Certainly!

Here's a summary of the Nobel Prizes related to pioneering work in polymers:

1. Hermann Staudinger (1953):

 Contribution: Established the macromolecular nature of polymers.
 Nobel Prize Year: 1953.
 Significance: Staudinger's work helped shift the understanding of polymers from being
considered as associated molecules to recognizing them as macromolecules.
2. Giulio Natta (1963):
 Contribution: Recognized stereospecific regularity in vinyl polymers.
 Nobel Prize Year: 1963.
 Significance: Natta's contributions were crucial in understanding the specific
arrangement of atoms in the structure of vinyl polymers, adding precision to the study
of polymerization.
3. Paul J. Flory (1974):
 Contribution: Elucidated the three-step mechanism of chain-reaction in polymerization,
involving initiation, propagation, and termination.
 Nobel Prize Year: 1974.
 Significance: Flory's work provided a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental
steps involved in polymerization processes, contributing significantly to the field of
polymer chemistry.

These Nobel laureates played pivotal roles in advancing the understanding of polymers, from
establishing their macromolecular nature to uncovering specific structural regularities and
elucidating the mechanisms of polymerization.

Certainly! Let's address each question:

i. Classify the following materials as bio-degradable and non-bio-degradable:

 Bio-degradable: Wood, cotton clothes, paper bags, fruit peels.

 Non-bio-degradable: Thermocol, glass, polythene bags, nylon ropes.

ii. Give examples of man-made materials we use in our daily life:

 Plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, etc.)

 Synthetic fabrics (polyester, nylon, rayon, etc.)
 Rubber (synthetic rubber)
 Metals (aluminum, steel, etc.)
 Concrete
 Glass
 iii. Which material is used in the manufacture of toys, combs?

 Toys: Various materials, including plastics, wood, metal, etc.

 Combs: Typically made of materials like plastic or rubber.

iv. Write examples of thermosetting plastic articles:

 Bakelite (used in electrical switches and handles)

 Melamine (used in kitchenware, tableware)
 Urea-formaldehyde (used in electrical appliances, buttons, and handles)

v. List various properties of plastic:

 Durability: Plastics are generally durable and resistant to wear and tear.
 Versatility: Plastics can be molded into various shapes and forms.
 Lightweight: Plastics are often lightweight, making them easy to handle and transport.
 Insulation: Plastics are good insulators of electricity and heat.
 Chemical Resistance: Plastics are often resistant to chemicals.
 Water Resistance: Many plastics are resistant to water and moisture.
 Low Cost: Production of plastic materials is often cost-effective.
 Non-Biodegradable: Some plastics are non-biodegradable, leading to environmental
concerns.
 Transparency: Some plastics are transparent, allowing for visibility through them.

It's important to note that properties can vary depending on the specific type of plastic
and its composition.

15.1 Introduction to Polymer Science and Technology:

 Significance of Polymers:
 Polymers, including artificial fibers, plastics, and elastomers, have

significantly enriched human life.

 They are integral to everyday items, from candy wrappers to artificial hearts,

shaping our world.

 Development of Polymer Chemistry:
 Polymer chemistry has evolved into a distinct branch over recent decades.
 Voluminous knowledge and widespread applications in daily life have

contributed to its development.

 Nature of Polymers:
  Polymers are complex, giant macromolecules composed of repeating units
derived from smaller molecules called 'monomers.'
 The term 'polymer' originates from the Greek words 'poly' (many) and 'mer'
(part or unit).
 Polymers are formed by the interlinking of many units.

 Characteristics of Polymers:
 Polymers are characterized by high molecular mass (10^3 - 10^7 u).
 Both inorganic and organic polymers exist, but this chapter focuses on man-

made organic polymers.

 Relation to Organic Biopolymers:
 Organic polymers discussed in this chapter differ from organic biopolymers

(carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids) covered in Chapter 14.

 The chapter primarily explores man-made organic polymers, emphasizing
types, preparation, and applications.

Key Points:

 Polymers are essential to modern life, influencing various aspects of industry and
daily living.
 Polymer chemistry has grown into a distinct field due to extensive knowledge and
practical applications.
 Polymers are complex macromolecules formed by the repetitive linking of
monomer units.
 The term 'polymer' reflects its composition—'poly' (many) and 'mer' (unit or part).
 The chapter focuses on man-made organic polymers, distinct from organic
biopolymers.
15.2 Classification of Polymers:

1. Basis of Classification:

 Polymers are classified based on various criteria, including their source, chemical
structures, mode of polymerization, molecular forces, type of monomers, and
biodegradability.

