The saturated liquid water
leaving the condenser then enters the feed pump and the cycle is repeated.

6. The cycle is represented on a T-S diagram, as illustrated in Fig. 5.10 (a). Let Q1 be the heat
absorbed at constant pressure in the boiler and Q2 be the heat rejected at constant pressure to the
cooling water in the condenser, both correspond to unit mass of the working fluid. Then,

Page 17
 UNIT V
Q1 = H 3 − H 2 , Q2 = H 4 − H 1
Net work obtained per unit mass of water = (H 3 − H 2 ) - (H 4 − H1 ) − − − − − −(5.41)
Wnet (H 3 − H 2 ) - (H 4 − H 1 )
Efficiency of the Rankine cycle,  = = − − − − − − − (5.42)
Q1 H3 − H2
7. In Fig. 5.10 (b), is shown the T-S diagram of a Carnot engine operating between the same average
temperature levels.

8. A Carnot cycle, as discussed earlier, consists of two reversible adiabatic operations and two
reversible isothermal operations. Comparing the preceding figures, it can be readily concluded
that the efficiency of the Rankine cycle is less than that of a Carnot cycle operating between the
same thermal reservoirs.
9. A question that may arise naturally is that, why should we use the Rankine cycle as the ideal cycle
for assessing the performance of actual cycles, rather than a Carnot cycle? One of the reasons for
this is the practical difficulty with the operation of the turbine and the feed pump with a mixture of
liquid and vapour.
10. A turbine that operates with an input of saturated steam and discharges a mixture of vapour and
liquid may lead to severe erosion problems.
11. Also, it is difficult to operate a pump, which takes place in a two - phase mixture and discharges a
saturated liquid. The Rankine cycle is free from these problems and is, therefore, accepted as a
model for the actual vapour-power cycle.
Internal Combustion Engines:
1. The steam power plants and internal combustion engines are broadly designated as heat engines,
because in both, the chemical energy of a fuel is converted into heat energy, which is utilized to
perform mechanical work.
2. Internal combustion engine differs from steam power plants such that the former operates on open
cycles whereas the latter on closed cycles. In internal combustion engines, the working fluid
which is a mixture of air and fuel is burned inside the engine and after a series of processes which
results in the production of mechanical work, the combustion products are discarded.
3. The working fluid does not undergo a cycle of changes in an internal combustion engine, as does
the steam in a steam power plant. However, the engine operates on a closed mechanical cycle. The
internal combustion engines involve no transfer of heat through surfaces, which restrict the
temperature and pressure, as is the case with the boiler of the steam power plants.

Page 18
 UNIT V
4. The high temperatures and the absence of heat transfer surfaces are the main advantages of
internal combustion engines over steam power generation systems.
5. The thermodynamic analysis of internal combustion engine is made possible by devising ideal
closed cycles with air as the working fluid and by comparing the performance of actual cycles
with these ideal air-standard cycles. The assumptions involved in this approach are:
i. The working fluid is a fixed mass of air and it undergoes no chemical change. Air is
assumed to behave as an ideal gas.
ii. The combustion process in the actual cycle "is replaced by a heat transfer process in
the ideal cycle. Heat is assumed to be transferred from an external heat ·source.
iii. The exhaust stroke in the actual engine is replaced by a heat rejection step in the ideal
cycle. Heat is assumed to be transferred to the surroundings.
iv. The air is assumed to have constant specific heat and all the processes are internally
reversible
6. The Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle are the two important air-standard cycles used for the analysis
of internal combustion engines.
Otto cycle:
The P- V and T-S diagram of the air-standard Otto cycle are shown in Fig. 5.11. The cycle is
characterized by the following processes:

