Proof of Newton’s Universal

Gravitation Law
in Calculus

V(t)
P

R(t)

θ(t)
S O
Abstract
This note is a shorter and simpler version of the original proof, hoping to provide an
easier way to memorize it with a clear structure and steps to follow. Before we start, there are
four major parts in the note :
1. Prove Newton’s Universal Gravitation Law
2. Prove Orbit is Conic Section
3. Prove Conservation of Energy
4. Solve Hook’s problem

Prove Newton’s Universal Gravitation Law

① Compute Γ in Polar coordinate
⃗ × V (t)
2Γ = R (t) ⃗

d θ (t)
= r 2(t) ( er ⃗ × eθ )⃗
dt
d θ (t)
= r 2(t)
dt
⃗ F⃗
② Prove R //
By Newton’s 2nd Law and Kepler’s 2nd Law, we know

( R ⃗ × V ⃗) = 0
d
dt
d ⃗
R × V ⃗+ R ⃗×
d ⃗
⇒ V =0
dt dt
⇒ V ⃗× V ⃗+ R ⃗× A ⃗ = 0
⇒ R ⃗× A ⃗= 0
Thus,
⃗ F⃗
⃗ A //
R //

⃗ in Polar coordinate
③ Compute A (t)
As proven before, we know

⃗ =
V (t)
dr (t)
er ⃗ (t) + r (t)
d θ (t)
eθ ⃗ (t)
dt dt
d d θ (t)
er ⃗ (t) = e ⃗ (t)
dt dt θ
d d θ (t)
eθ ⃗ (t) = − e ⃗ (t)
dt dt r
Then

dt ( dt )
A ⃗=
d dr (t) d θ (t)
er ⃗ (t) + r (t) eθ ⃗ (t)
dt

( dt ) r
2
d 2r (t) dr (t) d θ (t) dr (t) d θ (t) d 2 θ (t) d θ (t)
= e⃗r (t) + e⃗θ + e⃗θ (t) + r (t) eθ ⃗ (t) − r (t) e⃗
dt 2 dt dt dt dt dt 2

( dt ) ]
2

[ dt 2 [ dt dt 2 ]
d 2r (t) d θ (t) dr (t) d θ (t) d 2 θ (t)
= − r (t) e⃗r (t) + 2 +r (t) eθ ⃗ (t)
dt

( dt ) ]
2

[ dt 2 [ r (t) dt 2 ] θ
d 2r (t) d θ (t) 2 dr (t) d θ (t) 1 2 d 2 θ (t)
= − r (t) e⃗r (t) + r (t) + r (t) e ⃗ (t)
dt dt r (t)

( dt ) ] r (t) [ dt ( dt )]
2

[ dt 2
d 2r (t) d θ (t) 1 d d θ (t)
= − r (t) er ⃗ (t) + r 2
(t) eθ ⃗ (t)

By Kepler’s 2nd Law, we have

dt ( dt ) dt
d d θ (t) d
r 2(t) = 2Γ = 0

and
d θ (t) 2Γ
= 2
dt r (t)

Hence

( r (t) ) ] r
2
A ⃗=
[ dt
d 2r (t) 2Γ
2
− r (t) 2 e ⃗ (t) (1)

d2
④ Compute r (t) with ϵ
dt 2
Recall that
sϵ
r (t) =
1 − ϵ cos θ (t)
1
Then, let u(t) =
r (t)

dt ( dt )
d2 d d
r (t) = r (t)
dt 2

dt ( du(t) d θ (t) dt )
d dr (t) du(t) d θ (t)
=

dt ( s )
d d θ (t) sin θ (t)
= r 2(t)
dt

dt ( s )
d sin θ (t)
= 2Γ
 d2 2Γ d
r (t) = (−sin θ (t))
dt 2 s dt
2Γ d θ (t) d θ (t) 2Γ
=− cos θ (t) , where = 2
s dt dt r (t)
4Γ 2 cos θ (t)
=−
s r 2(t)

Finally, combining with (1)

A ⃗=
( s r (t) ) r
4Γ 2 cos θ (t) 4Γ 2
− − r (t) 4 e ⃗ (t) sϵ
r 2(t) r (t) =
1 − ϵ cos θ
−4Γ 2
= (r (t)cos θ (t) + s) er ⃗ (t) ⇒ r (t) − r (t)ϵ cos θ (t) = sϵ
sr 3(t)
r (t)

sr (t) ( ϵ )
−4Γ 2 r (t) ⇒ = r (t)cos θ (t) + s
= 3 er ⃗ (t) ϵ

4Γ 2 1
=− e ⃗ (t)
sϵ r 2(t) r

4Γ 2
⑤ Compute with rmax and rmin
sϵ
By definition, we know
2a = rmax + rmin 2c = rmax − rmin
sϵ sϵ sϵ sϵ
= + = −
1+ϵ 1−ϵ 1+ϵ 1−ϵ
2sϵ 2sϵ 2
= =
1 − ϵ2 1 − ϵ2
⇒ sϵ = a(1 − ϵ 2 ) = 2a ϵ

also
b 2 + (a ϵ)2 = a 2 a a
b
⇒ b 2 = a 2(1 − ϵ 2 )
aϵ aϵ
Finally
4Γ 2 4Γ 2
=
sϵ a(1 − ϵ 2 )
4π 2 a 2 b 2 1
=
T2 a(1 − ϵ 2 )
4π 2 a 2 a 2(1 − ϵ 2 ) 1
=
T2 a(1 − ϵ 2 )
4π 2 a 3
=
T2
⑥ Newton’s Universal Gravitation Law
Combining above, we have

A ⃗= −
4π 2 a 3 1
er ⃗ (t)
T 2 r 2(t)

By Kepler’s 3rd Law and Newton’s 2nd and 3rd Law, we know that
4π 2 a 3
is constant related to MS .
T2
Therefore, we get
GMS mp
F ⃗= − er ⃗ (t)
r 2(t)

which proves Newton’s Universal Gravitation Law.

Prove Orbit is Conic Section

① Rewrite F ⃗ = mp A ⃗

First, we have

( dt ) ] r
−GMS mp 2
F ⃗=
[ d t
d 2r (t) dθ
er ⃗ (t) = mp −r (t) e ⃗ (t)
r 2(t) 2

−GMs d 2r (t) 4Γ 2
⇒ = −r (t)
r 2(t) dt 2 r 4(t)
1
Then, let u =
r

dt ( dt )
d2 d d
r (t) = r
dt 2

dt ( du d θ dt )
d dr du d θ
=

dt ( dθ )
d 2Γ du
= r2 2
r
d du dθ
= − 2Γ
dθ dθ dt
2 2
−4Γ d u
= 2
r (t) d θ 2
Hence
−GMs −4Γ 2 d 2u 4Γ 2
= −
r 2(t) r 2(t) d θ 2 r 3(t)
 d 2u GMS
⇒− =u−
dθ 2 4Γ 2

GMs
② let W = u −
4Γ 2
First, solve the second derivative of W

dt 2 ( 4Γ 2 )
d2 d2 GMS
W = u −
dt 2
d 2u
=
dt 2
= W
Thus, we can assume that
1
W= cos ϕ ,where ϕ = θ + α
B

③ Conic section
Combining above, we get
1 GMs
cos ϕ = u −
B 4Γ 2
1 1 GMs
⇒ cos ϕ = −
B r (t) 4Γ 2

which can be rewritten as

1 GMS 1
= − cos ϕ
r (t) 4Γ 2 B

where we let
GMS 1
= and B = d
4Γ 2 ϵd

Therefore, we will find that r (t) satisfies the formula which holds for conic section.