2. Classification Based on Source or Origin:

 a. Natural Polymers:
 i. Plant Polymers: Obtained from plants. Examples include cotton and linen

from cotton and flax plants, and natural rubber from latex obtained from
rubber trees.
 ii. Animal Polymers: Derived from animal sources. Examples include wool

from sheep hair and silk from silkworms.

 b. Synthetic Polymers:
 Man-made polymers produced by the polymerization of one monomer or
copolymerization of two or more monomers. Examples include Nylon,
Terylene, and Neoprene.
 Further divided into fibres, synthetic rubbers, and plastics.

c. Semisynthetic Polymers:

 Derived from natural polymers. Also known as regenerated fibers.

 Examples include cellulose derivatives like cellulose acetate rayon, cellulose
nitrate, viscose rayon, and cuprammonium rayon.
 Used in the preparation of non-inflammable photographic films, cinema
films, varnishes, etc.

Key Points:

 Polymers are classified based on source, including natural, synthetic, and

semisynthetic.
 Natural polymers are further divided into plant and animal polymers.
 Synthetic polymers are artificially prepared through polymerization.
 Semisynthetic polymers are derived from natural polymers and find applications
in various industries.

This classification provides a systematic way to understand and categorize

polymers, considering their origin and production methods.
 Natural Polymers Synthetic Polymers
Source Derived from natural Man-made polymers
sources, such as plants created through
and animals. chemical synthesis and
polymerization.
Examples  Plant Polymers: Nylon, polyester, PVC,
Cotton, linen, neoprene.
natural rubber.
 Animal Polymers:
Wool, silk.

Origins: Obtained directly from Produced in

the respective laboratories or industrial
organisms or their settings through
products. controlled chemical
processes.
Composition: The molecular structure More uniform and
is often more complex controlled molecular
and heterogeneous due structure, often with a
to the natural processes specific purpose in mind
involved.
Biodegradability: Generally more Generally less
biodegradable biodegradable
compared to synthetic compared to natural
polymers, as they are polymers. Some
products of natural synthetic polymers may
processes persist in the
environment for
extended periods
 Properties:  Properties can vary  Can be engineered
widely based on to possess specific
the specific natural properties, such as
source. high strength,
 Examples include flexibility, or
the softness and resistance to
warmth of wool or chemicals.
the elasticity of  Exhibit a wide
natural rubber. range of properties
based on the
desired
application.

 Linear Polymers:
 Straight chain arrangement.
 Derived from bifunctional monomers.

 Examples include PVC and high-density polythene.

 Branched Chain Polymers:

 Involves branching in the structure.

 Monomers have three functional groups or existing side chains.

 Example: Low-density polythene.

 Cross-Linked Polymers (Network Polymers):

 Formed by cross-links between linear chains, creating a network.

 Results from polyfunctional monomers.

 Examples include Bakelite and melamine.

Overall Significance:

 The classification based on structure depends on the chain configuration, which,

in turn, is influenced by the nature and number of functional groups in the
monomers.
 Understanding the structure of polymers is crucial for predicting their properties
and behavior in various applications.
 Classification of Polymers Based on Mode of Polymerization:

1. Addition Polymerization (or Chain Growth Polymerization):

 Process:
 Involves the repeated addition of monomers to a growing polymer chain.
 Monomers typically have unsaturated bonds (double or triple bonds).
 Characteristics:
 The polymer chain grows by the continuous addition of monomers.
 Example:
 Polyethylene and polypropylene.

2. Condensation Polymerization (or Step Growth Polymerization):

 Process:
 Involves the stepwise reaction between monomers, resulting in the elimination of
small molecules like water or alcohol.
 Each step forms a covalent bond between monomers.
 Characteristics:
 Polymerization occurs through the repeated condensation of monomers.
 Examples:
 Nylon, polyester.

3. Ring Opening Polymerization:

 Process:
 Involves the opening of a cyclic structure (ring) in monomers to form a linear
polymer.
 Often seen in heterocyclic monomers.
 Characteristics:
 The cyclic structure is opened, and the polymer chain extends.
 Example:
 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Note:

 Polymerization is the process of converting low molecular mass compounds into high
molecular weight compounds through the formation of covalent bonds between repeating
structural units.
 The three modes of polymerization involve different types of reactions between
monomers.
 Addition Polymerization: Involves the continuous addition of monomers with
unsaturated bonds.
 Condensation Polymerization: Proceeds stepwise with the elimination of small
molecules.
 Ring Opening Polymerization: Involves the opening of cyclic structures in monomers.

Understanding the mode of polymerization is crucial for tailoring the properties of

polymers for specific applications. Each mode results in polymers with distinct structures
and characteristics.

Addition Polymerization:

 Definition:
 Process of forming polymers by adding monomers without the loss of small
molecules.
 Repeating unit of addition polymer has the same elemental composition as the
original monomer.
 Monomers:
 Compounds containing double bonds undergo addition polymerization.
 Commonly referred to as vinyl polymerization, as many monomers are from the vinyl
category.
 Examples include vinyl chloride (CH₂=CHCl) and acrylonitrile (CH₂=CHCN).
 Example:
 Polyethylene formation from ethylene is a well-known example of addition
polymerization.
 Mechanism:
 Free radical mechanism is common in addition polymerization.
 Involves three distinct steps: chain initiation, chain propagation, and chain
termination.