Process 1-2: A given mass of air, assumed an ideal gas, is compressed isentropically during the
inward stroke of the piston. As a result, the temperature of the gas increases from T1 to T2.
Process 2-3: Heat (Q1) is supplied to the system at constant volume by allowing the system to come
in contact with a high-temperature reservoir. The heat transfer results in the increase in temperature
from T2 to T3. It also increases the pressure and entropy of the fluid. (In actual engines, this process is
achieved approximately by igniting the compressed gas by means of a spark. The combustion of the
fuel/air mixture occurs so rapidly that it may be approximated by a constant volume process).
Process 3-4: The air is expanded isentropic ally during the outward stroke of the piston. Both the
pressure and temperature decrease during this process. Temperature decreases from T3 to T4 during
this step. (In actual engines, the products of combustion at very high pressure and temperature expand
approximately adiabatically during this step.)

Page 19
 UNIT V
Process 4-1: Heat (Q2) is transferred from the system reversibly, at constant volume to a low-
temperature reservoir. The temperature, pressure, and entropy of the system decrease during this
stage. (In actual engine, during the corresponding process the exhaust valve opens and the pressure
falls rapidly at nearly constant volume.)
Heat absorbed, Q1 = mCV (T3 − T2 )
Heat rejected, Q2 = mCV (T4 − T1 )
Wnet Q1 − Q2 Q T −T
The thermal efficiency of the cycle,  = = = 1 − 2 = 1 − 4 1 − − − − − −(5.43)
Q1 Q1 Q1 T3 − T2
The thermal efficiency can be expressed in terms of the compression ratio also. The temperature and
volume in an isentropic process are related as given by
 −1  −1
T2  V1  T3  V4 
=   , = 
T1  V2  T4  V3 
As processes 2-3 and 4-1 occur at constant volume, V4 = V1 and V3 = V2. It follows that,
T2 T3
= = r  −1
T1 T4
Where ‘r’ is the compression ratio defined as
V V
r= 1 = 4
V2 V3
We now have,
T T
T1 =  2−1 and T4 =  3−1 − − − −(5.44)
r r
Substituting Eq. (5.44) into Eq. (5.43), we get the expression for thermal efficiency in terms of the
compression ratio.
 −1  −1
T −T T −T 1 1
 = 1− 4 1 = 1− 3 2   = 1 −   − − − − − −(5.45)
T3 − T2 T3 − T2 r r
We see that the thermal efficiency of an Otto engine depends on the compression ratio and the ratio of
specific heats, γ. For a specified value of γ, the efficiency increases with increase in compression ratio;
the increase is rapid at low values of r, but slow at high values of r. The upper limit of the compression
ratio is set by the ignition temperature of the fuel. If the compression ratio exceeds this limit, the
temperature of the fuel-air mixture exceeds the ignition temperature, resulting in uncontrolled combustion
of the fuel-air mixture, a condition known as knocking.
Problem 4:
The compression ratio in an air-standard Otto cycle is 8. The temperature and pressure at the beginning of
the compression stroke are 290 K and 100 kPa. Heat transferred per cycle is 450 kJ/kg of air. The specific
heats of air are Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K and Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K. Determine the following:
(a) The pressure and temperature of air at the end of each process
(b) The thermal efficiency
(c) The work done by kg of air
(d) The mean effective pressure.
Given:
r=8
T1 = 290 K

Page 20
 UNIT V
P1 = 100 kPa
Q1 = 450 kJ/kg of air
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K
(a) The pressure and temperature of air at the end of each process
The volume of 1 kg of air at this condition is V1. It is evaluated using the ideal gas
equation
nRT1 1* 8.314 * 290
V1 = = = 0.8314m 3
P1 29 *100
Conditions at state 2:
V1 V 0.8314
r = 8; Therefore, r =  V2 = 1 = = 0.1039m 3
V2 r 8
C P 1.005
= = = 1.4
CV 0.718
 −1
T2  V1 
=  = r  −1 , Therefore T2 = T1r  −1  T2 = 290 * 80.4 = 666.2K
T1  V2 