Chain Initiation (Step 1):

 The chain reaction is initiated by a free radical formed from an initiator (catalyst) like acetyl
peroxide.
 Chain Propagation (Step 2):

 The new radical formed in initiation reacts with a vinyl monomer, creating a larger-sized
radical.
 This radical reacts with another monomer, and the sequence repeats rapidly.

Chain Termination (Step 3):

 Termination of the growing chain occurs, often by the combination of two growing chain
radicals.
 The termination process marks the end of the polymerization, resulting in a high molecular
mass polymer without the formation of intermediate low molecular mass materials.
 Condensation Polymerization:

 Definition: A process where polymers are formed through the repeated

condensation reactions between polyfunctional monomers, resulting in the
elimination of small molecules such as water, leading to the growth of the
polymer chain.

Formation of Terylene (Polyester Polymer):

1. Monomers: Ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid are the monomers involved in
the formation of terylene.
2. Reaction Steps:
 The alcoholic OH group in ethylene glycol reacts with the carboxyl group in

terephthalic acid.
 A water molecule is eliminated during this condensation reaction.

 An ester linkage is formed between the monomers.

Chain Growth:

 Mechanism: Chain growth occurs through a series of condensation steps, hence

referred to as step-growth polymerization.

Small Molecule Elimination:

 Purpose: Small molecules, such as water, are removed during the reaction to
facilitate the bonding of monomers.
 Result: This elimination process leads to the continuous growth of the polymer
chain.

Polymer Characteristics:

 Composition: Repeating units in the condensation polymer (terylene) do not

possess the same elemental composition as the original monomers.

Conclusion:
 Condensation polymerization, exemplified by the formation of terylene, involves
the stepwise growth of the polymer chain through condensation reactions.
 The elimination of small molecules is a key feature of this process.
 Repeating units in the resulting polymer differ in composition from the
monomers.

Ring Opening Polymerization:

 Definition: The third type of polymerization involving the polymerization of

cyclic compounds such as lactams, cyclic ethers, and lactones. This process is
known as ring-opening polymerization.

Examples of Cyclic Compounds:

 Lactams: Ring structures containing an amide group.

 Cyclic Ethers: Ring structures containing an oxygen atom.
 Lactones: Ring structures containing an ester group.

Catalysis:

 Agent: Strong acids or bases catalyze the ring-opening polymerization reaction.

Polymerization Example:

 Illustration: Polymerization of ε-caprolactam is given as an example.

Repeating Unit Elemental Composition:

 Characteristics: The repeating unit in the resulting polymer from ring-opening

polymerization has the same elemental composition as the monomers.
 Comparison with Addition Polymerization:

 Repeating Unit Composition: Similar to addition polymerization, where the

repeating units have the same elemental composition as the monomers.
 Rate of Reaction: Addition polymerizations are often very rapid.

Mechanism:

 Chain Growth: Ring opening polymerization proceeds by the addition of a single

monomer unit to the growing chain molecules.
 Step Growth Polymerization: In this sense, ring opening polymerization is a
step-growth polymerization similar to condensation polymerization.

Conclusion:

 Ring opening polymerization is the polymerization of cyclic compounds by

opening the ring structure.
 Strong acids or bases act as catalysts.
 The resulting polymer has repeating units with the same elemental composition
as the monomers.
 It is a step-growth polymerization, akin to condensation polymerization, as it
proceeds by the addition of single monomer units to the growing chains.
 Classification of Polymers on the Basis of Intermolecular Forces:

Mechanical Properties and Intermolecular Forces:

 Mechanical properties of polymers, such as tensile strength, toughness, and

elasticity, vary based on intermolecular forces.

a. Elastomers:

 Definition: Elastomers are polymers known for their elasticity, the ability to
stretch under external force and return to their original shape upon the force's
removal.
 Intermolecular Forces: Elastomers exhibit weak van der Waals intermolecular
forces.
 Crosslinks: A few crosslinks between chains aid the stretched polymer in
retracting to its original position when the applied force is removed.
 Examples: Vulcanized rubber, buna-S, buna-N, neoprene.

b. Fibres:

 Definition: Fibres are polymeric solids that form threads and possess high tensile
strength, resisting breaking under tension.
 Intermolecular Forces: Fibres have strong intermolecular forces such as
hydrogen bonding and strong dipole-dipole forces.
 Nature: Due to these strong forces, fibres are often crystalline in nature.
 Examples: Polyamides (nylon 6, 6), polyesters (terylene).

Conclusion:

 Polymers are classified based on intermolecular forces, affecting their mechanical

properties.
 Elastomers are elastic polymers with weak van der Waals forces and some
crosslinks for elasticity.
 Fibres are polymeric solids with high tensile strength, characterized by strong
intermolecular forces, resulting in a crystalline nature.
 c. Thermoplastic Polymers:

 Definition: Thermoplastic polymers exhibit plasticity, the property of being easily

shaped or molded. They can undergo repeated softening upon heating and
hardening upon cooling.
 Intermolecular Forces: Thermoplastics possess moderately strong
intermolecular forces, which are intermediate between elastomers and fibers.
 Examples: Polythene, polystyrene, polyvinyls, etc.
 Behavior: These polymers can be reshaped multiple times as they soften on
heating and solidify on cooling.

d. Thermosetting Polymers:

 Definition: Thermosetting polymers are rigid polymers that exhibit a distinct

behavior during their formation.
 Shaping Process: Initially, they can be shaped or molded when heated.
 Hardening Process: However, upon hardening, they become infusible, meaning
they cannot be softened by heating, and therefore, cannot be remolded.
 Cross-linking: This characteristic results from extensive cross-linking by covalent
bonds formed in the molds during the hardening/setting process while the
polymer is still hot.
 Examples: Bakelite, urea formaldehyde resin, etc.

Comparison:

 Thermoplastic vs. Thermosetting:

 Thermoplastics: Can be reshaped multiple times, softening on heating and

solidifying on cooling.
 Thermosetting: Once hardened, they become infusible, cannot be softened

by heating, and are not remoldable.

Conclusion:

 Thermoplastic polymers are characterized by their plasticity, allowing for

repeated shaping through softening and hardening.
 Thermosetting polymers, in contrast, become rigid and infusible after the
hardening process due to extensive cross-linking.
 Classification of Polymers on the Basis of Type of Different Monomers:

a. Homopolymers:

 Definition: Homopolymers are polymers that consist of only one type of

repeating unit.
 Formation: Typically, homopolymers are formed from a single type of monomer.
However, in some cases, the repeating unit may be formed by the condensation
of two distinct monomers.
 Examples: Polythene, polypropene, Nylon 6, polyacrylonitrile, Nylon 6,6.
 Characteristics: Homopolymers exhibit a uniform structure with a single type of
repeating unit.

b. Copolymers:

 Definition: Copolymers are polymers that contain two or more types of

repeating units.
 Formation: Copolymers are formed by polymerization of two or more different
types of monomers in the presence of each other.
 Random Sequencing: The different monomer units are randomly sequenced in
the copolymer, resulting in a mixed structure.
 Examples: Buna-S, Buna-N.
 Characteristics: Copolymers exhibit a diverse structure with a mixture of
different repeating units.

Conclusion:

 Polymers are classified based on the type of different monomers they contain.
 Homopolymers consist of a single type of repeating unit, usually formed from a
single monomer.
 Copolymers contain two or more types of repeating units, formed by the
polymerization of different monomers in the presence of each other.
 Classification of Polymers on the Basis of Biodegradability:

Biodegradable Polymers:

 Definition: Biodegradable polymers are those that can be broken down by

microbes over time.
 Natural Fibers: Most natural fibers are inherently biodegradable.
 Environmental Impact: Biodegradable polymers, when discarded, undergo
decomposition by microorganisms, posing fewer pollution hazards compared to
non-biodegradable polymers.

Non-Biodegradable Polymers:

 Definition: Non-biodegradable polymers are not affected by microbes and do

not undergo significant decomposition over time.
 Environmental Persistence: Non-biodegradable polymers, in the form of waste
materials, can persist in the environment for extended periods, contributing to
pollution hazards.

Environmental Concerns:

 Issues with Non-Biodegradable Polymers: The environmental impact of non-

biodegradable polymers, particularly as waste materials, has raised concerns due
to their long-term persistence in the environment.

Scientific Developments:

 Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers: In response to environmental challenges,

scientists have developed synthetic polymers with biodegradable properties.
 Tackling Pollution: Bio-degradable synthetic polymers aim to address
environmental problems associated with the accumulation of non-biodegradable
polymer waste.
 Rubber:

 Definition: Elastomers, commonly known as rubbers, are materials known for

their elasticity. Rubber is widely used in various applications such as balloons,
shoe soles, tires, surgeon's gloves, garden hoses, etc.

Natural Rubber:

 Monomer: The monomer of natural rubber is isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene).

 Polymer Structure: Natural rubber is a high molecular mass linear polymer of
isoprene, with a molecular mass ranging from 130,000 u to 340,000 u (number of
monomer units varies from 2000 to 5000).
 Formation: Natural rubber is formed through the process of addition
polymerization.

Properties of Natural Rubber:

1. Cis Configuration: Polyisoprene molecules have a cis configuration of the C = C

double bond.
2. Weak Forces and Coiled Structure: The material consists of various chains held
together by weak van der Waals forces and has a coiled structure.
3. Elasticity: It can be stretched like a spring and exhibits elastic properties.