P2  V1 
=   = r  , Therefore P2 = P1r   P2 = 81.4 *100 = 1838kpa
P1  V2 
Conditions at state 3: 2-3 is a constant volume process. V3 = V4 = 0.1039 m3
Heat supplied is obtained as
Q1 = CV (T3 − T2 )
450 = 0.718(T3 − 666.2)
450
T3 = + 666.2 = 1292.9 K
0.718
P3 T3 1292.9
= = = 1.9407
P2 T2 666.2
This gives P3 = 1.9407 * P2  P3 = 1.9407 *1838 = 3567kPa
Conditions at state 4:
 −1
T3  V4  T3 1292.9
=  = r  −1  T4 =  T4 = 0.4 = 562.9 K
T4  V3  8 0.4
8

P3  V4  P 3567
=  = r  , Therefore P4 = 3  P4 = 1.4 = 194kpa
P4  V3  r 8
Heat rejected during the constant volume process 4-1 is
Q2 = CV (T4 − T1 )  0.718 * (562.9 − 290) = 195.9kJ / kg
(b) Thermal efficiency is calculated using Eqn.(5.45)

Page 21
 UNIT V
 −1 1.4 −1
1 1
 == 1 −    1−   = 0.565 * 100 = 56.5%
r 8
(c) Work done is equal to Wnet = Q1 − Q2  450 − 195.9 = 254.1kJ / kg
(d) Mean effective pressure, Pm is found such that the product of the mean effective pressure and the
piston stroke gives the net work.
Wnet = Pm (V1 − V2 )  254.1 = Pm (0.8314 − 0.1039)
Pm = 349.3kPa
Diesel cycle:
The P-V and T-S diagram of the air-standard Diesel cycle are shown in Fig. 5.12. The Diesel
engines differ from the Otto engines; insofar as in the former, the temperature at the end of compression,
exceeds the fuel ignition temperature and the combustion of fuel occur spontaneously. The Diesel cycle
consists of the following processes:

Process 1-2: Air assumed to behave as an ideal gas, is compressed isentropically to a high temperature
and pressure. The temperature of the gas increases from T1 to T2·
Process 2-3: Heat Ql is supplied to the fluid at constant pressure. The temperature increases to T3. (In
actual engines, this is accomplished by injecting the fuel to the hot compressed air at the end of the
compression stroke. The fuel ignites spontaneously and the piston starts moving outward slowly.)
Process 3-4: The gas undergoes an isentropic expansion by which the pressure and temperature of the gas
decrease. The temperature attained after the expansion process is T4.
Process 4-1: Heat Q2 is rejected at constant volume thus decreasing the temperature and pressure of the
gas further. (In actual engines, during the corresponding stage, the discharge port opens and the
combustion products are exhausted.)
Heat absorbed Ql = mCp (T3 - T2)
Heat rejected Q2 = mCv (T4 - T1)
Thermal efficiency is obtained as
Wnet Q 1 T4 − T1
= = 1− 2 = 1− − − − − − −(5.46)
Q1 Q1  T3 − T2

Page 22
 UNIT V
In Eq. (5.46), γ = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv. The ratio of the volumes at the beginning and at the end
of the compression stroke is called the compression ratio and it is denoted by r. Therefore, r = V1/V2. The
ratio of volumes at the end and beginning of the constant pressure heat addition process is called the cut-
off ratio and it is denoted by rc Thus, rc = V3/V2.
 −1
T V 
For the isentropic compression step 1-2, 2 =  1  = r  −1 , so that
T1  V2 

T2 = T1r  −1 − − − − − −(5.47)

T3 V3
For the constant pressure process 2-3, = = rc , so that
T2 V2

T3 = T2 rc = T1 rc r  −1 − − − − − −(5.48)

For the isentropic expansion step 3-4,

 −1  −1  −1  −1
T3  V4  V V  V V  r 
=  =  4 * 2  =  1 * 2  =  
T4  V3   V2 V3   V2 V3   rc 
Hence,
 −1
r 
T4 = T3  c  = T1rc − − − − − (5.49)
r
Substituting Eqs. (5.47)-(5.49) in Eq. (5.46) and simplifying the result, we get the expression for thermal
efficiency as
1 T4 − T1 1 1  rc − 1 
 = 1− = 1−   − − − − − −(5.50)
 T3 − T2  r  −1  rc − 1 
For the same compression ratio r, the Otto cycle is more efficient than the Diesel cycle. However,
in Diesel engine, it is possible to achieve a compression ratio higher than that attainable in an Otto engine,
which in turn, results in high efficiencies.