Vulcanization of Rubber:

 Purpose: To improve the physical properties of natural rubber.

 Inventor: Charles Goodyear, an American inventor, invented the vulcanization
process in 1839.
 Definition: Vulcanization is the process by which a network of cross-links is
introduced into elastomers.
 Effects of Vulcanization: Enhances properties such as tensile strength, stiffness,
elasticity, toughness, etc.
 Most Used Process: Sulfur vulcanization is the most frequently used process.
 Mechanism: Sulfur forms crosslinks between polyisoprene chains, resulting in
improved properties of natural rubber.

Vulcanization is a chemical process used to improve the properties of natural

rubber or other elastomers (materials with elastic properties). The process was
named after Vulcan, the Roman god of fire, due to the heat and sulfur involved in
the original method.

Conclusion:

 Rubber, or elastomers, is a widely used material known for its elasticity.

 Natural rubber is a high molecular mass linear polymer of isoprene.
 Vulcanization, pioneered by Charles Goodyear, is a crucial process to enhance the
properties of natural rubber.

Vulcanization of Rubber: Tailored Notes

1. Process Overview:
 Vulcanization is a chemical process used to enhance raw rubber properties.
 It involves heating raw rubber with sulfur powder and an accelerator

(commonly ZBX) at around 150°C.

2. Sulfur and Rubber Hardening:
 Increasing the amount of sulfur hardens the rubber.

 Example: With 40-45% sulfur, ebonite, a non-elastic hard material, is

obtained.
3. Accelerators in Vulcanization:
 Accelerators, like ZBX (zinc butyl xanthate), enhance the vulcanization
process.
4. Cross-Linking Mechanism:
 Sulfur atoms cross-link two polyisoprene chains.

 Cross-linking occurs by opening double bonds, resulting in a three-

dimensional structure.
5. Properties of Vulcanized Rubber:
 Enhanced tensile strength, hardness, and resistance to heat and chemicals.
 Exhibits elasticity while maintaining improved durability.

6. Ebonite:
 A non-elastic hard material obtained by increasing sulfur content during

vulcanization.
7. 3-D Structure of Vulcanized Rubber:
 Complex, three-dimensional network formed by interconnected

polyisoprene chains.
 Cross-links contribute to improved mechanical properties.

Conclusion:

 Vulcanization transforms raw rubber into a durable, heat-resistant material with

enhanced properties.
 The process, involving sulfur and accelerators, results in a 3D structure that
enhances rubber's strength and versatility.
 History and Production of Natural Rubber:

1. Introduction:

 Natural rubber first entered the market in the early 19th century.
 Initially recovered from wild Hevea brasiliensis trees, primarily found along the
banks of the Amazon River and its tributaries in South America.

2. Hydrocarbon Content in Hevea Tree:

 The Hevea tree contains a high amount of hydrocarbon, approximately 35%.

3. Increase in Production:

 Due to increasing demand, the production of natural rubber expanded

significantly.
 Currently, approximately 1.5 million tons of natural rubber are sent to the market.

4. Latex Collection Process:

 Latex is collected from mature Hevea trees by making deep cuts on the bark.
 A pot is attached below the cut to collect the latex stream.
 Latex has an emulsion-like appearance, similar to milk.

5. Coagulation Process:

 To convert the latex into solid rubber, a coagulant such as acetic acid is added.
 The rubber hydrocarbon undergoes coagulation, forming an amorphous solid.

Conclusion:

 Natural rubber has a history dating back to the early 19th century.
 Initially sourced from wild Hevea brasiliensis trees in South America.
 High hydrocarbon content in the Hevea tree.
 Modern production involves the collection of latex from mature trees and the
coagulation process to obtain solid rubber.
 . Polythene Structure and Types:

 Structure: The simplest hydrocarbon thermoplastic.

 IUPAC Name: Polyethylene, commonly known as polythene.
 Types: a. Low Density Polyethylene (LDP) b. High Density Polyethylene (HDP)

2. Low Density Polyethylene (LDP):

 Formation: Polymerized from ethylene under high pressure (1000 - 2000 atm)
and temperature (350 - 570 K) with O2 or peroxide as an initiator.
 Mechanism: Involves free radical addition and H-atom abstraction, leading to
branching.
 Properties:
 Extremely flexible, tough, chemically inert, and moisture-resistant.

 Low density with a melting point of 110°C.

 Uses:
 Pipes for agriculture, irrigation, and domestic water lines.

 Insulation for electric cables.

 Submarine cable insulation.

 Extruded films and sheets for packaging.

 Household items like squeeze bottles and containers.

3. High Density Polyethylene (HDP):

 Formation: Obtained by polymerization of ethene in the presence of Zieglar-

Natta catalyst (triethyl aluminum with titanium tetrachloride) at 333K to 343K and
6-7 atm pressure.
 Properties:
 Linear polymer with high density due to close packing.

 Crystalline with a melting point in the range of 144 - 150°C.

 Stiffer than LDP, high tensile strength, and hardness.

 More resistant to chemicals than LDP.

 Uses:
 Manufacturing toys, household articles (buckets, dustbins, bottles, pipes).

 Laboratory wares and objects requiring high tensile strength and stiffness.
 Where is polythene manufactured in India ?
Haldia Petrochemicals Limited is one of the largest manufacturer of polyethylene
in India with a total capacity of over 7, 00,000 tonnes per annum

Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene) - Tailored Notes

1. Chemical Composition:

 Chemical Name: Polytetrafluoroethylene.

 Monomer: Tetrafluoroethylene (CF2 = CF2), a gaseous monomer at room
temperature.
 Polymerization: Polymerized using free radical initiators like hydrogen peroxide
or ammonium persulphate at high pressure.

2. Properties:

 Toughness: Teflon is known for its toughness.

 Chemical Inertness: Chemically inert and resistant to heat.
 C - F Bond: The carbon-fluorine (C - F) bond is highly robust and challenging to
break.
 Resistance: Unaffected by corrosive alkali and organic solvents.

3. Uses:

 Non-Stick Cookware: Widely used in the production of non-stick cookware.

 Oil Seals: Applied in the manufacturing of oil seals.
 Gaskets: Utilized in the production of gaskets.
 Chemical Resistance: Due to its resistance to corrosive reagents, it finds
applications in environments with aggressive chemicals.

Polyacrylonitrile and Polyamide Polymers - Tailored Notes

1. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN):

 Preparation: Prepared by addition polymerization of acrylonitrile using a

peroxide initiator.
 Appearance: Resembles wool in its physical characteristics.
 Applications:
 Used as a wool substitute.

 Key component in the production of orlon or acrilan.

2. Orlon:

 Uses:
 Orlon is employed in the manufacturing of various products:

 Blankets

 Shawls

 Sweatshirts
 Sweaters

3. Polyamide Polymers (Nylons):

 Definition: Polyamide polymers are commonly referred to as nylons.

 Formation: Obtained through the condensation polymerization of dicarboxylic
acids and diamines, self-condensation of an amino acid, or ring opening
polymerization of lactams.
 Chemical Structure: Polyamides contain -CO-NH- groups as inter-unit linkages.
 Examples:
 Nylon 6, 6: A prominent polyamide polymer.

 Nylon 6: Another important member of the polyamide family.

Conclusion:

 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is produced through addition polymerization of

acrylonitrile and is utilized as a wool substitute and in the creation of orlon or
acrilan.
 Orlon finds applications in the production of blankets, shawls, sweatshirts, and
sweaters.
 Polyamide polymers, known as nylons, are synthetic linear polyamides formed by
condensation polymerization or ring opening polymerization.
 Two significant polyamide polymers are Nylon 6, 6 and Nylon 6.
 Nylon 6,6 - Tailored Notes

1. Nylon 6,6:

 Monomers: Adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine combine to form nylon salt.

 Polymerization: Condensation polymerization under high temperature and
pressure yields nylon 6,6.
 Numerals 6,6: Represent the number of carbon atoms in the monomers (adipic
acid and hexamethylenediamine).
 Polymer Characteristics:
 High molecular mass (12000-50000 u).

 Linear condensation polymer.

 High tensile strength.

 Does not absorb water.

 Applications:
 Sheets, bristles for brushes.

 Surgical sutures.

 Textile fabrics.

2. Lactam and Lactone:

 Lactam: Formed by intramolecular reaction between an amino group and a

carboxyl group in the same molecule. Results in a cyclic amide.
 Lactone: A cyclic ester formed by intramolecular reaction of hydroxyl and
carboxyl groups.
 3. Nylon 6:

 Formation: ε-Caprolactam undergoes ring opening polymerization at high

temperature and water to produce nylon 6.
 Characteristics:
 High tensile strength.
 Lustrous.

 Applications:
 Used for manufacturing tyre cords.
 Fabrics. & Ropes.

Conclusion:

 Nylon 6,6 is a condensation polymer formed from adipic acid and

hexamethylenediamine, exhibiting high tensile strength and resistance to water
absorption.
 Lactam and lactone are terms for cyclic amide and cyclic ester, respectively,
formed through intramolecular reactions.
 Nylon 6, formed from ε-caprolactam, is known for its high tensile strength and
luster, commonly used in manufacturing tyre cords, fabrics, and ropes.

Polyesters - Tailored Notes

1. Polyester Polymers:

 Ester Linkage: Polyesters have ester linkages joining the repeating units.
 Commercially Important Polyester Fiber:
 Terylene (Dacron): Obtained by condensation polymerization of ethylene

glycol and terephthalic acid with a catalyst at high temperature.

 Properties of Terylene:
 Relatively high melting point (265°C).

 Resistant to chemicals and water.