Problem 5: A Diesel engine operates with a compression ratio of 15. The pressure and temperature at the
beginning of the compression stroke are 100 kPa and 300 K. Heat is transferred at the rate of 500 kJ/kg of
the working fluid per cycle. Determine:
(a) The pressure and temperature at each stage of the cycle
(b) The work done by kg of air
(c) The thermal efficiency
(d) The mean effective pressure.
Given:
r = 15
T1 = 300 K
P1 = 100 kPa
Q1 = 500 kJ/kg of working fluid per cycle.
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K

Page 23
 UNIT V
(a) The pressure and temperature at each stage of the cycle:
Isentropic compression 1-2:
RT1 8.314 * 300
V1 = = = 0.86m 3 / kg
P1 29 *100
C P 1.005
= = = 1.4
CV 0.718
Therefore,
T2
= r  −1 , T2 = T1r  −1  T2 = 300 * 80.4 = 886.2K
T1
Also,
V1 V 0.86
= r  V2 = 1  V2 = = 0.0573m 3 / kg ,
V2 r 15
Therefore P2 = P1r   P2 = 151.4 *100 = 4431.26kpa
Constant pressure heat addition 2-3:
Heat supplied is obtained as
Q1 = C P (T3 − T2 )
500 = 1.005(T3 − 886.2)
500
T3 = + 886.2 = 1383.7 K
1.005
Also,
V3 T3 V3 1383.7
=  =  V3 = 0.0895m 3 / kg
V2 T2 0.0573 886.2
This gives P3 = P2 = 4431.3kPa
Isentropic compression 3-4:
V4 = V1 = 0.86m 3 / kg
 −1
T3  V4  T3 1383.7
=   T4 =  T4 = = 559.8 K
T4  V3   V4 
 −1
 0.86 
1.4 −1

   
 V3   0.0895 
 
P4  V3  V 
1.4
 0.0895 
=    P4 = P3  3   P4 = 4431.3  = 186.54kPa
P3  V4   V4   0.86 
Constant volume heat rejection, 4 – 1:
Heat rejected is calculated as
Q2 = CV (T4 − T1 )  0.718 * (559.8 − 300) = 186.54kJ / kg
(b) Net work done per cycle per kg air is
Wnet = Q1 − Q2  500 − 186.54 = 313.46kJ / kg

Page 24
 UNIT V

(c) Thermal efficiency is

Wnet 313.46
= = = 0.627 *100 = 62.7%
Q1 500
(d) Mean effective pressure, Pm is found such that the product of the mean effective pressure and
the piston stroke gives the net work.
Wnet = Pm (V1 − V2 )  313.46 = Pm (0.86 − 0.0573)
Pm = 390.5kPa
Ejectors:
1. It is a pump – like device without any moving part or piston that uses high – velocity steam as a
motive fluid to entrain and compress vapours or gases or a second fluid stream. This creates an
appreciable vacuum in any vessel or chamber to the suction line of the device. An ejector, as
illustrated in Fig 5.7, consists of the following main components:

i. Motive fluid inlet nozzle – through which a motive fluid (generally high – pressure steam) is
accelerated;
ii. Second fluid inlet – through which a second fluid (gases or vapours) enters
iii. Converging inlet nozzle – where the intermixing of the second and motive fluids occurs with
further acceleration of the second fluid and deceleration of the motive fluid.
iv. Diverging outlet diffuser – for deceleration of the mixed fluid.
v. Compressed fluid outlet – through which compressed fluid is discharged.
2. The steam jet ejector operates on Bernoulli’s principle. The high – pressure motive fluid is passed
through an inlet nozzle; after expansion, it is converted into a high – velocity jet at the converging
nozzle, where it creates a low pressure.
3. Consequently, the low pressure draws the second fluid into the convergent – divergent nozzle,
where the second fluid and the motive fluid mix up. Now, the pressure energy of the inlet fluid is
converted to kinetic energy in the form of velocity head at the diffuser throat.
4. In the diverging section of the diffuser the mixed fluid decelerates, and as a result the kinetic
energy of the mixed stream is converted back to pressure energy. The mixture is discharged
through the outlet of the ejector to the surroundings.
5. In this regard, it is important to consider two key parameters which are extremely useful for the
design of a steam jet ejector. These are compression ratio and entrainment ratio of ejectors.
6. Compression ratio is defined as the ratio of the discharge pressure of the ejector to the inlet

AAMEC Kovilvenni Page 25

 UNIT V
pressure of the suction vapour or gas.
7. Entrainment ratio is defined as the ratio of the amount of motive fluid required to entrain and
compress a given amount of the second fluid.
8. The materials for construction of an ejector are generally carbon steel, stainless steel, titanium,
PTFE and carbon.
9. Ejectors require easy maintenance and they are lower in cost. Steam ejectors are widely used in
distillation, evaporation and refrigeration to maintain sub – atmospheric pressure. It is also in
greater use in aircraft.
10. Special care must be taken to handle corrosive gases because they may lead to mechanical damage
of the ejector. Ejectors also find application in railway locomotives for creating vacuum to operate
the brakes.
University Question:
1. Explain the thermodynamic aspects of compression process and its classification. (16) May
2014 & R

2. Name the important classifications in compression processes. (2) May 2014 & R8
What are the stages of compression (2) NOV 2013 & R8, Nov 2017 & R8

3. Draw a neat sketch of a single stage compressor and explain its working. (8) Nov 2011 & R8

4. Explain the clearance volume and theoretical volumetric efficiency for a single stage
reciprocating compressor. (8) May 2014 & R8
Name the various types of compressions. Explain the working principle of single stage
reciprocating compressor with clearance using a suitable PV diagram. (16) NOV 2014 & R8
What is the effect of 'clearance' on the work and theoretical volumetric efficiency of a single stage
reciprocating compressor.(8) May 2013 & R7
State the effect of clearance volume on the volumetric efficiency of a single-stage reciprocating
compressor. (2) NOV 2013 & R7
Define clearance volume (2) May 2015 & R7, May 2015 & R13, May 2017 & R8
What is the effect of clearance on capacity of the compressor? (2) Nov 2015 & R8, May 2016 &
R8

5. Write a brief note on Isothermal compression NOV 2013 & R7, May 2012 & R7

6. What is the work required for the isothermal compression of an ideal gas? (2) Nov 2010 & R7

7. Draw a neat sketch for a multi stage compressor and explain its working. (8) Nov 2011 & R8
Briefly explain the multistage compressor with neat diagram and how to obtain the work. Nov
2010 & R7
Write a brief note on Multi Stage-compression. NOV 2013 & R7, May 2012 & R7
Explain the advantages of multistage compression. (8) May 2015 & R13
State the advantages of multi - stage compression. (4) NOV 2016 & R13
Show that in a two-stage reciprocating compressor, the minimum total work results when the
pressure ratios in each stage are equal and are given by the square root of the overall pressure
ratio. (8) May 2013 & R7