 Applications of Terylene:
 Used for making wrinkle-free fabrics, especially when blended with cotton

(terycot) and wool (terywool).

 Utilized as reinforcing material in safety helmets.
 PET (Polyethyleneterephthalate):
 A common thermoplastic and another trade name for polyester.

 Used in the production of various articles such as bottles, jars, and

packaging containers.
 Polycarbonates:
 A type of polyester polymers.
 High melting thermosetting resins.

Conclusion:

 Polyester polymers feature ester linkages in their repeating units.

 Terylene, a commercially important polyester fiber, is produced through the
condensation polymerization of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.
 Terylene is known for its high melting point and resistance to chemicals and
water, used in wrinkle-free fabrics and safety helmets.
 PET (Polyethyleneterephthalate) is a widely used thermoplastic, especially in
bottle and container manufacturing.
 Polycarbonates, also a type of polyester, are high melting thermosetting resins.

Phenol-Formaldehyde and Related Polymers - Tailored Notes

1. Bakelite:

 Composition: Thermosetting polymer obtained from the reaction of phenol and

formaldehyde.
 Historical Significance: Oldest synthetic polymer.
 Formation:
 Stage 1 and 2: Phenol and formaldehyde react in the presence of acid or

base catalyst to form thermosetting/moulding powder (novolac) in two

stages.
 Stage 3: Novolac is shaped into various articles by placing it in appropriate

moulds and heating at high temperature (1380°C to 1760°C) and high

pressure.
 Properties of Bakelite:
 Rigid polymeric material.
  Insoluble and infusible.
 High tensile strength.

 Can substitute for glass.

 Applications:
 Used for making telephone instruments, kitchenware, electric insulators.

2. Melamine-Formaldehyde Polymer:

 Composition: Heat and moisture-resistant thermosetting plastic.

 Applications:
 Decorative table tops like Formica.

 Plastic dinnerware.

 Formation:
 Melamine and formaldehyde undergo condensation polymerization to give

cross-linked melamine formaldehyde.

Conclusion:

 Bakelite is a historic thermosetting polymer formed from phenol and

formaldehyde, known for its rigidity, insolubility, and high tensile strength.
 Melamine-formaldehyde polymer is a heat and moisture-resistant thermosetting
plastic used in decorative table tops and plastic dinnerware.
 Both polymers undergo condensation polymerization, leading to the formation of
cross-linked structures.
Find applications of bakelite in day to day life.
Bakelite is a good insulator that is used in the manufacture of non-conducting
parts of radio and electric devices such as sockets, wire insulation, switches and
automobile distribution caps etc
 Buna-S Rubber and Neoprene - Tailored Notes

1. Buna-S Rubber:

 Composition: Elastomer copolymer of styrene with butadiene, commonly known

as SBR (Styrene-Butadiene Rubber).
 Copolymerization: Typically obtained from 75 parts of butadiene and 25 parts of
styrene through addition polymerization induced by sodium.
 Vulcanization: Processed with sulfur to achieve vulcanization.
 Properties:
 Superior mechanical strength compared to natural rubber.

 Exhibits abrasion resistance.

 Applications:
 Widely used in the tire industry due to its mechanical strength and abrasion

resistance.

2. Neoprene:

 Composition: Addition polymer of chloroprene (2-chloro-1,3-butadiene).

 Polymerization: Rapid polymerization occurs in the presence of oxygen.
 Vulcanization: Takes place in the presence of magnesium oxide.
 Properties:
 Resistance to petroleum, vegetable oils, light, and heat.

 Applications:
 Used in the production of hose pipes for gasoline transport.
 Manufacturing gaskets.
 Production of insulator cables, jackets, belts for power transmission, and

conveying.

Conclusion:

 Buna-S, or SBR, is an elastomer copolymer of styrene with butadiene, recognized

for its superior mechanical strength and abrasion resistance. Commonly
employed in the tire industry.
 Neoprene, a synthetic rubber derived from chloroprene, boasts resistance to
various elements, making it suitable for applications in hose pipes, gaskets,
insulator cables, and power transmission belts.
Viscose Rayon - Tailored Notes

1. Composition:
 Semisynthetic fiber.
 Regenerated cellulose derived from wood pulp.

 Linear polymer of glucose units with a molecular formula (C₆H₁₀O₅)n.

2. Formation Process:
 Wood pulp treated with concentrated NaOH to obtain fluffy alkali cellulose.

 Fluffy alkali cellulose converted to xanthate using carbon disulphide.

 Mixing xanthate with dilute NaOH produces viscose solution.

 Viscose solution extruded through spinnerets into an acid bath.

 Regenerated cellulose fibers precipitate in the acid bath.

3. Molecular Representation:
 Reactions involve a modified representation of the cellulose molecular

formula (Cell-OH).
4. Fig. 15.7:
 Illustrates the reactions involved in viscose formation, highlighting the
modified cellulose molecular formula.