Page 26
 UNIT V
What is the effect of 'clearance' on the work required and theoretical volumetric efficiency of a
multi stage adiabatic compressor? Nov 2012 & R7
Discuss the effect of clearance on the work required and on the volumetric efficiency of a
multistage adiabatic compressor. Nov 2012 & R8
Derive an expression for the pressure ratios in different stages, for minimum total work in a multi
stage compression. (16) NOV 2014 & R8
Show that in a two-stage reciprocating compressor, the minimum total work results when the
pressure ratios in each stage are equal and are given by the square root of the overall pressure
ratio. (16) Nov 2015 & R8, May 2016 & R8
Derive an expression for the work done for multi - stage compression of gases. (12) NOV 2016 &
R13

8. State the advantages of multistage compression over single stage compression. (2) NOV 2013 &
R7

9. Why the inter stage cooling is necessary in a multistage compressor? (2) Nov 2010 & R7, May
2017 & R13

10. What is the significance of inter cooling in multistage compression. (2) May 2016 & R13

11. Write short notes on I.C.engines with its classification. May 2016 & R13

12. Define compressor efficiency. (2) May 2014 & R8

13. How is the minimum work in an adiabatic compressor related to the decrease in enthalpy of the
fluid? (6) NOV 2013 & R8, May 2017 & R8, Nov 2017 & R8
Write a brief note on Adiabatic compression NOV 2013 & R7, May 2012 & R7

14. Write the flow equation for duct flow. May 2015 & R13

15. What is Sonic velocity? Where it develops in a complete nozzle? (2) Nov 2012 & R7, May 2012
& R7

16. Derive an expression for the maximum mass rate of flow of a fluid through a convergent nozzle.
NOV 2013 & R7
Derive an expression for the maximum mass rate of flow of a fluid through a convergent nozzle.
May 2012 & R7
Derive an expression for the velocity at the throat for the flow of fluid through convergent -
divergent nozzle. Also show that the velocity at the throat reaches the sonic velocity when the
pressure reaches the ctritical value (16) NOV 2015 & R13
Derive an expression for critical pressure ratio for nozzles. (10) NOV 2016 & R13

17. Mention the energy application of nozzle.(2) Nov 2015 & R8, May 2016 & R8

18. With a neat diagram, explain the working principle of ejectors. (8) May 2014 & R8

Page 27
 UNIT V
Explain the working of ejectors with a neat sketch. (10) NOV 2013 & R8, May 2017 & R8, Nov
2017 & R8
Write a brief note on Steam jet ejectors NOV 2013 & R7, May 2012 & R7
What are ejectors? (2) NOV 2013 & R8, Nov 2017 & R8
Explain the operation methodology of ejectors and mention the uses of ejectors. May 2011 & R8
What is the working principle of Steam-jet ejector? (2) Nov 2012 & R7, May 2012 & R7, NOV
2016 & R13
List the uses of ejectors. May 2017 & R8

19. Write the expression to calculate work done for a constant temperature process and constant
volume process. (2) NOV 2014 & R8

20. Give the expression for the work done in an adiabatic process in terms of the pressure ratio.(8)
Nov 2015 & R8, May 2016 & R8

21. What do you understand from the term "throttling process" (2) NOV 2014 & R8, NOV 2015 &
R13

22. State the purpose of throttling process. (2) May 2017 & R13

23. What are the assumptions behind the ideal - air standard cycles for assessing the performance of
internal combustion engines? (2) NOV 2015 & R13

24. Using PV diagrams, draw the isothermal and adiabatic paths of a three stage compression of a gas.
(2) NOV 2016 & R13

25. Based on first law of thermodynamics, derive expressions for the A:F ratio for a single jet
carburettor considering air is incompressible. (16) May 2016 & R13

26. Explain the PV and TS diagrams of an air standard Otto cycle.(15) Nov 2017 & R13

27. Define the thermal efficiency of an Otto engine.(2) Nov 2017 & R13

28. Explain the Rankine cycle of a steam power plant with neat sketch. (15) Nov 2017 & R13

29. Explain the properties of an ideal refrigerant. (13) Nov 2017 & R13

30. Sketch the TS diagram of a vapour compression cycle.(2) Nov 2017 & R13
Problems :
1. Carbon dioxide at 1 bar and 300 K is to be compressed to a pressure of 10 bar in a single stage
compressor at a rate of 100 m3/h. Assuming that C02 behaves as an ideal gas, calculate the
temperature of the gas after compression and the work required. Take ɣ = 1.3. NOV 2013 & R8,
May 2017 & R8, Nov 2017 & R8
2. Air is 20 m3/hr at 1 bar, of air at 27°C is compressed to 50 bar in a single stage compressor.
Determine the work required and temperature of air after compression. (8) Nov 2011 & R8

Page 28
 UNIT V
3. CO2 enters an adiabatic compressor at 100 kPa and 250 K at a rate of 0.1 m3/s and leaves at 500
kPa. CO2 is assumed to behave as an ideal gas. Determine the work of compression per unit mass
for (i) Reversible adiabatic compression when γ = 1.4. (ii)Isothermal compression (iii) Single
stage compression when γ = 1.4. Nov 2017 & R13
4. Air at 600 K and 2000 KPa enters a convergent -divergent nozzle whose throat area is one half
that of the discharge of the divergent section. Assuming r = 1.4 for air, determine the following. (i)
The pressure, temperature, velocity and density at the throat when the Mach number is 0.8 at the
throat. (ii)The critical pressure corresponding to the reservoir condition. Nov 2012 & R7, NOV
2016 &
5. An adiabatic compressor operating under steady - state conditions receives air at 1 bar and 27°C
(300 K).The compressor discharges air at 10 bar. Find the power consumption of the compressor
if air flows at a rate of 2 mol/s through it. (8) Nov 2011 & R8
6. A single stage double acting compressor operating at 100 rpm is used to compress air from 2 x 105
N/m2. The clearance is 3%. Compute the cylinder volume and HP required for compressing 10 m 3
of air (as measured at inlet conditions). The compression may be assumed to be adiabatic and
ɣ =1.4. Nov 2010 & R7
7. A vapour compression cycle using ammonia as refrigerant in employed in an ice manufacturing
plant. Cooling water at 288 K enters the condenser at a rate of 0.25 kg/s and Leaves at 300 K.
Ammonia at 294 K condenses at a rate of 0.50 kg/minute. Enthalpy of liquid ammonia at 294 K is
281.5 KJ/kg. The compressor efficiency is 90%. Saturated ammonia vapour at 258 K and enthalpy
of 1426 KJ/kg enters the compressor. What is the power requirement of the compressor and
refrigeration capacity in tons?(16) May 2015 & R7, May 2015 & R13
8. Consider the steady state, adiabatic, irreversible flow of an incompressible liquid in a horizontal
pipe of constant cross sectional area. Show that (i) The velocity is constant (4) (ii) The
temperature increases in the direction of flow.(6) (iii) The pressure decreases in the direction of
flow.(6) May 2015 & R13
9. A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56,400 kW operates with steam at inlet conditions of 8600
kPa and 773.15 K and discharges into a condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Assuming a turbine
efficiency of 0.75. Determine the state of the steam at discharge and mass flow rate of steam. May
2015 & R13
10. A diesel engine operates with a compression ratio of 15. The pressure and temperature at the
beginning of the compression stroke are 100 kPa and 300 K. Heat is transferred at the rate of 500
kJ/kg of the working fluid per cycle. Determine: (i) The pressure and temperature at each stage of
the cycle. (ii) The work done per kg air. (iii) The thermal efficiency (iv) The mean effective
pressure. Take the specific heats of air as Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K and Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K NOV 2015
& R13
11. A two stage compressor is used to compress CO2 at a rate 500m3/hr from an initial state of 100
Kpa and 300 K to an exit pressure of 700 Kpa. Determine the power required to run the
compressor. Take γ = 1.3 May 2016 & R13

Page 29