Key Points:

 Viscose rayon is a product of regenerating cellulose from wood pulp.

 Sequential steps involve alkali treatment, xanthate conversion, and formation of
viscose solution.
 Extrusion through spinnerets into an acid bath results in the precipitation of
regenerated cellulose fibers.
 Write structural formulae of styrene and polybutadiene

Title: Molecular Mass and Degree of Polymerization in Polymers

Key Points for Potential Questions:

1. Complex Mixture of Molecular Masses:

 Polymers consist of a diverse range of molecules with different molecular

masses.
 The molecular mass of a polymer is an average of the masses of its

constituent molecules.
 Potential Question: "Why is the molecular mass of a polymer considered an

average?"
2. Dependence on Degree of Polymerization (DP):
 Molecular mass of a polymer is intricately linked to its degree of

polymerization (DP).
 DP represents the number of monomer units in a polymer molecule.

 Potential Question: "Explain the relationship between molecular mass and

degree of polymerization."
3. Average Molecular Mass Calculation:
 The molecular mass of a polymer is calculated as an average of the masses

of its constituent molecules.

 This calculation considers the distribution of different molecular masses
within the polymer.
 Potential Question: "How is the average molecular mass of a polymer

calculated?"
4. Significance of Degree of Polymerization:
 DP plays a crucial role in determining the molecular mass of a polymer.
 It directly influences the properties and behavior of the polymer.
 Potential Question: "Why is the degree of polymerization considered a

critical factor in polymer characteristics?"

5. Polymer Molecule Structure and DP:
 DP is associated with the structural makeup of a polymer molecule.
  The number of monomer units impacts the overall structure and properties
of the polymer.
 Potential Question: "How does the degree of polymerization affect the
structure of a polymer molecule?"

Which bonds are broken during digestion of proteins and carbohydrates ?

Title: Biodegradable Polymers for Environmental Sustainability

1. Issue at Hand:
 Polymers, while widely used, contribute to environmental pollution due to their
resistance to microbial degradation.
2. Solution - Biodegradable Polymers:
 New biodegradable synthetic polymers developed as an eco-friendly alternative.
 Aim to balance polymer applications with reduced environmental impact.
3. Key Classes of Biodegradable Polymers:
 Aliphatic polyesters and polyamides with a significant proportion of polar linkages.
 Designed to break down more easily in the environment.
4. Environmental Impact of Conventional Polymers:
 Natural wastes degraded by soil microbes, but conventional polymers resist
microbial breakdown.
 Persistent presence in the environment leads to pollution.
5. Role of Soil Microbes:
 Soil microbes crucial for degrading disposed natural wastes.
 Most synthetic polymers evade microbial degradation, exacerbating pollution issues.
6. Functional Groups in Biodegradable Polymers:
 Biodegradable polymers designed with functional groups similar to those in
biopolymers like proteins.
 Facilitate microbial breakdown, aiding in biodegradation.
7. Importance of Aliphatic Polyesters:
 Aliphatic polyesters highlighted as a significant class of biodegradable polymers.
 Aliphatic nature and polar linkages enhance biodegradability.

Conclusion:
 Biodegradable polymers, especially aliphatic polyesters, offer a promising solution to the
environmental impact of conventional polymers.
 Mimicking natural processes with functional groups, these polymers address the
persistence and pollution issues associated with traditional synthetic materials.
What are the structural formulae of glycine and e - amino caproic acid ?

• Represent the copolymerization reaction between glycine and e -

amino caproic acid to form the copolymer nylon 2- nylon 6.
• What is the origin of the numbers 2 and 6 in the name of this polymer ?

15.5.1 PHBV - Biodegradable Aliphatic Polyester:

 Composition: Copolymer of two bifunctional β-hydroxy carboxylic acids: β-

hydroxybutyric acid (3-hydroxybutanoic acid) and β-hydroxyvaleric acid (3-
hydroxypentanoic acid).
 Structure: Aliphatic polyester known as poly β-hydroxybutyrate-co-β-
hydroxyvalerate (PHBV).
 Polymerization: Ester links form as the hydroxyl group of one monomer reacts
with the carboxyl group of the other.
 Degradation: PHBV is biodegradable, undergoing microbial degradation in the
environment.

15.5.2 Nylon 2 - Nylon 6 - Biodegradable Polyamide Copolymer:

 Composition: Polyamide copolymer of two amino acids - glycine and ε-amino

caproic acid.
 Structure: Referred to as Nylon 2 - Nylon 6.
 Biodegradability: Classified as a biodegradable polymer.

Connection:

 Both PHBV and Nylon 2 - Nylon 6 exemplify the development of biodegradable

polymers.
 PHBV, an aliphatic polyester, degrades via microbial action.
 Nylon 2 - Nylon 6, a polyamide copolymer, is also biodegradable, contributing to
environmentally friendly polymer options.